Английская Википедия:1990 East German general election

General elections were held in East Germany on 18 March 1990, and were the first and only free elections held in the state before German reunification. The Alliance for Germany, led by the new East German branch of the right-wing Christian Democratic Union (CDU), won 192 seats and emerged as the largest bloc in the 400-seat Volkskammer, having run on a platform of speedy reunification with West Germany. The East German branch of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), which had been dissolved in 1946 and refounded only six months before the elections, finished second with 88 seats despite being widely expected to win. The former Socialist Unity Party of Germany, restyled as the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), finished third with 66 seats the first free election in which it participated.

The Alliance fell slightly short of the 201 seats needed to govern alone.^[1] Lothar de Maizière of the CDU invited the SPD to join his Alliance partners – the German Social Union (DSU) and Democratic Awakening (DA) – in a grand coalition. The SPD was initially cold to de Maizière's offer, in part because of the presence of the right-wing populist DSU in de Maizière's grouping; the SPD had originally been willing to govern alongside all parties other than the PDS and DSU.^[2] However, they ultimately agreed, and the four parties formed government. The government, which was able to amend the constitution thanks to its two-thirds supermajority of seats in the Volkskammer, subsequently organised and ratified the reunification of Germany, resulting in the dissolution of the German Democratic Republic into the Federal Republic of Germany on 3 October 1990.

Background

Шаблон:Mainarticle The Peaceful Revolution of 1989 resulted in the Socialist Unity Party of Germany giving up its monopoly on power, and permitting opposition parties to operate for the first time. They began to form in large numbers throughout November and December 1989. Opposition groups formed the East German Round Table, which was joined by representatives of the SED to negotiate reforms; at its first meeting on 7 December 1989, the Round Table agreed that elections to the Volkskammer would be held on 6 May 1990.^[3]

Electoral system

On 20 February 1990 the Volkskammer passed a new electoral law, reducing it in size to 400 members elected via party-list proportional representation, with no electoral threshold. Joint lists between parties were allowed, and a number of parties formed alliances for the election, including the Association of Free Democrats, Alliance 90, and an alliance between the Green Party and Independent Women's Association. Seats were calculated nationally using the largest remainder method, and distributed in multi-member constituencies corresponding to the fifteen Bezirke.^[4] Шаблон:Wikisource

Campaign

The campaign was short and presented the parties with major organizational challenges. The election, originally scheduled for May, was brought forward to March 18 after negotiations between representatives of the Round Table and government of Hans Modrow on 28 January. This meant that the campaign was only seven weeks long.

Only the PDS had immediately operational party machinery, as well as the extensive financial resources required for an election campaign. The newly founded parties and groups, by contrast, were often still entangled in debates about their platform and only had minimal operational infrastructure. Civil rights activists had managed to secure offices in many places, meaning both the new groups and old parties were often lacking less in physical infrastructure and more in political and campaign experience. This gap was closed through a massive commitment by West German parties, which supported their partner parties in the GDR, and were able to compensate for the organizational advantage held by the PDS.^[5] The CDU formed "district partnerships": each Eastern CDU district association was supported by a Western CDU district association. Many Western party members visited the East to aid their corresponding party in the campaign.

Ahead of the election, the Bavarian Christian Social Union in West Germany allied itself with the Eastern German Social Union. The Free Democratic Party endorsed the hastily-assembled Association of Free Democrats, which included the Liberal Democratic Party of Germany (LDPD) and the minor Free Democratic Party of the GDR. The Alliance for Germany, which included the CDU, DSU, and Democratic Awakening (DA), was also created as an emergency solution. These two alliances, forged six weeks before the election, had to organize their election campaigns in an extremely short time.^[6]

At the beginning of the campaign period, the SPD appeared to have a clear edge over the other parties. As a newly-founded party, it had no ties to the SED, but a high profile and ample resources thanks to its Western counterpart. Much of East Germany's territory had also been strongholds of the Weimar Republic-era SPD. Meanwhile, the CDU was deprived of a natural base by the lack of any significant Catholic population in the country, with the sole exception of Eichsfeld on the Thuringian border. Additionally, several older parties, including the CDU, LDPD, and NDPD, were former bloc parties which had been subordinate to the SED until 1989, engendering doubt about their ability to portray themselves as parties of change. Election forecasts predicted a clear victory for the Social Democrats; in a survey published at the beginning of February, the SPD was favoured by 54 percent of voters, followed by the PDS with 12 percent and the CDU with 11 percent.^[5]

Oskar Lafontaine, who had been elected as the West German SPD's Chancellor candidate for the next federal election, was sceptical of reunification and pessimistic about the SPD's chances of victory in either country. At the SPD's party conference in Berlin in December 1989, he warned of a "national drunkenness" that reunification could inspire, and described the potential membership of a united Germany in NATO as "historical nonsense". Meanwhile, West German CDU leader and incumbent Chancellor Helmut Kohl made unification the primary goal for his party in both the East and West. To promote this position, almost four hundred rallies were held during the Eastern election campaign featuring around eighty top politicians from the Western CDU and CSU; the Alliance for Germany held around 1,400 election events in total. At one such event on 20 February 1990 in Erfurt, 150,000 people gathered to see Kohl; 200,000 attended when he spoke in Chemnitz.^[7]

Three days before the election the lead candidate of Democratic Awakening, Wolfgang Schnur, was exposed as a Stasi informant by Der Spiegel.

Party programs

The Alliance for Germany presented its election program under the title "Never again socialism" („Nie wieder Sozialismus“). Its key points included German reunification using the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany as an all-German constitution, the establishment of rights to private property and unrestricted freedom of trade, the abolition of all barriers to access for investors from the West, and the immediate introduction of the Deutsche Mark with an exchange rate of 1:1 to the East German mark. It also promised the establishment of a social security network, an environmental program, and secure energy supply, and the harmonisation of law with the West (in particular the abolition of criminal offences related to political activity). Other points were the promotion of monument protection, education reform, the preservation of day nurseries, the re-establishment of the federal states (Länder) and freedom of the press.^[8]

At the first party conference of the revived SPD, held in Leipzig from 22 to 25 February 1990, the basic party program was adopted, as was its election program. The core was the demand for an ecologically-oriented social market economy.^[9]

The PDS election program was entitled "Democratic Freedom for All - Social Security for Everyone". The PDS described itself as a democratic socialist party campaigning for a humane working world, and striving for a socially and ecologically-oriented market economy that would pursue social security for all based on merit. In addition, it demanded the disarmament of both the East and West. It sought to preserve the GDR's social values and achievements, which it held to include the right to work, the system of children's institutions, the involvement of cooperative and public property in the economy, and anti-fascism and internationalism. Central to its platform were demands to maintain the status of former SED members and land reform undertaken by the SED. Instead of unification with the West, the PDS advocated for the creation of a confederal structure between the two countries while preserving their individual statehood, and sought a gradual transition to a neutral and demilitarized German confederation.^[10]

Conduct

Файл:Ballot paper of 1990 East German general election.jpg

Ballot paper

Writer Michael Schneider criticised what he saw as massive interference by Western politicians in the GDR election campaign, which he characterised as dominated by Western personalities and party volunteers and funded partly by taxpayer money from the West.^[11]

Civil rights activist and founding member of the New Forum, Jens Reich, raised similar concerns. In 2009, 20 years after the Peaceful Revolution, he commented on the development of democracy in the GDR: "The Bonn hippopotamus came in such a mass that you were simply helpless. The entire apparatus of the West was simply brought to the East in the election campaign. We had nothing to oppose. These were western elections exported to the GDR."^[12]

Opinion polls

In 2005, Forschungsgruppe Wahlen researcher Matthias Jung, who was involved in organising opinion polling for the election, spoke of the difficulties of the task. He attributed this to the unpredictable behaviour of the electorate as well as the total lack of infrastructure and methods for gauging public opinion, which forced the institute to build an entirely new polling model. Despite beginning work at the end of 1989, FW only released one poll before the election, which Jung claimed accurately predicted the CDU victory.^[13] This may refer to a FW poll showing that 35% of voters believed an Alliance for Germany-led government would be most capable of solving the country's problems, while only 27% believed an SPD-led government would; 29% believed a grand coalition would be most capable.^[14] This was in stark contrast to other polls, conducted without reliable methods, which predicted a landslide SPD victory.

Firm	Date	Sample	Шаблон:Abbr	CDU	DSU	DA	SPD	PDS	LDPD	FDP	NDPD	B90	Grüne	DBD	VL	Шаблон:Abbr	Lead
Firm	Date	Sample	Шаблон:Abbr	style="background:Шаблон:Party color" data-sort-type="number"\|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color" data-sort-type="number"\|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color" data-sort-type="number"\|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color" data-sort-type="number"\|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color" data-sort-type="number"\|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color" data-sort-type="number"\|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color" data-sort-type="number"\|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color" data-sort-type="number"\|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color" data-sort-type="number"\|		style="background:Шаблон:Party color" data-sort-type="number"\|		Шаблон:Abbr	Lead
Election result	18 March 1990	N/A	6.6	40.8	6.3	0.9	21.9	16.4	5.3		0.4	2.9	2.0	2.2	0.2	–	bgcolor=Шаблон:Party color style="color:white"\| 18.9

Infratest^[15]	12 March 1990	?	–	20	5	1	44	10	2	2	–	1	1	3	–	–	bgcolor=Шаблон:Party color style="color:white"\| 24
Central Institute for Youth Research Leipzig	8 March 1990	"almost 1,200"	16	21	7	2	34	17	4	2	1	2Шаблон:Efn	3	3	–	–	bgcolor=Шаблон:Party color style="color:white"\| 13
Society for Social Research and Statistical Analysis	2 March 1990	984	9	24			53	11	3			–	3	3	–	–	bgcolor=Шаблон:Party color style="color:white"\| 29
Central Institute for Youth Research Leipzig	6 February 1990	1,000	–	11	–	–	54	12	4	–	–	3Шаблон:Efn	–	–	–	–	bgcolor=Шаблон:Party color style="color:white"\| 44
Academy of Social Sciences	30–31 December 1989	?	7.3	7.9	–	2.0	5.4	34	2.6	–	2.0	5.8Шаблон:Efn	1.0	1.6	0.7	28.2	bgcolor=Шаблон:Party color style="color:white"\| 26.1
Stern^[16]	17–19 November 1989	?	–	12	–	–	10	14	15			22Шаблон:Efn		–	–	24	bgcolor=Шаблон:Party color style="color:white"\| 7

Results

Файл:Volkskammerwahl 1990 Parteiergebnisse in den Kreisen.png

Maps showing the distribution of party votes per circle.
The map in the bottom right shows the largest party in each district (several circles make a district).

Файл:1990 East German general election - Seat Distribution.svg

Distribution of seats in the election

Шаблон:Election results

Votes by Bezirk

Bezirk	CDU		SPD		PDS		DSU		BFD		B90		DBD		G–UFV		DA		NDPD		DFD		VL		Others
Bezirk	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color" colspan="2" \|			style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|													Others
Rostock	211,774	34.3	153,137	24.8	142,929	23.2	17,238	2.8	20,843	3.4	16,478	2.7	27,288	4.4	11,769	1.9	4,049	0.7	2,443	0.4	3,159	0.5	1,079	0.2	4,845	0.8
Schwerin	161,712	39.8	103,103	25.4	72,464	17.8	7,979	2.0	18,489	4.5	10,337	2.5	16,408	4.0	9,605	2.4	2,354	0.6	2,176	0.5	–	–	627	0.2	1,252	0.4
Neubrandenburg	151,562	36.0	89,146	21.2	108,589	25.8	8,618	2.0	12,757	3.0	6,700	1.6	26,304	6.3	7,587	1.8	2,172	0.5	2,759	0.7	2,404	0.6	693	0.2	1,378	0.3
Potsdam	244,569	31.2	269,041	34.4	129,627	16.6	23,022	2.9	38,508	4.9	29,919	3.8	17,530	2.2	16,822	2.1	5,903	0.8	2,759	0.4	–	–	1,657	0.2	3,665	0.4
Frankfurt (Oder)	134,222	27.8	153,904	31.9	106,412	22.1	16,920	3.5	20,413	4.2	15,200	3.2	13,954	2.9	10,761	2.2	3,476	0.7	2,060	0.4	2,393	0.5	937	0.2	1,871	0.4
Magdeburg	386,694	44.2	240,205	27.5	124,391	14.2	17,058	2.0	38,578	4.4	17,011	1.9	15,616	1.8	17,427	2.0	5,926	0.7	3,382	0.4	4,246	0.5	1,168	0.1	2,854	0.3
Cottbus	255,435	42.8	115,001	19.3	106,733	17.9	28,476	4.8	31,258	5.2	15,976	2.7	20,285	3.4	11,841	2.0	4,723	0.8	3,983	0.7	–	–	1,106	0.2	2,551	0.4
Halle	557,694	45.1	257,430	20.8	170,808	13.8	34,026	2.8	123,336	10.0	29,529	2.4	21,793	1.8	19,868	1.6	7,155	0.6	3,999	0.3	5,297	0.4	2,257	0.2	3,242	0.2
Leipzig	371,346	39.6	201,703	21.5	135,718	14.5	94,520	10.1	50,462	5.4	31,230	3.3	15,431	1.6	17,381	1.9	6,482	0.7	3,044	0.3	3,867	0.4	1,296	0.1	4,235	0.4
Erfurt	485,297	56.3	161,558	18.7	85,764	9.9	21,212	2.5	39,166	4.5	15,661	1.8	12,005	1.4	17,694	2.1	16,457	1.9	2,395	0.3	2,690	0.3	1,289	0.1	1,502	0.2
Dresden	538,240	45.0	115,893	9.7	176,629	14.8	165,280	13.8	66,392	5.5	43,702	3.7	33,770	2.8	21,475	1.8	12,897	1.1	6,429	0.5	5,267	0.4	1,638	0.1	9,282	0.8
Karl-Marx-Stadt	594,166	45.0	206,673	15.6	149,176	11.3	195,427	14.8	79,078	6.0	27,352	2.1	14,084	1.1	21,319	1.6	12,966	1.0	3,847	0.3	5,233	0.4	2,323	0.2	10,086	0.7
Gera	253,524	48.9	85,523	16.5	65,072	12.5	42,574	8.2	26,471	5.1	13,393	2.6	7,023	1.4	10,626	2.0	8,709	1.7	1,917	0.4	1,908	0.4	831	0.2	1,093	0.2
Suhl	202,403	50.6	64,384	16.1	50,235	12.6	35,647	8.9	16,593	4.1	7,508	1.9	5,670	1.4	9,192	2.3	3,845	1.0	1,541	0.4	1,728	0.4	578	0.1	847	0.3
East Berlin	161,960	18.3	308,833	34.8	267,834	30.2	19,733	2.2	26,591	3.0	56,078	6.3	4,065	0.5	23,565	2.7	9,032	1.0	1,558	0.2	–	–	2,863	0.3	4,070	0.4

Seats by Bezirk

Bezirk	Total seats	Seats won
		CDU	SPD	PDS	DSU	BFD	B90	DBD	G–UFV	DA	NDPD	DFD	VL
		style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color"\|		style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" \|
Rostock	21	7	5	5	1	1	1	1
Schwerin	15	6	4	3		1		1
Neubrandenburg	13	5	3	4				1
Potsdam	27	8	10	4	1	1	1	1	1
Frankfurt (Oder)	15	5	5	4		1
Magdeburg	30	13	8	4	1	1	1	1	1
Cottbus	21	9	4	4	1	1	1	1
Halle	44	19	9	6	1	4	1	1	1		1	1
Leipzig	33	13	7	5	3	2	1	1	1
Erfurt	31	17	6	3	1	1	1
Dresden	43	19	4	6	6	2	2	1	1	1	1
Karl-Marx-Stadt	45	20	7	5	7	3	1		1	1
Gera	16	9	3	2	1	1
Suhl	13	7	2	2	1	1
East Berlin	33	6	11	9	1	1	2		1	1			1
Total	400	163	88	66	25	21	12	9	8	4	2	1	1

Votes by state

Шаблон:Infobox legislative election

In order to determine the composition of the East German representatives in the Bundestag between German reunification and the first post-reunification elections in December 1990, the results of the 1990 Volkskammer election were recounted, using the new states of Germany as constituencies. This was possible since the original election results were declared on the Kreis level, and the states were re-established by simply amalgamating Kreise together. The results in each Kreis forming a state were summed up to determine the statewide result. The recount fixed the number of Volkskammer members from each party who would be co-opted into the Bundestag.^[17]

State	CDU		SPD		PDS		DSU		BFD		B90		DBD		G–UFV		DA		NDPD		DFD		VL		Others
State	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color" colspan="2" \|			style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|	style="background:Шаблон:Party color;" colspan="2" \|													Others
Шаблон:Nowrap	615,975	33.6	548,912	29.9	335,822	18.3	61,001	3.3	86,188	4.7	59,945	3.3	51,678	2.8	39,359	2.1	13,869	0.8	8,392	0.5	2,763	0.2	3,637	0.2	7,763	0.4
Шаблон:Nowrap	161,960	18.3	308,833	34.8	267,834	30.2	19,733	2.2	26,591	3.0	56,078	6.3	4,065	0.5	23,565	2.7	9,032	1.0	1,558	0.2	–	–	2,863	0.3	4,070	0.4
Шаблон:Nowrap	486,038	36.3	313,020	23.4	305,123	22.8	31,947	2.4	47,981	3.6	31,678	2.4	65,422	4.9	26,785	2.0	8,152	0.6	6,849	0.5	5,193	0.4	2,218	0.2	7,161	0.5
Шаблон:Nowrap	1,506,832	43.4	522,580	15.1	472,037	13.6	454,298	13.1	197,644	5.7	102,987	3.0	65,274	1.9	60,667	1.7	32,282	0.9	13,711	0.4	13,955	0.4	5,348	0.2	23,739	0.7
Шаблон:Nowrap	933,276	44.5	496,606	23.7	293,605	14.0	50,393	2.4	161,580	7.7	46,255	2.2	37,696	1.8	36,978	1.8	12,650	0.6	7,351	0.4	9,402	0.4	3,410	0.2	6,053	0.3
Шаблон:Nowrap	1,006,517	52.5	335,583	17.5	217,960	11.4	110,358	5.8	88,951	4.6	39,131	2.0	27,091	1.4	39,578	2.1	30,161	1.6	6,431	0.3	6,879	0.4	2,866	0.1	3,987	0.2

Aftermath

The newly elected Volkskammer was constituted on 5 April 1990, and elected Sabine Bergmann-Pohl of the CDU as its president. As the State Council of the GDR was dissolved at the same time, she became East Germany's interim head of state. Four days later, after protracted negotiations, Lothar de Maizière announced the formation of a grand coalition between the Alliance for Germany, SPD, and BFD. On 12 April 1990, he was elected Prime Minister of the GDR by the Volkskammer with 265 votes in favour, 108 against, and 9 abstentions. The new cabinet was also confirmed. The partners in the coalition commanded a two-thirds supermajority in the Volkskammer, enough to pass amendments to the constitution.^[18]^[19]

The new parliament quickly passed several pieces of major legislation, including a new law regarding local government on 17 May, a law ratifying the monetary, economic, and social union with the Federal Republic of Germany on 18 May (which became effective on 1 July), and constitutional amendments on 17 June. On 21 June, the Volkskammer formed a special committee, chaired by Joachim Gauck, to control the dissolution of the Ministry for State Security (Stasi).^[20]

On 20 September 1990, the Volkskammer voted 299–80 to accept the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, which had earlier been approved in a 442–47 vote by the West German Bundestag. The treaty stipulated that East Germany would unify its territory with Federal Republic of Germany via Article 23 of the Basic Law, meaning that East Germany and the Volkskammer would cease to exist. The chamber's last legislative period therefore only lasted four and a half months. The treaty took effect on 3 October 1990; on the same day, 144 of the 400 Volkskammer deputies became members of the Bundestag (63 from the CDU, 33 from the SPD, 24 from the PDS, 9 from the BFD, 8 from the DSU, and 7 from Alliance 90 and the Green Party). The 8 DSU members joined the CDU/CSU Bundestag Group, briefly renamed CDU/CSU/DSU. The distribution of seats between these parties was determined by recalculating the results of the 1990 elections on a per-state basis. Their tenure came to an end two months later with the first all-German federal election on 2 December 1990.^[21]

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Шаблон:East German elections

↑ Шаблон:Cite news
↑ Шаблон:Cite news
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ ^5,0 ^5,1 Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Kai Diekmann, Ralf Georg Reuth: Helmut Kohl: "I wanted Germany's unity". 3rd edition. Propylaea, Berlin 1996, Шаблон:ISBN, p. 288 ff.
↑ Kai Diekmann, Ralf Georg Reuth: Helmut Kohl: "I wanted Germany's unity". 3rd edition. Propylaea, Berlin 1996, Шаблон:ISBN, p. 316.
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ For the Leipzig policy program see: Dieter Dowe, Kurt Klotzbach (ed.): Programmatic documents of German social democracy (= Politics in paperback. 2). 3rd, revised and updated edition. J. H. W. Dietz Nachf., Bonn 1990, Шаблон:ISBN, pp. 447-490.
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Michael Schneider: The aborted revolution. From the state company to the DM colony (= Elefanten-Press. 371). Verlag Elefanten-Press, Berlin 1990, Шаблон:ISBN, p. 114 ff.
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Schindler, Peter: Data manual on the history of the German Bundestag: 1949 to 1999, volume 3, p. 3808
↑ Stern Issue No. 48/23 November 1989 - Germany intoxicated
↑ Mandatsverteilung der ehemaligen Volkskammerabgeordneten im XI. Bundestag am 03.10.1990 Шаблон:Webarchive Wahlen in Deutschland
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite news
↑ BStU annual review 1989/90. Шаблон:Webarchive In: BStU.Bund.de; Resolution decision in the 9th session of the 10th People's Chamber of May 31, 1990, see video Шаблон:Webarchive and [1] and Decision (PDF) Шаблон:Webarchive at the German Bundestag.
↑ Шаблон:Cite web

[1] Шаблон:Cite news

[2] Шаблон:Cite news

[3] Шаблон:Cite web

[4] Шаблон:Cite web

[Bpb.de-5] 5,0 ^5,1 Шаблон:Cite web

[6] Kai Diekmann, Ralf Georg Reuth: Helmut Kohl: "I wanted Germany's unity". 3rd edition. Propylaea, Berlin 1996, Шаблон:ISBN, p. 288 ff.

[7] Kai Diekmann, Ralf Georg Reuth: Helmut Kohl: "I wanted Germany's unity". 3rd edition. Propylaea, Berlin 1996, Шаблон:ISBN, p. 316.

[8] Шаблон:Cite web

[9] For the Leipzig policy program see: Dieter Dowe, Kurt Klotzbach (ed.): Programmatic documents of German social democracy (= Politics in paperback. 2). 3rd, revised and updated edition. J. H. W. Dietz Nachf., Bonn 1990, Шаблон:ISBN, pp. 447-490.

[10] Шаблон:Cite web

[11] Michael Schneider: The aborted revolution. From the state company to the DM colony (= Elefanten-Press. 371). Verlag Elefanten-Press, Berlin 1990, Шаблон:ISBN, p. 114 ff.

[12] Шаблон:Cite web

[13] Шаблон:Cite web

[14] Шаблон:Cite web

[15] Schindler, Peter: Data manual on the history of the German Bundestag: 1949 to 1999, volume 3, p. 3808

[16] Stern Issue No. 48/23 November 1989 - Germany intoxicated

[17] Mandatsverteilung der ehemaligen Volkskammerabgeordneten im XI. Bundestag am 03.10.1990 Шаблон:Webarchive Wahlen in Deutschland

[18] Шаблон:Cite web

[19] Шаблон:Cite news

[20] BStU annual review 1989/90. Шаблон:Webarchive In: BStU.Bund.de; Resolution decision in the 9th session of the 10th People's Chamber of May 31, 1990, see video Шаблон:Webarchive and [1] and Decision (PDF) Шаблон:Webarchive at the German Bundestag.

[21] Шаблон:Cite web

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты	Обмен криптовалют - www.bestchange.ru Криптовалютная биржа CoinEx Криптовалютная биржа Binance HIVE OS - операционная система для майнинга e4pool - Мультивалютный пул для майнинга.
Магазины	AliExpress — глобальная виртуальная (в Интернете) торговая площадка, предоставляющая возможность покупать товары производителей из КНР; computeruniverse.net - Интернет-магазин компьютеров(Промо код 5 Евро на первую покупку:FWWC3ZKQ);
Хостинг	DigitalOcean - американский провайдер облачных инфраструктур, с главным офисом в Нью-Йорке и с центрами обработки данных по всему миру;
Разное	Викиум - Онлайн-тренажер для мозга Like Центр - Центр поддержки и развития предпринимательства. Gamersbay - лучший магазин по бустингу для World of Warcraft. Ноотропы OmniMind N°1 - Усиливает мозговую активность. Повышает мотивацию. Улучшает память. Санкт-Петербургская школа телевидения - это федеральная сеть образовательных центров, которая имеет филиалы в 37 городах России. Lingualeo.com — интерактивный онлайн-сервис для изучения и практики английского языка в увлекательной игровой форме. Junyschool (Джунискул) – международная школа программирования и дизайна для детей и подростков от 5 до 17 лет, где ученики осваивают компьютерную грамотность, развивают алгоритмическое и креативное мышление, изучают основы программирования и компьютерной графики, создают собственные проекты: игры, сайты, программы, приложения, анимации, 3D-модели, монтируют видео. Умназия - Интерактивные онлайн-курсы и тренажеры для развития мышления детей 6-13 лет SkillBox - это один из лидеров российского рынка онлайн-образования. Среди партнеров Skillbox ведущий разработчик сервисного дизайна AIC, медиа-компания Yoola, первое и самое крупное русскоязычное аналитическое агентство Tagline, онлайн-школа дизайна и иллюстрации Bang! Bang! Education, оператор PR-рынка PACO, студия рисования Draw&Go, агентство performance-маркетинга Ingate, scrum-студия Sibirix, имидж-лаборатория Персона. «Нетология» — это университет по подготовке и дополнительному обучению специалистов в области интернет-маркетинга, управления проектами и продуктами, дизайна, Data Science и разработки. В рамках Нетологии студенты получают ценные теоретические знания от лучших экспертов Рунета, выполняют практические задания на отработку полученных навыков, общаются с экспертами и единомышленниками. Познакомиться со всеми продуктами подробнее можно на сайте https://netology.ru, линейка курсов и профессий постоянно обновляется. StudyBay Brazil – это онлайн биржа для португалоговорящих студентов и авторов! Студент получает уникальную работу любого уровня сложности и больше свободного времени, в то время как у автора появляется дополнительный заработок и бесценный опыт. Автор24 — самая большая в России площадка по написанию учебных работ: контрольные и курсовые работы, дипломы, рефераты, решение задач, отчеты по практике, а так же любой другой вид работы. Сервис сотрудничает с более 70 000 авторов. Более 1 000 000 работ уже выполнено. StudyBay – это онлайн биржа для англоязычных студентов и авторов! Студент получает уникальную работу любого уровня сложности и больше свободного времени, в то время как у автора появляется дополнительный заработок и бесценный опыт.