Английская Википедия:1669 eruption of Mount Etna

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Good article Шаблон:Use American English Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox eruption

The 1669 eruption of Mount Etna is the largest-recorded historical eruption of the volcano on the east coast of Sicily, Italy. After several weeks of increasing seismic activity that damaged the town of Nicolosi and other settlements, an eruption fissure opened on the southeastern flank of Etna during the night of 10–11 March. Several more fissures became active during 11 March, erupting pyroclastics and tephra that fell over Sicily and accumulated to form the Monti Rossi scoria cone.

Lava disgorged from the eruption fissures flowed southwards away from the vent, burying a number of towns and farmland during March and April, eventually covering Шаблон:Convert. The inhabitants of the towns fled to the city of Catania and sought refuge there; religious ceremonies were held in the city to implore the end of the eruption. In early April a branch of the lava flow advanced towards the city and on the 1 or 16 April it reached its city walls, provoking a crisis and the flight of many of its inhabitants. The city walls held up the lava, which began to flow into the Ionian Sea. More than two weeks later, parts of the flow surmounted the walls and penetrated Catania but did not cause much damage. The eruption ended in July.

The first recorded attempt to divert a lava flow occurred when priest Diego Pappalardo and fifty others worked to break up a lava flow in an effort to divert it. The effort was initially successful but the diverted flow threatened another town whose inhabitants chased Pappalardo and his men away and the lava flow resumed its original course towards Catania. There are no known fatalities of the 1669 eruption but many towns, parts of Catania and farmland were destroyed by the lava flow and the earthquakes that accompanied the eruption. News of the eruption spread as far as North America and a number of contemporaries described the event, leading to an increased interest in Etna's volcanic activity.

Context

Mount Etna lies on the island of Sicily, at the coast facing the Ionian Sea.Шаблон:Sfn Etna is one of the most iconic and active volcanoes in the world; its eruptions–including both effusive and explosive eruptions from flank and central vents–have been recorded for 2,700 years.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Etna had been unusually active during the 17th century, with several long lasting and voluminous eruptionsШаблон:Sfn and volcanic activity also increased on Vulcanello in the Aeolian Islands; a similar concordance between activity at Etna and in the Aeolian Islands was also observed in 2002.[1] During the two months before the 1669 eruption, the output of gas and steam from Etna's summit craters had been higher than usual.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1669, Sicily was part of the Kingdom of Aragon, which governed the island through a viceroy in Palermo.Шаблон:Sfn A highly productive agricultural sector existed on the heavily urbanized southeastern slopes of Etna;Шаблон:Sfn settlements had grown there during the High Middle Ages.Шаблон:Sfn Catania had a population of about 27,000 and was the third-largest city of the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily.Шаблон:Sfn

Events

Prelude

Seismic activity at Mount Etna began on 25 February 1669Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and increased over the next two weeks.Шаблон:Sfn It reached its zenith during the night of 10 and 11 March when earthquakes destroyed Nicolosi.[2] The seismic activity caused damage in Gravina, Mascalucia, Pedara and Trecastagni,Шаблон:Sfn and was felt as far away as Catania.Шаблон:Sfn A number of seismic events are reported in contemporaneous records but their timing and frequency are not known.Шаблон:Sfn Early activity that lasted until 9 March reflects the ascent of deep magma within the mountain while subsequent earthquakes were associated with the opening of the eruption fissure. These early events impacted a wider area than the later ones;Шаблон:Sfn earthquake activity diminished after the eruption had begun.Шаблон:Sfn

Eruption commences and events at the vent

After midnight on 11 March, the first fissure opened up on EtnaШаблон:Sfn between the Monte Frumento Supino cinder coneШаблон:Sfn and Piano San Leo.[3] This Шаблон:Convert wide and Шаблон:Convert long fissure between Шаблон:Convert elevation was accompanied by weak eruptive activity at its upper endШаблон:Sfn and an intense glow on its lower end. During the afternoon of the same day, a second fissure opened and erupted lithics and ash clouds; historical records vary on the number of vents that became active.Шаблон:Sfn An alternative reconstruction of events envisages the development of several fissure segments between Шаблон:Convert elevation, most of which underwent brief explosive and effusive eruptions.Шаблон:Sfn At 18:30, the main vent became active and lava began to flow from the second fissureШаблон:Sfn from east of the Monte Salazara cone,Шаблон:Sfn close to Nicolosi,Шаблон:Sfn at Шаблон:Convert elevationШаблон:Sfn in Etna's southern rift zone.Шаблон:Sfn

A fifth fissure segment south of the Monpilieri cinder cone was briefly active on 12 MarchШаблон:Sfn and several vents – sources disagree on the exact number – became active on 12 March around the main vent with lava fountaining.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Interlanguage link cinder cone developed over the main vent and was almost fully formed by 13 March.Шаблон:Sfn

Explosive eruption

An eruption column rose from the vent and deposited tephra,[2] pyroclastics covered large parts of Etna's southeastern flankШаблон:Sfn and ash from the eruption traveled as far as Calabria and Greece.Шаблон:Sfn Strombolian and lava fountaining took place, generating pyroclastics[4] including lapilli and lava bombs,Шаблон:Sfn which fell over the southeastern flank for three months.Шаблон:Sfn These deposits reached a thickness of Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:Convert from the vent;Шаблон:Sfn roofs in Acireale,Шаблон:Sfn Pedara, Trecastagni and Viagrande collapsed under the weight of the tephra.[2] Huge boulders were ejected to distances of several kilometers.[5] Most of the tephra was produced within the first few days of the eruption.Шаблон:Sfn

The explosive stages of the 1669 eruption produced Шаблон:Convert of pyroclastics[2] and have been classified as category 2–3 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index, making it one of the most intense eruptions of Etna.Шаблон:Sfn Subplinian eruptions on Etna's flanks are not common; other examples are the prehistoric eruptions of Monte MoioШаблон:Sfn 28,600 ± 4,700 years ago,[4] Monte Frumento delle Concazze 3,500 years ago and Monte Salto del Cane 3,000 years ago.Шаблон:Sfn

Over three million tons of sulfur were released by the eruption. This sulfur may have risen into the upper troposphere, causing changes in the chemistry of the regional atmosphere and environmental hazards.[6] The 1669 eruption, however, did not form a substantial atmospheric dust veil.[7]

Lava flow

Lava now flowed out of the volcano into a densely populated area[3] at an average rate of Шаблон:Convert,Шаблон:Sfn with a peak rate of Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Lava emanating from the vent flowed around the Mompilieri[2]Шаблон:Sfn/Monpilieri cinder cone and during 12 March destroyed the villages of Malpasso.Шаблон:Sfn The town of Шаблон:Interlanguage link fell victim to the lava flows during the nightШаблон:Sfn and Mascalucia was covered the day after.Шаблон:Sfn During and after 14 March, the lava flow branched out in three directions and began to advance southwards;Шаблон:Sfn the western branch destroyed villages close to Mascalucia, and houses around Camporotondo and San Pietro.Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Quotebox

After 15 March, the lava flow fronts began to slow down. The development of additional branches and of overlapping flows continued as lava tubes formed in the flow. On 15–17 March San Giovanni Galermo was partially destroyed, followed during the next week by agricultural land of Gravina.Шаблон:Sfn Between 26 and 29 March the same fate struck Camporotondo and San Pietro,Шаблон:Sfn and on 29 March Misterbianco.Шаблон:Sfn Between 18 and 25 March the western and eastern branches of the lava flow stopped advancing Шаблон:Convert and Шаблон:Convert away from the vent, respectively.Шаблон:Sfn Almost a century after the eruption, Sir William Hamilton reported the lava flows had shifted an otherwise undamaged vineyard by over Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn

Файл:1360 - Catania - Castello Ursino - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto 2-Oct-2006.jpg
Wall of the Castello Ursino, with the 1669 lava flow on the right

The southeastern branch of the flow, which was fed by lava tubes and ephemeral vents, continued to advance and destroyed farms close to Catania.Шаблон:Sfn On 20 March, a branch of the lava flow approached the city and after ponding inШаблон:Sfn and filling the Gurna del Nicito lake,Шаблон:Sfn on the 1,Шаблон:Sfn 12Шаблон:Sfn or 16 April, it reached the city walls[2] about Шаблон:Convert away from the vent.Шаблон:Sfn The walls deflected the lava flow southwardsШаблон:Sfn and after surrounding the Castello Ursino on 23 AprilШаблон:Sfn and obliterating the valley that surrounded it,[8] the lava flow began entering the Ionian Sea as a Шаблон:Convert-wide flow front.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn

The city walls resisted the advancing lava for 15 days.Шаблон:Sfn Beginning on 30 April,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn some flows overtopped the wallsШаблон:Sfn and penetrated Catania, pushing aside weaker buildings and burying sturdier ones[9] but did not cause much damage.Шаблон:Sfn Inside the city the flows advanced about Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn The 1669 eruption is the only historical eruption that impacted the urban area of Catania; other lava flows in the city are of prehistoric age and the presence of lava from the AD 252 eruption has been ruled out.Шаблон:Sfn

Lava continued to flow into the sea, which was Шаблон:Convert away from the vents, for two more months,Шаблон:Sfn and overlapping lava flows continued to form upstreamШаблон:Sfn yielding a complex lava field.[3] On 11 July 1669 lava ceased to flow and on 15 July the eruption was definitively over.Шаблон:Sfn The eruption lasted 122 days, making it one of the longest in the history of Etna.Шаблон:Sfn Even after the eruption ended, the lava flows were still hot enough to boil water for many months and it reportedly took eight years for the lava to cool.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn Puffs of gas would escape when rods were poked into the lava.[10]

Events at the summit

During the night of 24 March, a violent earthquake took place and was followed by activity on the main summit of Etna.Шаблон:Sfn The next day at 10:00 an explosive eruption occurred at the summit,Шаблон:Sfn and an "immensely high" eruption column rose over the volcano.Шаблон:Sfn No caldera collapse took place on the volcano but landslides affected the summit crater.Шаблон:Sfn There is disagreement between contemporaneous records that mention a collapse of the summit in 1669,Шаблон:Sfn those which do not, and 21st-century research that indicates there were no major changes in the morphology of the summit during the 1669 eruption.Шаблон:Sfn

Response

When the eruption began to destroy settlements and land north of Catania, the people fled to the city. Authorities in Catania requested assistance from the then-viceroy of Sicily Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 8th Duke of Alburquerque and took care of about 20,000 refugees.Шаблон:Sfn These refugees sought out the city as a safe haven because it was distant from the eruption at that time and they were received with great hospitality. It appears that during this time, religious ceremonies took up much of the daily lives of Catania's populace.Шаблон:Sfn

As the eruption continued and lava flows advanced towards Catania,Шаблон:Sfn law and order broke down, panic ensued – an unusual event during a natural disaster – and the authorities of Catania were overwhelmed. The viceroy appointed Prince Stefano Riggio as vicar-general to manage the crisisШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Lang ("for the fire of the Mongibello"); Riggio arrived on 18 April and found a largely depopulated city as the artisanal class and the aristocracy had fled Catania and others had followed in their wake. Riggio prepared barracks north of Catania to take up refugees and evacuated both prisons, the city archives,Шаблон:Sfn food reserves and religious objects from the city.[2] When lava broke over the city walls on 30 April,Шаблон:Sfn the evacuation of the city was considered but then rejected. Instead, the walls threatened by the lava flows were reinforced, gates blocked and when the lava penetrated them restraining wallsШаблон:Sfn and barriers were built from the debris of destroyed houses.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn The viceroy later sent also money for recovery.Шаблон:Sfn

Eruptions of Etna were interpreted as the consequence of divine wrath and suffering being inflicted on the sinful people. Religious services took place in Catania and other villages; during processions the relics of St. Agatha, the Martyr of Catania, were carried around and people flagellated themselves.[11]Шаблон:Sfn Some sources suggest the veil of St. Agatha spared the city from total destruction.Шаблон:Sfn

Fifty inhabitants of Pedara led by priest Diego PappalardoШаблон:Sfn attempted to divert a lava flow by breaking up the margins with axes and picks while protecting themselves from the heat through water-soaked hides. This effort worked initially until 500 inhabitants of Paternò put a stop to it because their town was threatened by the redirected lava flow.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The diversion attempt failed when the breach healed.Шаблон:Sfn This effort constitutes the first recorded attempt at changing the course of a lava flow.Шаблон:Sfn[12] As a consequence of the incident between Paterno and the people attempting the diversion, it was declared and formally ratified in the 19th century that people diverting a lava flow would be liable for the damage caused by it; this rule was only suspended during the eruption of 1983Шаблон:Sfn although clandestine attempts, sometimes with official backing, had occurred before that year.Шаблон:Sfn There were religious objections to diverting lava flows; such an intervention was viewed as sacrilegious in the context of the relationship between God, man, and nature.Шаблон:Sfn

Impact

On the volcano

The 1669 eruption is considered to be the most important historical flank eruption of Etna.Шаблон:Sfn With a volume of Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Efn lava,Шаблон:Sfn the 1669 eruption is Etna's largest during the last 400 yearsШаблон:Sfn and its largest historical effusive eruption.Шаблон:Sfn Its lava field is the largest in the volcano's historyШаблон:Sfn[6] and the longest flow at Etna during the last 15,000 years.Шаблон:Sfn

The lava flow of 1669 covered an area of Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn-Шаблон:Convert,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn radically changing the morphology of the volcano.Шаблон:Sfn It is considered an aa lava fieldШаблон:Sfn that also contains "toothpaste" lava with tabular and plate-like structures of varying sizesШаблон:Sfn and numerous lava channels.Шаблон:Sfn The lava extended the coast by Шаблон:Convert over a width of Шаблон:Convert.[2] An older volcanic coneШаблон:Sfn and lava flows from earlier eruptions were partially buried.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

The 1669 eruption came at the end of a period of high effusive activity that began in 1610.Шаблон:Sfn The behavior of Etna changed after the eruption,Шаблон:Sfn presumably due to the large volume of material erupted in the 1669 event and changes in the plumbing system it caused.Шаблон:Sfn After 1669, Etna's eruptions were smaller, shorter, and more sporadicШаблон:Sfn with fewer flank eruptions,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn and mafic phenocrysts became more common in the lavas.Шаблон:Sfn The 1669 eruption has been defined as the starting point of a century-long cycle of activity that continues to this day[13] and Etna's volcanic products are subdivided into pre-1669 and post-1669 formations in Italy's geological map.[14]

Scoria cone and lava caves

Файл:Monti Rossi da Nord.jpg
The Monti Rossi viewed from north

The about-Шаблон:Convert-high and about Шаблон:Convert wide Шаблон:Interlanguage link scoria cone was formed by the 1669 eruption.Шаблон:Sfn It consists of two overlapping conesШаблон:Sfn or a cone with two summitsШаблон:Sfn that was constructed by intense lava bomb and volcanic ash fallout that was observed by eyewitnesses. This cone was named "Mount of Ruin" after the eruptionШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and was then renamed Monti Rossi (Red Mountains), either to cancel the memory of the destructive eruption[2] or after its color.[15] It is a prominent landmark.Шаблон:Sfn

Файл:Grotta delle Palombe.jpg
Grotta delle Palombe

Several caves, such as the Шаблон:Interlanguage link,Шаблон:Sfn Pietra Luna cave,[16] a system of three caves between Belpasso and NicolosiШаблон:Sfn that contain cave formations;Шаблон:Sfn and several lava caves in the flow were formed by the 1669 eruption.[15] Such caves form when lava flows develop a crust and drain out, leaving an empty space under the crust that forms the cave.Шаблон:Sfn Grotta delle Palombe is accessible from a small depression in the eruption fissure.[15]

On the surrounding population

The 1669 eruption was the most destructive eruption of Mount Etna since the Middle Ages.[2] Approximately fourteenШаблон:Sfn villages and townsШаблон:Efn were destroyed by the lava flows or by earthquakes that preceded and accompanied the eruption.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn South of the volcano, ash and tephra fallout destroyed large but unclearly stated quantities of olive groves, orchards, pasture, vineyards, and mulberry trees that were used for silkworm rearing.Шаблон:Sfn Contemporaneous sources do not mention any fatalities from the eruption or the earthquakes that accompanied it; later reports of 10,000 – 20,000 fatalities appear to be incorrect and apocryphal.[2][17]Шаблон:Sfn

Contrary to common reports, not all of Catania was destroyedШаблон:Sfn but its outskirts,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn and the western part of the city sustained damage.Шаблон:Sfn Canals,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn parts of the fortifications of Catania, and about 730Шаблон:Sfn-300 buildings were destroyed by the eruption.Шаблон:Sfn The Monastery of San Nicolò l'ArenaШаблон:Sfn and the Castello Ursino were damaged; its moat was filled in[18] and the lower part of the Castello Ursino was buried beneath Шаблон:Convert of lava.[9] Large parts of the population of Catania[10] and 27,000 peasants were left homeless.Шаблон:Sfn The reconstruction costs, damages caused by the eruption,Шаблон:Sfn and a population decrease during the events depressed both industrial and commercial activity in the city.Шаблон:Sfn

Файл:Anderloni, Faustino (1766-1847) - Etna.jpg
A later engraving of the eruption

The eruption is also known as the Great eruptionШаблон:Sfn and the year of great ruin by contemporaries.Шаблон:Sfn News of the eruption spread to England, France, Portugal, Ireland, and Scotland, where government news pamphlets about the eruption were published. The news reached as far as Cambridge, Massachusetts, in North America.[19] The 1669 eruption has been portrayed in a number of contemporaneous iconographic worksШаблон:Sfn and is the most commonly depicted eruption of Etna in its iconography.Шаблон:Sfn After 1669, the number of large eruptions of Etna decreased and the interest in portraying the volcano and its eruptions waned as a consequence.Шаблон:Sfn

Long-term effects

Despite the lack of fatalities, the 1669 eruption had a long-term impact on society and economy of the wider region.Шаблон:Sfn Inhabitation patterns and thus the economic development of the southeastern flank of Etna were influenced by the eruption for centuries.Шаблон:Sfn The population of the region declined after the eruption.Шаблон:Sfn

Several towns were rebuilt in different locationsШаблон:Sfn and under different names.Шаблон:Sfn A new port and a new neighborhood were built in Catania.Шаблон:Sfn Its city walls were rendered ineffective by the lava flow, which provided a natural obstacle. New fortifications were built in 1676 on the lava flowШаблон:Sfn and in sections that were unprotected after the eruption.Шаблон:Sfn In Catania, the damage caused by the eruption was exceeded by that caused by the 1693 Sicily earthquake.[20]

Unlike earthquakes, lava flows cause long-lasting damage to land; even a century later the land covered by the lava from the 1669 eruption was barren and today only limited agricultural activity is possible.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn As a consequence of this and other eruptions, about 13% of cultivable land south of Etna and below Шаблон:Convert elevation was lost in the 17th century.Шаблон:Sfn A westward expansion of Catania was no longer possible over the terrain covered by lava.Шаблон:Sfn The impact of the tephra fallout was less; roof damage was quickly repaired and agriculture quickly recovered.Шаблон:Sfn

Файл:Catania Fontana Elefante.jpg
Elephant Fountain in Catania

Rocks erupted in 1669 have been quarried,Шаблон:Sfn especially after the 1693 earthquakeШаблон:Sfn when they were used during the reconstruction of the city.Шаблон:Sfn Lava was used to pave roads, for constructions, and later for architectural elements, the production of bituminous conglomerate, concrete, and statuesШаблон:Sfn such as the Fountain of the Elephant in Catania.[21] The present-day port of Catania is attached to the 1669 lava flow.Шаблон:Sfn Elsewhere in Catania, the lava flow is mostly hidden.Шаблон:Sfn In 2022, the government of Sicily defined 11 March a day of remembrance of the 1669 eruption.[22]

Impact on science

Mount Etna's 1669 eruption drew increased interest in the volcano's activity. During the 18th and 19th centuries, abbots and geologists compiled histories of the volcano and lists of its eruptions.Шаблон:Sfn Reports of eruptions at Etna became more complete and detailed.Шаблон:Sfn Francesco d'Arezzo melted the rocks erupted in 1669 to obtain information about their nature.Шаблон:Sfn

Geology

The lavas erupted in 1669 define a sodic hawaiite suiteШаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn with two distinct acidic and mafic membersШаблон:Sfn that were erupted before and after 20 March, respectively. These two magmas formed through fractional crystallization processes in different parts of Mount Etna's plumbing system.Шаблон:Sfn It appears that prior to the 1669 eruption, a batch of more acidic magma was residing underneath Etna. A batch of new, more mafic magma that was more buoyant than the residing magma penetrated and traversed the magmatic system, and reached the surface. Later, the more acidic magma erupted.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Magma was accumulating prior to 1669 in the plumbing of Mount Etna;Шаблон:Sfn increased volatile content or increased magma volume might have eventually triggered the eruption.Шаблон:Sfn

The lava flows of 1669 contain up to 18% bubbles, a large proportion and considerably more than expected from lava flows on the surface that might explain the fluidity of the flows that maintained pahoehoe morphology Шаблон:Convert from the vents.[23] The lava also contains large phenocrysts of plagioclase, as do lavas of other eruptions of the 17th century; these lavas are called Шаблон:EmШаблон:Sfn and they often appear at the end of an eruption cycle at Mount Etna.Шаблон:Sfn

Research history

Owing to its magnitude, the eruption was well documented by contemporaries.Шаблон:Sfn Records range from administrative documents that were part of the crisis management and the post-crisis management over memoirs to eyewitness reports.Шаблон:Sfn Italian scientist Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (1608–1679) in his 1670 publication Шаблон:Em and the British ambassador in Constantinople Heneage Finch, 3rd Earl of Winchilsea (1628–1689) in a report to King Charles II of EnglandШаблон:Efn wrote about the eruption. Later reviews of the eruption were written by the British diplomat Sir William Hamilton (1730–1803).Шаблон:Sfn Borelli's history of the 1669 eruption is the oldest scientific description of Etna's volcanic activity.[24] Anonymous reports published in 1669 include Шаблон:Em and Шаблон:Em.Шаблон:Sfn The large number of contemporary records makes it possible to reconstruct the course of the eruption with reasonable accuracy.Шаблон:Sfn

Implications for volcanic hazards at Etna

The 1669 eruption represents a worst-case scenario of an effusive eruption at Etna;Шаблон:Sfn over 500,000 people live in Catania[3] and a similar eruption today would cause about Шаблон:Euro damage.[25] Apart from the lava, tephra and lapilli associated with explosive activity would damage critical infrastructure close to the vent,Шаблон:Sfn disrupt air travel, and impact both human health and the environment.Шаблон:Sfn

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Sources

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

External links

Шаблон:Commons category

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Arrighi2006 не указан текст
  2. ↑ 2,00 2,01 2,02 2,03 2,04 2,05 2,06 2,07 2,08 2,09 2,10 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Branca2019 не указан текст
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок CristofoliniFrazzetta2004 не указан текст
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Del Carlo2012 не указан текст
  5. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Kowallis1997 не указан текст
  6. ↑ 6,0 6,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Edmonds2014 не указан текст
  7. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Lamb1970 не указан текст
  8. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Taibi2020 не указан текст
  9. ↑ 9,0 9,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Bolt1975 не указан текст
  10. ↑ 10,0 10,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Marschall2000 не указан текст
  11. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок ChesterDuncan2008 не указан текст
  12. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Lockwood1980 не указан текст
  13. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Bebbington2007 не указан текст
  14. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок BrancaColtelli не указан текст
  15. ↑ 15,0 15,1 15,2 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Licitra1982 не указан текст
  16. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок GeomapGuideCatania не указан текст
  17. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Tanguy1998 не указан текст
  18. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Azzaro1999 не указан текст
  19. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Caracciolo2016 не указан текст
  20. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Tobriner1980 не указан текст
  21. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Sammartino2001 не указан текст
  22. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок GoI2022 не указан текст
  23. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Lanzafame2017 не указан текст
  24. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок BrancaColtelliGroppelli не указан текст
  25. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Bonaccorso2017 не указан текст
Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:1669_eruption_of_Mount_Etna&oldid=12496272