Английская Википедия:Irish phonology

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Файл:Gaeltachtai le hainmneacha2.svg
Map of the Irish-speaking areas of Ireland. Places mentioned in this article are named on the map.

Irish phonology varies from dialect to dialect; there is no standard pronunciation of Irish. Therefore, this article focuses on phenomena shared by most or all dialects, and on the major differences among the dialects. Detailed discussion of the dialects can be found in the specific articles: Ulster Irish, Connacht Irish, and Munster Irish.

Irish phonology has been studied as a discipline since the late 19th century, with numerous researchers publishing descriptive accounts of dialects from all regions where the language is spoken. More recently, Irish phonology has been the focus of theoretical linguists.

One of the most important aspects of Irish phonology is that almost all consonants (except Шаблон:IPA) come in pairs, a "broad" and a "slender" pronunciation. Broad consonants are either velarized (◌ˠ; back of tongue is pulled back and slightly up in the direction of the soft palate during articulation) or simply velar (for example, Шаблон:IPA). Slender consonants are palatalized (◌ʲ; tongue pushed up towards the hard palate during articulation). The contrast between broad and slender consonants is crucial in Irish, because the meaning of a word can change if a broad consonant is substituted for a slender consonant or vice versa. For example, the only difference in pronunciation between the words Шаблон:Lang ('cow') and Шаблон:Lang ('alive') is that Шаблон:Lang is pronounced with broad Шаблон:IPA, while Шаблон:Lang is pronounced with slender Шаблон:IPA. The contrast between broad and slender consonants plays a critical role not only in distinguishing the individual consonants themselves, but also in the pronunciation of the surrounding vowels, in the determination of which consonants can stand next to each other, and in the behaviour of words that begin with a vowel. This broad/slender distinction is similar to the hard/soft one of several Slavic languages, like Russian.

Irish shares a number of phonological characteristics with its nearest linguistic relatives, Scottish Gaelic and Manx, as well as with Hiberno-English, which it currently has the most language contact with.

History of the discipline

Файл:Die araner mundart.djvu
Title page of Шаблон:Lang ('The Aran dialect. A contribution to the study of West Irish') Шаблон:Harvcol.

Until the end of the 19th century, linguistic discussions of Irish focused either on the traditional grammar (issues like the inflection of nouns, verbs and adjectives) or on the historical development of sounds from Proto-Indo-European through Proto-Celtic to Old Irish. The first descriptive analysis of the phonology of an Irish dialect was Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, which was based on the author's fieldwork in the Aran Islands. This was followed by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, a phonetic description of the dialect of Meenawannia near Glenties, County Donegal. Шаблон:Harvcoltxt is predominantly a historical account, but has some description of modern dialects as well. Alf Sommerfelt published early descriptions of Ulster dialects (Шаблон:Harvcolnb and Шаблон:Harvcolnb for the village of Torr in Gweedore, Шаблон:Harvcolnb, and Шаблон:Harvcolnb for the now extinct dialect of South Armagh). The dialect of Dunquin on the Dingle Peninsula in Munster was described by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt. From 1944 to 1968 the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies published a series of monographs, each describing the phonology of one local dialect: Шаблон:Harvcoltxt for West Muskerry in County Cork (Ballyvourney, Coolea and vicinity), Шаблон:Harvcoltxt (first published 1945) for Cois Fhairrge in County Galway (Barna, Spiddal, Inverin and vicinity), Шаблон:Harvcoltxt for An Rinn in County Waterford, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt for Tourmakeady in County Mayo, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt for Teelin, County Donegal, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt for Erris in County Mayo. More recent descriptive phonology has been published by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt for Rosguill in northern Donegal, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt for Tangaveane and Commeen (also near Glenties), Шаблон:Harvcoltxt for Iorras Aithneach in Connemara (Kilkieran and vicinity) and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt for the Dingle Peninsula, County Kerry.

Research into the theoretical phonology of Irish began with Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, which follows the principles and practices of Chomsky and Halle's The Sound Pattern of English and which formed the basis of the phonology sections of Шаблон:Harvcoltxt. Dissertations examining Irish phonology from a theoretical point of view include Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt in optimality theory, and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt in government phonology.

Consonants

Most dialects of Irish contain at a minimum the consonant phonemes shown in the following chart (see International Phonetic Alphabet for an explanation of the symbols). The consonant Шаблон:IPA is neither broad nor slender.

Consonant phonemes
Labial Coronal Dorsal Glottal
broad slender broad slender broad slender
Stop voiceless Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
voiced Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Fricative/
Approximant 		voiceless Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
voiced Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Nasal Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Tap Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Lateral Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink

On- and offglides

Broad (velar or velarized) consonants have a noticeable velar offglide (Шаблон:IPA; a very short vowel-like sound) before front vowels, which sounds like the English Шаблон:IPA but without rounding. Thus Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('nine') and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('way, manner') are pronounced Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively.[1][2] This velar offglide is labialized (pronounced [w]) after labial consonants, so Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('yellow') is pronounced Шаблон:IPA.[3][4]

Similarly, slender (palatal or palatalised) consonants have a palatal offglide (Шаблон:IPA; like English Шаблон:Anglebracket) before back vowels, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('thick') is pronounced Шаблон:IPA.[5]

When a broad consonant follows a front vowel, there is a very short vowel sound Шаблон:IPA (called an onglide) just before the consonant, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('sell') is pronounced Шаблон:IPA. Similarly, when a slender consonant follows a back vowel, there is an onglide Шаблон:IPA before the consonant, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('place') is pronounced Шаблон:IPA,[6][7]Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('drinking' gen.) is pronounced Шаблон:IPA,[8] Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('understanding') is Шаблон:IPA,[9] and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('to us') is Шаблон:IPA.[10]

These all are also a feature of certain Slavic languages such as Russian or Polish, and a feature of Lithuanian.

Allophones

Шаблон:IPA (written as Шаблон:Angbr) has two basic allophones: the labiovelar approximant Шаблон:IPA and the velarized voiced labiodental fricative Шаблон:IPA. The distribution of these allophones varies from dialect to dialect. In Munster, generally only Шаблон:IPA is found,[11] and in Ulster generally only Шаблон:IPA is found.[12] In Connacht, Шаблон:IPA is found word-initially before vowels (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'is') and Шаблон:IPA in other positions (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'saint', Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'autumn', and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'hurried'[13][14]).

The remaining labial fricatives are typically labiodental Шаблон:IPA, but they as well as the fricative allophone Шаблон:IPA of Шаблон:IPA have bilabial allophones Шаблон:IPA in many dialects; the distribution depends partly on environment (bilabials are more likely to be found adjacent to rounded vowels) and partly on the individual speaker.[15]

Most coronals are alveolar, except broad stops and approximants which are typically dental Шаблон:IPA, and the slender fricative is typically postalveolar Шаблон:IPA. Шаблон:IPA may be realized as alveolo-palatal affricates Шаблон:IPA in a number of dialects, including Tourmakeady,[16] Erris,[17] and Teelin.[18]

Шаблон:IPA may be true palatals Шаблон:IPA or palatovelars Шаблон:IPA.[19]

Шаблон:IPA has three allophones in most dialects: a palatal approximant Шаблон:IPA before vowels (except Шаблон:IPA) and syllable-finally (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'nice', Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'will be'); a voiced (post)palatal fricative Шаблон:IPA before consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'sun'); and an intermediate sound Шаблон:IPA (with more frication than Шаблон:IPA but less frication than Шаблон:IPA) before Шаблон:IPA (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'straightened').[20][21][22][23]

Шаблон:IPA has the primary allophone Шаблон:IPA.[24]

In many varieties, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA alternate with Шаблон:IPA under a variety of circumstances. For example, as the lenition of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA is replaced by Шаблон:IPA before back vowels, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref ('I would give'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('drove').[25] In Munster, Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA after a vowel, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('twenty').[26] In Ring, final Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA in monosyllabic words, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('fear').[27] In some Ulster varieties, e.g. Tory Island, Шаблон:IPA can be replaced by Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('not'), be deleted word-finally or before Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('greedy') and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('seven').[28][29]

As in English, voiceless stops are aspirated (articulated with a puff of air immediately upon release) at the start of a word, while voiced stops may be incompletely voiced but are never aspirated. Voiceless stops are unaspirated after Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref 'terror'); however, stops remain aspirated after the clitic is Шаблон:IPA (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'it's crooked').[30] Several researchers (e.g. Шаблон:Harvnb, Шаблон:Harvnb, Шаблон:Harvnb, Шаблон:Harvnb, and Шаблон:Harvnb) use transcriptions like Шаблон:IPA, etc., indicating they consider the stops that occur after voiceless fricatives to be devoiced allophones of the voiced stops rather than unaspirated allophones of the voiceless stops, but this is a minority view.

Fortis and lenis sonorants

In Old Irish, the sonorants (those spelled Шаблон:Angbr) were divided not only into broad and slender types, but also into fortis and lenis types. The precise phonetic definition of these terms is somewhat vague, but the coronal fortis sounds (spelled Шаблон:Angbr) were probably longer in duration and may have had a larger area of contact between the tongue and the roof of the mouth than the lenis sounds. Fortis Шаблон:Angbr was probably a normal Шаблон:IPA, while lenis Шаблон:Angbr was a nasalized semivowel Шаблон:IPA, perhaps tending towards a nasalized fricative Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA when palatalized. By convention, the fortis coronals are transcribed with small capital letters Шаблон:Angbr IPA or capital letters Шаблон:Angbr IPA, the lenis with lower case Шаблон:Angbr IPA (some authors, such as Шаблон:Harvcolnb, instead use Latin Шаблон:Angbr IPA for fortis and Greek Шаблон:Angbr IPA for lenis). Thus Old Irish had four rhotic phonemes Шаблон:IPA, four lateral phonemes Шаблон:IPA, and four coronal nasal phonemes Шаблон:IPA.[31] Fortis and lenis sonorants contrasted with each other between vowels and word-finally after vowels in Old Irish, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('he shears') vs. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('he may carry'); Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('hazel') vs. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('sin'); Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('stake') vs. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('sound').[32] Word-initially, only the fortis sounds were found, but they became lenis in environments where morphosyntactically triggered lenition was found: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('mystery') vs. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('his mystery'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('provision') vs. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('his provision').[33]

In the modern language, the four rhotics have been reduced to two in all dialects, Шаблон:IPA having merged as Шаблон:IPA. For the laterals and nasals, some dialects have kept all four distinct, while others have reduced them to three or two distinct phonemes, as summarized in the following table.

Old Irish Ulster Connacht Munster
Rosguill[34] Glenties[35] Erris[36] Connemara[37] Aran[38] Dingle Peninsula[39] West Muskerry[40]
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA word-initially
Шаблон:IPA elsewhere
Note: Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are alveolo-palatal consonants.

As for fortis and lenis Шаблон:Angbr, in time the lenis version (nasalized semivowel or labial fricative) came to be pronounced as a regular semivowel or fricative along with nasalization of the preceding vowel. The later loss of Шаблон:IPA between vowels has resulted in phonemically nasalized vowels in some modern dialects (see below), but these are not robustly maintained in any dialect; the strong tendency is to eliminate the nasalization entirely. The original nasalized semivowel is still reflected as Шаблон:Angbr in the spelling, however.

Vowels

Файл:Connacht Irish vowel chart.svg
Vowel phonemes of Connacht Irish[41]
Файл:Munster Irish vowel chart.svg
Vowel phonemes of Munster Irish[42]
Файл:Ulster Irish vowel chart.svg
Vowel phonemes of Ulster Irish[43]

The vowel sounds vary from dialect to dialect, but in general Connacht and Munster at least agree in having the monophthongs Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and schwa (Шаблон:IPA), which is found only in unstressed syllables; and the diphthongs Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA.

The vowels of Ulster Irish are more divergent and are not discussed in this article.

Vowel backness

The backness of vowels (that is, the horizontal position of the highest point of the tongue) depends to a great extent on the quality (broad or slender) of adjacent consonants. Some researchers (e.g. Шаблон:Harvcolnb, Шаблон:Harvcolnb, Шаблон:Harvnb) have argued that Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are actually allophones of the same phoneme, as are Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, as in a vertical vowel system. Under this view, these phonemes are not marked at an abstract level as either front vowels or back vowels. Rather, they acquire a specification for frontness or backness from the consonants around them. In this article, however, the more traditional assumption that Шаблон:IPA are four distinct phonemes will be followed. The descriptions of the allophones in this section come from Шаблон:Harvcoltxt; the pronunciations therefore reflect the Munster accent of the Dingle Peninsula. Unless otherwise noted, however, they largely hold for other Munster and Connacht accents as well.

Close vowels

The four close vowel phonemes of Irish are the fully close Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, and the near-close Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. Their exact pronunciation depends on the quality of the surrounding consonants. Шаблон:IPA is realized as a front Шаблон:IPA between two slender consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'country'). Between a slender and a broad consonant, the tongue is retracted slightly from this position (for which the IPA symbol is Шаблон:IPA), e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('sale'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('berry' gen.). Between two broad consonants, the tongue is retracted even further, almost to the point of being a central vowel (in IPA, Шаблон:IPA): Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('sheep'). Шаблон:IPA is a fully back Шаблон:IPA between broad consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'fort'), but between a broad and a slender consonant, the tongue is somewhat advanced (IPA Шаблон:IPA), e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('three people'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('eye'). Between two slender consonants, it is advanced even further, to a centralized vowel (IPA Шаблон:IPA): Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('quiet').

Файл:Ga close allophones.svg
Approximate ranges of the allophones of close vowels

The near-close vowels Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA show a similar pattern. Шаблон:IPA is realized between slender consonants as a front Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('house' dat.). After a slender consonant and before a broad one, it is a near-front Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('piece'). After a broad consonant and before a slender one, it is a more retracted Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('understands'). Finally, between two broad consonants it is a central Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref ('salty'). Шаблон:IPA is a near-back Шаблон:IPA when all adjacent consonants are broad, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('black'), and a more centralized Шаблон:IPA after a slender consonant, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('rag').

Mid vowels

Файл:Ga mid allophones.svg
Approximate ranges of the allophones of mid vowels

The realization of the long close-mid vowels Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA varies according to the quality of the surrounding consonants. Шаблон:IPA is a front Шаблон:IPA between two slender consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'yell'), a centralized Шаблон:IPA between a broad and a slender consonant (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'call'), and a more open centralized Шаблон:IPA between two broad consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'danger'). Шаблон:IPA ranges from a back Шаблон:IPA between two broad consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'turf') to an advanced Шаблон:IPA between a broad and a slender consonant (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'turf' [gen.]) to a centralized Шаблон:IPA between two slender consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'music' [gen.]).

The short open-mid vowels also vary depending on their environment. Short Шаблон:IPA ranges from a front Шаблон:IPA between slender consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'will be') to a retracted Шаблон:IPA between a broad and a slender consonant (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'I will be', Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'was') to a central Шаблон:IPA when the only adjacent consonant is broad (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'cross' [dat.]). Short Шаблон:IPA between two broad consonants is usually a back Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('stone'), but it is a centralized Шаблон:IPA adjacent to nasal consonants and labial consonants, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('there') and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('soft'). Between a broad and a slender consonant, it is a more open Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('school'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('drink').

Schwa

Unstressed Шаблон:IPA is realized as a near-close, near-front Шаблон:IPA when adjacent to a palatal consonant, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('pike'). Next to other slender consonants, it is a mid-centralized Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('salt water'). Adjacent to broad consonants, it is usually a mid central Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('information'), but when the preceding syllable contains one of the close back vowels Шаблон:IPA, it is realized as a mid-centralized back Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('closing'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('pigs').

Open vowels

Файл:Ga open allophones.svg
Approximate ranges of the allophones of open vowels in Munster

The realization of the open vowels varies according to the quality of the surrounding consonants; there is a significant difference between Munster dialects and Connacht dialects as well. In Munster, long Шаблон:IPA and short Шаблон:IPA have approximately the same range of realization: both vowels are relatively back in contact with broad consonants and relatively front in contact with slender consonants. Specifically, long Шаблон:IPA in word-initial position and after broad consonants is a back Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('place'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('beach'). Between a slender and a broad consonant, it is a retracted front Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('will cut'), while between two slender consonants it is a fully front Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('John' voc.). In Dingle, the back allophone is rounded to Шаблон:IPA after broad labials, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('white'), while in Ring, County Waterford, rounded Шаблон:IPA is the usual realization of Шаблон:IPA in all contexts except between slender consonants, where it is a centralized Шаблон:IPA.[44] Short Шаблон:IPA between two slender consonants is a front Шаблон:IPA, as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref ('short'). Between a broad and a slender consonant, it is in most cases a retracted Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('man'), and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('worn'), but after broad labials and Шаблон:IPA it is a centralized front Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('town'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref ('injure'). When it is adjacent only to broad consonants, it is a centralized back Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('son'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('say').

Файл:Ga-CON open allophones.svg
Approximate ranges of the allophones of open vowels in Connacht

In Connacht varieties,[45][46][47] the allophones of short Шаблон:IPA are consistently further front than the allophones of long Шаблон:IPA. In Erris, for example, short Шаблон:IPA ranges from a near-open front vowel Шаблон:IPA before slender consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'earwax') to an open Шаблон:IPA after slender consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'bright') to a centralized back Шаблон:IPA between broad consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'horse'). Long Шаблон:IPA, on the other hand, ranges from a back Шаблон:IPA between broad consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'boat') to an advanced back Шаблон:IPA before slender consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'to get') to a centralized back Шаблон:IPA after slender consonants (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'fine'). In Toormakeady,[48] the back allophone is rounded to Шаблон:IPA after broad labials, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('white'). In Connemara, the allophones of Шаблон:IPA are lengthened in duration, so that only vowel quality distinguishes the allophones of Шаблон:IPA from those of Шаблон:IPA.[49]

Diphthongs

Файл:Ga ai-au allophones.svg
Approximate ranges of the allophones of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA

The starting point of Шаблон:IPA ranges from a near-open central Шаблон:IPA after broad consonants to an open-mid centralized front Шаблон:IPA after slender consonants, and its end point ranges from a near-close near-front Шаблон:IPA before slender consonants to a centralized Шаблон:IPA before broad consonants.[50] Examples include Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('rogue'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('dog'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('church'), and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('cure').

The starting point of Шаблон:IPA ranges from a near-open central Шаблон:IPA after broad consonants to an open-mid advanced central Шаблон:IPA after slender consonants, and its end point ranges from a near-close near-back Шаблон:IPA before broad consonants to a centralized Шаблон:IPA before slender consonants.[51] Examples include Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('deaf'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('improvement'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('speak'), and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('memory'). In West Muskerry and the Dingle Peninsula, however, the starting point of Шаблон:IPA is rounded and further back after broad consonants,[52][53] e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('goat').

Файл:Ga ia-ua allophones.svg
Approximate ranges of the allophones of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA

The starting point of Шаблон:IPA ranges from a close front Шаблон:IPA after slender consonants to a retracted Шаблон:IPA after word-initial broad Шаблон:IPA (the only context in which it appears after a broad consonant). Its end point ranges from a mid central Шаблон:IPA before broad consonants to a close-mid centralized front Шаблон:IPA before slender consonants.[54] Examples include Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('sense'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('ever'), and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('devils').

The starting point of Шаблон:IPA is consistently a close back Шаблон:IPA while the end point ranges from Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA:[55] Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('above'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('lamb'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('strike').

Nasalized vowels

In general, vowels in Irish are nasalized when adjacent to nasal consonants. For some speakers, there are reported to be minimal pairs between nasal vowels and oral vowels, indicating that nasal vowels are also separate phonemes; these generally result from an earlier nasalized semivowel Шаблон:IPA (historically the lenited version of Шаблон:IPA), that has since been lost. However, the contrast is not robust in any dialect; most published descriptions say that contrastively nasal vowels are present in the speech of only some (usually older) speakers. Potential minimal pairs include those shown in the table below.[56][57][58][59]

Nasal vowel Oral vowel
Spelling Pronunciation Gloss Spelling Pronunciation Gloss
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'doubt' Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'yarn'
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'ford' Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'luck'
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (in phrase
Шаблон:Lang
'in front of, opposite')		 Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'righteous'
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'sorrow' Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'hound'
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'pairs of shears' Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'two people'
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'autumn' (genitive) Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'limit'
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'hands' Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'day'
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'shooting' Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'generous'
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'poison' (genitive) Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'washing'
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'oar' (genitive) Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'saying'

In addition, where a vowel is nasalized because it is adjacent to a nasal consonant, it often retains its nasalization in related forms where the consonant is no longer nasal. For example, the nasal Шаблон:IPA of Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('mother') is replaced by nonnasal Шаблон:IPA in the phrase Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('his mother'), but the vowel remains nasalized.[60] Similarly, in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('snow') the vowel after the Шаблон:IPA is nasalized, while in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('the snow' gen.), the Шаблон:IPA is replaced by Шаблон:IPA in some northern dialects, but the nasalized vowel remains.[61]

Phonotactics

The most notable aspects of Irish phonotactics revolve around the behaviour of consonant clusters. Here it is important to distinguish between clusters that occur at the beginnings of words and those that occur after vowels, although there is overlap between the two groups.

Word-initial consonant clusters

Файл:2C cluster nonmut.svg
A summary of the two-consonant clusters available in non-mutation environments
Файл:2C cluster mut2.svg
A summary of the two-consonant clusters available in mutation environments

Irish words can begin with clusters of two or three consonants. In general, all the consonants in a cluster agree in their quality, i.e. either all are broad or all are slender. Two-consonant clusters consist of an obstruent consonant followed by a liquid or nasal consonant (however, labial obstruents may not be followed by a nasal); examples (from Шаблон:Harvcolnb) include Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('milking'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('fine'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('button'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('law'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('usual'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('idiot'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('slice'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('snow'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('poker'), and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('long for'). In addition, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA may be followed by a voiceless stop, as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('purse') and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('story'). Further, the cluster Шаблон:IPA occurs in the word Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('women') and a few forms related to it. Three-consonant clusters consist of Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA plus a voiceless stop plus a liquid. Examples include Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('rumpus'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('scream'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('flash'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('fun'), and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('streak').

One exception to quality agreement is that broad Шаблон:IPA is found before slender labials (and for some speakers in Connemara and Dingle before Шаблон:IPA as well[62][63]). Examples include: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('berries'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('scythe'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('dependent'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('inspire'), and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('story').

In the environment of an initial consonant mutation, there is a much wider range of possible onset clusters;[64][65] for example, in a lenition environment the following occur: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('tasted'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('broke'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('practiced'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('bent'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('stuck'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('acted'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('slipped'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('swam'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('reached'). In an eclipsis environment, the following are found: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('flower'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('years'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('you would break'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('warp'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('bridge'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('ladder'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('you would dress'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('you would leave'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('you would act').

In Donegal, Mayo, and Connemara dialects (but not usually on the Aran Islands), the coronal nasals Шаблон:IPA can follow only Шаблон:IPA respectively in a word-initial cluster. After other consonants, they are replaced by Шаблон:IPA:[66][67] Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('hill'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('women'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('liking'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('long for').

Under lenition, Шаблон:IPA become Шаблон:IPA as expected in these dialects, but after the definite article an they become Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('snow'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('snow' [lenited form]), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('the snow' gen.).

Post-vocalic consonant clusters and epenthesis

Файл:Epenthesis cluster.svg
Clusters subject to epenthesis

Like word-initial consonant clusters, post-vocalic consonant clusters usually agree in broad or slender quality. The only exception here is that broad Шаблон:IPA, not slender Шаблон:IPA, appears before the slender coronals Шаблон:IPA:[68] Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('two people'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('trade'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('doors'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('handle'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('advice').

A cluster of Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:IPA followed by a labial or dorsal consonant (except the voiceless stops Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA) is broken up by an epenthetic vowel Шаблон:IPA:[69] Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('abrupt'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('blue'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('mistake'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('certain'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('service'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('anger'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('dark'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('bold'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('dove'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('pleasant'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('sparrow'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('venom'), Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA (a name for Ireland), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('name'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('mind'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('animal').

There is no epenthesis, however, if the vowel preceding the cluster is long or a diphthong: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('wrinkle'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('term'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('insight'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('duty'). There is also no epenthesis into words that are at least three syllables long: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('firmament'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('throat'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('dandelion'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('Carmelite').

Phonological processes

Vowel-initial words

Vowel-initial words in Irish exhibit behaviour that has led linguists to suggest that the vowel sound they begin with on the surface is not actually the first sound in the word at a more abstract level. Specifically, when a clitic ending in a consonant precedes a word beginning with the vowel, the consonant of the clitic surfaces as either broad or slender, depending on the specific word in question. For example, the Шаблон:Anglebracket of the definite article Шаблон:Lang ('the') is slender before the word Шаблон:Lang ('wonder') but broad before the word Шаблон:Lang ('age'):[70]Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('the wonder' gen.) vs. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('the age').

One analysis of these facts[71] is that vowel-initial words actually begin, at an abstract level of representation, with a kind of "empty" consonant that consists of nothing except the information "broad" or "slender". Another analysis is that vowel-initial words, again at an abstract level, all begin with one of two semivowels, one triggering palatalization and the other triggering velarization of a preceding consonant.[72][73]

Lengthening before fortis sonorants

Where reflexes of the Old Irish fortis sonorants appear in syllable-final position (in some cases, only in word-final position), they trigger a lengthening or diphthongization of the preceding vowel in most dialects of Irish.[74][75][76][77] The details vary from dialect to dialect.

In Donegal and Mayo, lengthening is found only before Шаблон:Anglebracket, before Шаблон:Anglebracket (except when a vowel follows), and in a few words also before word-final Шаблон:Anglebracket,[78][79][80][81] e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('top'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('tall'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('inch'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('spinning wheel'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('yonder').

In Connemara,[82] the Aran Islands,[83] and Munster,[84][85] lengthening is found generally not only in the environments listed above, but also before Шаблон:Anglebracket (unless a vowel follows) and before word-final Шаблон:Anglebracket. For example, the word Шаблон:Lang ('hole') is pronounced Шаблон:IPA in all of these regions, while Шаблон:Lang ('grip') is pronounced Шаблон:IPA in Connemara and Aran and Шаблон:IPA in Munster.

Because vowels behave differently before broad sonorants than before slender ones in many cases, and because there is generally no lengthening (except by analogy) when the sonorants are followed by a vowel, there is a variety of vowel alternations between different related word-forms. For example, in Dingle[86] Шаблон:Lang ('head') is pronounced Шаблон:IPA with a diphthong, but Шаблон:Lang (the genitive singular of the same word) is pronounced Шаблон:IPA with a long vowel, while Шаблон:Lang (the plural, meaning 'heads') is pronounced Шаблон:IPA with a short vowel.

This lengthening has received a number of different explanations within the context of theoretical phonology. All accounts agree that some property of the fortis sonorant is being transferred to the preceding vowel, but the details about what property that is vary from researcher to researcher. Шаблон:Harvcoltxt[87] argue that the fortis sonorant is tense (a term only vaguely defined phonetically) and that this tenseness is transferred to the vowel, where it is realized phonetically as vowel length and/or diphthongization. Шаблон:Harvcoltxt argues that the triggering consonant is underlyingly associated with a unit of syllable weight called a mora; this mora then shifts to the vowel, creating a long vowel or a diphthong. Шаблон:Harvcoltxt expands on that analysis to argue that the fortis sonorants have an advanced tongue root (that is, the bottom of the tongue is pushed upward during articulation of the consonant) and that diphthongization is an articulatory effect of this tongue movement.

Devoicing

Where a voiced obstruent or Шаблон:IPA comes into contact with Шаблон:IPA, the Шаблон:IPA is absorbed into the other sound, which then becomes voiceless (in the case of Шаблон:IPA, devoicing is to Шаблон:IPA). Devoicing is found most prominently in the future of first conjugation verbs (where Шаблон:IPA is spelled Шаблон:Anglebracket) and in the formation of verbal adjectives (where Шаблон:IPA is spelled Шаблон:Anglebracket). For example, the verb Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('sweep') ends in the voiced consonant Шаблон:IPA, but its future tense Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('will sweep') and verbal adjective Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('swept') have the voiceless consonant Шаблон:IPA.[88]

Sandhi

Irish exhibits a number of external sandhi effects, i.e. phonological changes across word boundaries, particularly in rapid speech. The most common type of sandhi in Irish is assimilation, which means that a sound changes its pronunciation in order to become more similar to an adjacent sound. One type of assimilation in Irish is found when a coronal consonant (Шаблон:Anglebracket) changes from being broad to being slender before a word that begins with a slender coronal consonant and vice versa. For example, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('deceive') ends with a broad Шаблон:Anglebracket, but in the phrase Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('it deceived me'), the Шаблон:Anglebracket has become slender because the following word, Шаблон:Lang, starts with a slender coronal consonant.[89]

Шаблон:Anglebracket may also assimilate to the place of articulation of a following consonant, becoming labial before a labial consonant, palatal before a palatal consonant, and velar before a velar consonant.[90] For example, Шаблон:Anglebracket of Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('one') becomes Шаблон:IPA in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('a lame one') and Шаблон:IPA in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('a scabbed one'). A voiced consonant at the end of a word may devoice when the next word begins with a voiceless consonant,[91] as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('he bent'), where Шаблон:IPA of Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('bent') became Шаблон:IPA before the voiceless Шаблон:IPA of Шаблон:Lang.

Stress

General facts of stress placement

In Irish, words normally have only one stressed syllable (ˈ◌), namely the first syllable of the word, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('left' [verb]) and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('dishonor').[92] However, certain words, especially adverbs and loanwords, have stress on a noninitial syllable, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('only'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('tobacco').

In most compound words, primary stress falls on the first member and a secondary stress (ˌ◌) falls on the second member, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('spent bog'). Some compounds, however, have primary stress on both the first and the second member, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('a terrible lie').Шаблон:Fix

In Munster, stress is attracted to a long vowel or diphthong in the second or third syllable of a word, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('girl'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('request').[93] In the now-extinct accent of East Mayo, stress was attracted to a long vowel or diphthong in the same way as in Munster; in addition, stress was attracted to a short vowel before word-final Шаблон:Anglebracket when that word was also final in its utterance.[94][95][96] For example, Шаблон:Lang ('horse') was pronounced Шаблон:IPA in isolation or as the last word of a sentence, but as Шаблон:IPA in the middle of a sentence.

In Munster, stress is attracted to Шаблон:IPA in the second syllable of a word if it is followed by Шаблон:IPA, provided the first syllable (and third syllable, if there is one) contains a short vowel. Examples include Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('lame') and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('chips'). However, if the first or third syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, stress is attracted to that syllable instead, and the Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA is reduced to Шаблон:IPA as normal, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('listen'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref ('wether').[97]

The nature of unstressed vowels

In general, short vowels are all reduced to schwa (Шаблон:IPA) in unstressed syllables, but there are exceptions. In Munster, if the third syllable of a word is stressed and the preceding two syllables are short, the first of the two unstressed syllables is not reduced to Шаблон:IPA; instead it receives a secondary stress, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('scythe-man').[98] Also in Munster, an unstressed short vowel is not reduced to Шаблон:IPA if the following syllable contains a stressed Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('art'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('gather').[99] In Ulster, long vowels in unstressed syllables are shortened but are not reduced to Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('girl'), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('gallon').[100][101] In Ulster, unstressed Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA is not reduced to schwa, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('cattle').[102]

Samples

The following table shows some sample sentences from the Aran dialect.[103]

IPA Spelling Translation
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:LangШаблон:Ref Шаблон:Lang He was looking out the window when I went past.
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang He wouldn't see a hole through a ladder (i.e. he's very near-sighted).
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang I am wet through and through.
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang He took a large stone and he threw it against the window.
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang He came in in a rage.
―Шаблон:IPA
―Шаблон:IPA		 Шаблон:LangШаблон:Ref Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang		 ―Did you pay much for the turf?
―We certainly did, considering how little there is of it.
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:LangШаблон:Ref Шаблон:Lang I come there every day but often I'm not very welcome.
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:LangШаблон:Ref Шаблон:Lang I have heard tell that we'll have a wet summer this year, but it seems to me that that story is strange.
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang Are the potatoes as good as he said?
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:LangШаблон:Ref Шаблон:Lang The Irish spoken in Munster isn't the same as our Irish.

The first eight chapters of Peadar Ua Laoghaire's autobiography Mo Sgéal Féin at Wikisource include recordings of the text being read by a native speaker of Muskerry (Munster) Irish.

Comparison with other languages

Scottish Gaelic and Manx

Шаблон:Main Many of the phonological processes found in Irish are found also in its nearest relatives, Scottish Gaelic and Manx. For example, both languages contrast "broad" and "slender" consonants, but only at the coronal and dorsal places of articulation; both Scottish Gaelic and Manx have lost the distinction in labial consonants. The change of Шаблон:IPA etc. to Шаблон:IPA etc. is found in Manx and most dialects of Scottish Gaelic. Evidence from written manuscripts suggests it had begun in Scottish Gaelic as early as the 16th century and was well established in both Scottish Gaelic and Manx by the late 17th to early 18th century.[104] Lengthening or diphthongization of vowels before fortis sonorants is also found in both languages.[105] The stress pattern of Scottish Gaelic is the same as that in Connacht and Ulster Irish, while in Manx, stress is attracted to long vowels and diphthongs in noninitial syllables, but under more restricted conditions than in Munster.[106][107]

Manx and many dialects of Scottish Gaelic share with Ulster Irish the property of not reducing unstressed Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA.[108]

Hiberno-English

Irish pronunciation has had a significant influence on the features of Hiberno-English.[109] For example, most of the vowels of Hiberno-English (with the exception of Шаблон:IPA) correspond to vowel phones of Irish. The Irish stops Шаблон:IPA are common realizations of the English phonemes Шаблон:IPA. Hiberno-English also allows Шаблон:IPA where it is permitted in Irish but excluded in other dialects of English, such as before an unstressed vowel (e.g. Haughey Шаблон:IPA) and at the end of a word (e.g. McGrath Шаблон:IPA). There is epenthesis in words like film Шаблон:IPA and form Шаблон:IPA.

See also

Notes

Footnotes

Шаблон:Reflist

References

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

External links

Шаблон:Irish linguistics Шаблон:Language phonologies

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  1. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcolnb
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  51. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcolnb.
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  87. ↑ also repeated in Шаблон:Harvcolnb
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  109. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcolnb
Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:Irish_phonology&oldid=15445433