Английская Википедия:Ayacucho Quechua
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Infobox language
Ayacucho (also called Chanca or Chanka after the local Chanka ethnicity that dominated the area before the Inca conquest) is a variety of Southern Quechua spoken in the Ayacucho Region, Peru, as well as by immigrants from Ayacucho in Lima. With roughly a million speakers, it is the largest variety of Southern Quechua after Cusco Quechua. The literary standard of Southern Quechua is based on these two closely related Quechua varieties.
Phonology
Vowels
| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| High | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
| Mid | Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Efn | Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Efn |
| Low | Шаблон:IPA | |
Ayacucho Quechua has three vowels: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA, which are rendered by native speakers as Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA respectively. When these vowels appear adjacent to the uvular fricative Шаблон:IPA, they are lowered (with Шаблон:IPA instead being produced further back), yielding Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA respectively. In bilingual speakers, the Spanish realizations Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA may also be found.
Consonants
The consonant phonemes of Ayacucho Quechua are outlined below. Orthographic symbols at odds with the IPA are given in angle brackets.
Notable differences from Cusco Quechua:
- There are no ejective stops. See Cusco Phonology for examples of ejective consonants.
- Шаблон:Angbr IPA represents the uvular fricative Шаблон:IPA rather than the uvular stop Шаблон:IPA of Cusco. The Шаблон:Angbr IPA grapheme is kept merely to allow for easy comparison due to its use with other Quechua languages.
- Ayacucho Quechua lacks the characteristic spirantization of stops at the end of a syllable; compare Cusco Шаблон:Lang with Ayacucho Шаблон:Lang 'we/you and I'.
Ayacucho Quechua has borrowed hundreds of words from Spanish, and some speakers (even monolinguals) approximate the Spanish pronunciation. For such speakers, Шаблон:IPA are phonemes in borrowed words like Шаблон:Lang (from Spanish Шаблон:Lang 'book') or Шаблон:Lang (from Spanish Шаблон:Lang 'to serve')
Stress rules and syllable structure
Quechua primary (strong) stress regularly falls on the penultimate syllable (if a word has more than one syllable). It may also occur on the final syllable, in which case it is directly indicated by the acute diacritic. In slow speech, weak stress tends to fall on the first syllable of a word.
All phonemes appear in word initial position, though vowel clusters are not allowed, and word initial consonant clusters occur only in words borrowed from Spanish (these clusters are bl-, br-, bw-, by-, pl-, pr-, pw-, py-, dy, dr-, ty-, tr-, gr-, gl-, gw-, kr-, kl-, kw-, fr-, fl-, sp-, sk-, "st"-, "sw"- and sy-). The consonants h, l, and ñ cannot occur in word-final position (as well as borrowed Spanish consonants b, g, and f). This leads to a minimal possible syllable of V (only word initially) and a maximal native syllable of CVC ñan (with the prohibited consonants unable to appear in the final position), and a maximal possible syllable of CCVC Шаблон:Lang (from Spanish Шаблон:Lang 'to believe').
Morphology
Substantive morphology
Overview
Quechua is a largely agglutinative language and nouns can be modified by many affixes (mostly suffixes) which can mark the case of a noun or derive a new word. Some suffixes are possible in combination, such as Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, 'to my place'. Pronouns are marked with the same suffixes as regular nouns, as in Шаблон:Lang 'I', Шаблон:Lang 'my'.
Personal pronouns
| Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 2nd person | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| 3rd person | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
The first person plural pronouns Ayacucho Quechua are divided into inclusive and exclusive pairs. Шаблон:Lang, the inclusive pronoun, means 'we' and includes the person to whom the speaker is talking, as in 'you and I'. The exclusive pronoun, Шаблон:Lang, also means 'we', but does not include the listener, meaning approximately 'we but not you'.
Case marking
Ayacucho Quechua substantives are marked for eleven grammatical cases, which are also conveyed through the use of suffixes. These suffixes may be placed onto nouns, numerals, pronouns, and—with an adverbial meaning—on adjectives and adverbs.
- Шаблон:Lang marks the object or goal of a transitive verb. This includes the direct object in sentences like Шаблон:Lang 'he watches the house'. It also has an adverbial function with adjectives (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'good' → Шаблон:Lang 'well'), numbers in telling time, adverbs, and adverbial nouns (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'day' → Шаблон:Lang 'by day').
- Шаблон:Lang marks location in, on, at, or within the noun to which it is attached (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'in the house'). When attached to an adverbial noun, Шаблон:Lang acquires the meaning 'during', as in Шаблон:Lang 'during September'. When suffixed to a nominalized verbal, it means 'while', as in Шаблон:Lang 'while he waited'. Additionally, Шаблон:Lang can be affixed to adjectives to indicate an adverbial function (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'they'll get married in a Catholic church').
- Шаблон:Lang marks the genitive case (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'the house's; of the house'. A number of adverbials can also be formed from nouns + Шаблон:Lang (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'side' → Шаблон:Lang 'on its side, sideways'.
- Шаблон:Lang means almost the same as Шаблон:Lang but is related to movement (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'he goes to the house'). It marks the direction towards a noun for a non-human actor (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'this road goes to Ayacucho').
- Шаблон:Lang (which is not composed of the individual suffixes Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang) marks motion away from a noun (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'from the house'). It is also used for a number of other relational meanings such as 'about', 'instead of', or 'made of' (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'made of iron'; Шаблон:Lang 'he speaks about the house').
- Шаблон:Lang marks accompaniment (as in Шаблон:Lang 'he goes with me'), or indicates the means by which an action is performed (as in Шаблон:Lang, 'he is working with the hoe').
- Шаблон:Lang indicates the beneficiary of an action, as in Шаблон:Lang, 'he'll speak on behalf of his friend'). When attached to a verbal, it means 'about to', as in Шаблон:Lang, 'he is about to eat'.
- Шаблон:Lang indicates causality (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'because of me'; Шаблон:Lang, 'because I want to').
- Шаблон:Lang marks motion up to but not farther than the object (or, in the case of a verbal, passage of time until the affixed verbal), as in Шаблон:Lang 'up to the house'.
- Шаблон:Lang indicates the location of an object among others of its kind (e.g. Шаблон:Lang, 'we exchanged potatoes amongst ourselves').
- Шаблон:Lang implies equal distribution among members in a group (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'he gives us two each'). This suffix appears as Шаблон:Lang following a consonant.
- Шаблон:Lang pluralizes the noun to which it is attached (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'the houses'). It can be used in conjunction with other suffixes and precedes all other suffixes except the personal markers, as in Шаблон:Lang 'to your (pl.) houses'. This suffix is not obligatory and can be omitted if the meaning is clear without it, as in Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang which both mean 'people' (Шаблон:Lang may also mean a single person).
Verbal morphology
Verbal conjugations
In contrast to the fairly simple morphology for nouns, Quechua verbal morphology is much more complex. Verbs are conjugated for person and number of both the subject and the object. Subject suffixes precede explicit object suffixes as in Шаблон:Lang 'We see you', in which the first person Шаблон:Lang appears before the second person Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, in this case pluralizes the first person). However, even the subject markers are preceded by the suffixes Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang which indirectly convey the direct object of the verb, as in Шаблон:Lang 'You see me'. Explicit personal markers are preceded by one of the tentatively titled "aspect" morphemes. The simple present tense is marked by the suffix Шаблон:Lang, apart from first-person subject and second-person object, where there is no suffix.
- Verbal suffixes
- Шаблон:Lang refers to the speaker. It appears as Шаблон:Lang following a vowel, Шаблон:Lang following a consonant, Шаблон:Lang following the Шаблон:Lang marker of the simple present, and Zero following the future ending Шаблон:Lang.
- Шаблон:Lang refers to the addressee, the person to whom one is speaking. It appears as Шаблон:Lang following Шаблон:Ipa or Шаблон:Ipa, Шаблон:Lang following a consonant, and as Шаблон:Lang elsewhere.
- Шаблон:Lang refers to a person other than the speaker or the addressee (third person). It appears as Шаблон:Lang following a vowel, and Шаблон:Lang following a consonant.
- Шаблон:Lang refers to a group which includes the addressee. It Шаблон:Lang following a vowel, Шаблон:Lang following a consonant, and Шаблон:Lang elsewhere (as when it follows the Шаблон:Lang morpheme).
- Шаблон:Lang refers to a group which excludes the addressee. It has no allomorphy.
- Шаблон:Lang indicates that the speaker is the object of second or third person action
- Шаблон:Lang indicates that the addressee is the object of action by the third person (when followed by the second person ending).
Below is shown the verb Шаблон:Lang 'to see', fully conjugated in the simple present tense. The persons are shown accompanied by their corresponding Quechua pronouns declined into the appropriate cases. Blocks which are left empty are either instances in which the object is the same as the subject, which requires the reflexive marker Шаблон:Lang, as in Шаблон:Lang 'I saw myself', or cases where such a statement is logically impossible, as in the intersection between a second person subject and a first person plural inclusive object, which would mean, approximately 'You helped you and I'.
| 1st (Шаблон:Lang) |
2nd (Шаблон:Lang) |
3rd (Шаблон:Lang) |
1st plural (Шаблон:Lang) |
1st plural (Шаблон:Lang) |
2nd (Шаблон:Lang) |
3rd (Шаблон:Lang) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st (Шаблон:Lang) |
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |||
| 2nd (Шаблон:Lang) |
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |||
| 3rd (Шаблон:Lang) |
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 1st plural (Шаблон:Lang) |
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |||||
| 1st plural (Шаблон:Lang) |
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |||
| 2nd plural (Шаблон:Lang) |
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |||
| 3rd (Шаблон:Lang) |
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
Syntax
Ayacucho Quechua has a standard subject–object–verb (SOV) word order, as in Шаблон:Lang 'he is building a house', but this can be inverted, since the syntactic relationship between nouns is made clear by the overt case markers. However, unlike in other case-marked languages (like Russian or Latin), the inversion of the standard word order in Ayacucho Quechua does not serve to topicalize the word (or phrase) in question since this too is explicitly marked by the Шаблон:Lang discourse topic marker. Primarily then, inversions of word order serve to emphasize words as particularly relevant or salient (particularly verbs). Compare standard Шаблон:Lang 'he watches the house' with Шаблон:Lang 'he watches the house' (as opposed to feeling it or hearing about it) in which the act of watching is being specifically highlighted.
With respect to smaller constituents, the order is much more fixed. Modifiers, such as adjectives, preadjectivals, adverbials and attributive nouns all occur before the head which they modify (including possessive nouns marked with Шаблон:Lang). Prepositions, when they occur, are also placed before their noun phrases.
References
- Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino, Lingüística Quechua, Centro de Estudios Rurales Andinos 'Bartolomé de las Casas', 2nd ed. 2003
- Clodoaldo Soto Ruiz, Quechua: manual de enseñanza, Instituto de Estudios Peruanas, 2nd ed. 1993, Шаблон:ISBN
- Clodoaldo Soto Ruiz, Gramática Quechua Ayacucho-Chanca, Ministerio de Educación, 1976
- Clodoaldo Soto Ruiz, Diccionario quechua Ayacucho-Chanca [- Castellano y vice versa]. Ministerio de educación del Perú, 1976
- Gary Parker, Ayacucho Grammar and Dictionary, Mouton, 1969
External links
- Qayna Kunan Paqarin: Una introducción al quechua chanca. 2011 Electronic book of the complete course of the grammar of quechua, R. Zariquiey, G. Córdova.
- Runasimi-Kastillanu-Inlis Llamkaymanaq Qullqa Ayakuchu-Chanka I Rakta Dictionary quechua-Spanish-English, with word definitions in the Quechua language. Clodoaldo Soto Ruiz (University of Illinois).
- Online course in Ayacucho Quechua, University of Illinois
Шаблон:Quechuan languages Шаблон:Languages of Peru Шаблон:Languages of Chile Шаблон:Authority control
