Английская Википедия:Ca (Indic)
Ca is the sixth consonant of Indic abugidas. In modern Indic scripts, ca is derived from the early "Ashoka" Brahmi letter ng, which is probably derived from the North Semitic letter tsade (reflected in the Aramaic Файл:Sade 1.svg, "ts"), with an inversion seen in several other derivatives,[1] after having gone through the Gupta letter Файл:Gupta allahabad c.svg.
Āryabhaṭa numeration
Шаблон:Further Aryabhata used Devanagari letters for numbers, very similar to the Greek numerals, even after the invention of Indian numerals. The values of the different forms of च are:[2]
- च Шаблон:IPA-hi = 6 (६)
- चि Шаблон:IPA-hi = 600 (६००)
- चु Шаблон:IPA-hi = 60,000 (६० ०००)
- चृ Шаблон:IPA-hi = 6,000,000 (६० ०० ०००)
- चॢ Шаблон:IPA-hi = 6Шаблон:E (६०८)
- चे Шаблон:IPA-hi = 6Шаблон:E (६०१०)
- चै Шаблон:IPA-hi = 6Шаблон:E (६०१२)
- चो Шаблон:IPA-hi = 6Шаблон:E (६०१४)
- चौ Шаблон:IPA-hi = 6Шаблон:E (६०१६)
Historic Ca
There are three different general early historic scripts - Brahmi and its variants, Kharoṣṭhī, and Tocharian, the so-called slanting Brahmi. Ca as found in standard Brahmi, Ca was a simple geometric shape, with variations toward more flowing forms by the Gupta Ca. The Tocharian Ca Ca did not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form. The third form of ca, in Kharoshthi (Ca) was probably derived from Aramaic separately from the Brahmi letter.
Brahmi Ca
The Brahmi letter Ca, Ca, is probably derived from the Aramaic Tsade Файл:Sade 1.svg, and is thus related to the Greek San. Several identifiable styles of writing the Brahmi Ca can be found, most associated with a specific set of inscriptions from an artifact or diverse records from an historic period.[3] As the earliest and most geometric style of Brahmi, the letters found on the Edicts of Ashoka and other records from around that time are normally the reference form for Brahmi letters, with vowel marks not attested until later forms of Brahmi back-formed to match the geometric writing style.
| Ashoka (3rd-1st c. BCE) |
Girnar (~150 BCE) |
Kushana (~150-250 CE) |
Gujarat (~250 CE) |
Gupta (~350 CE) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Файл:Brahmi c.svg | Файл:Gupta girnar c.svg | Файл:Gupta ashoka c.svg | Файл:Gupta gujarat c.svg | Файл:Gupta allahabad c.svg |
Tocharian Ca
The Tocharian letter Ca is derived from the Brahmi Ca, but does not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form.
| Ca | Cā | Ci | Cī | Cu | Cū | Cr | Cr̄ | Ce | Cai | Co | Cau | Cä |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Файл:Tocharian letter ca.gif | Файл:Tocharian letter caa.gif | Файл:Tocharian letter ci.gif | Файл:Tocharian letter cii.gif | Файл:Tocharian letter cu.gif | Файл:Tocharian letter cuu.gif | Файл:Tocharian letter ce.gif | Файл:Tocharian letter cai.gif | Файл:Tocharian letter co.gif | Файл:Tocharian letter cau.gif | Файл:Tocharian letter cä.gif |
Kharoṣṭhī Ca
The Kharoṣṭhī letter Ca is generally accepted as being derived from the Aramaic Tsade Файл:Sade 1.svg, and is thus related to San (letter), in addition to the Brahmi Ca.
Devanagari script
Шаблон:Main Шаблон:Devanagari abugida sidebar Ca (च) is the sixth consonant of the Devanagari abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter ka, after having gone through the Gupta letter Файл:Gupta allahabad c.svg. In Marathi, च is sometimes pronounced as Шаблон:IPA-mr or Шаблон:IPAblink in addition to Шаблон:IPA-hi or Шаблон:IPAblink, while in Nepali, the Шаблон:IPAblink pronunciation is standard, and deviates with regard to dialect. Letters that derive from it are the Gujarati letter ચ and the Modi letter 𑘓.
Devanagari-using Languages
Like all Indic scripts, Devanagari uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:
| Ca | Cā | Ci | Cī | Cu | Cū | Cr | Cr̄ | Cl | Cl̄ | Ce | Cai | Co | Cau | C |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| च | चा | चि | ची | चु | चू | चृ | चॄ | चॢ | चॣ | चे | चै | चो | चौ | च् |
Conjuncts with च
Devanagari exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts. In modern Devanagari texts, most conjuncts are formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". Some conjunct clusters are always represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters. Vertically stacked conjuncts are ubiquitous in older texts, while only a few are still used routinely in modern Devanagari texts. The use of ligatures and vertical conjuncts may vary across languages using the Devanagari script, with Marathi in particular preferring the use of half forms where texts in other languages would show ligatures and vertical stacks.[4]
Ligature conjuncts of च
True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Devanagari are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra. Nepali and Marathi texts use the "eyelash" Ra half form Ra for an initial "R" instead of repha.
- Repha र্ (r) + च (ca) gives the ligature rca: Шаблон:Ref
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct RCa.svg
- Eyelash र্ (r) + च (ca) gives the ligature rca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct Eyelash RCa.svg
- च্ (c) + rakar र (ra) gives the ligature cra:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct CRa.svg
- च্ (c) + न (na) gives the ligature cna:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct CNa.svg
Stacked conjuncts of च
Vertically stacked ligatures are the most common conjunct forms found in Devanagari text. Although the constituent characters may need to be stretched and moved slightly in order to stack neatly, stacked conjuncts can be broken down into recognizable base letters, or a letter and an otherwise standard ligature.
- ब্ (b) + च (ca) gives the ligature bca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct BCa.svg
- भ্ (bʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature bʰca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct BhCa.svg
- च্ (c) + ब (ba) gives the ligature cba:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct CBa.svg
- च্ (c) + च (ca) gives the ligature cca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct CCa.svg
- च্ (c) + ड (ḍa) gives the ligature cḍa:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct CDda.svg
- छ্ (cʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature cʰca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct ChCa.svg
- च্ (c) + ज (ja) gives the ligature cja:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct CJa.svg
- च্ (c) + ज্ (j) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature cjña:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct CJNya.svg
- च্ (c) + क (ka) gives the ligature cka:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct CKa.svg
- च্ (c) + ल (la) gives the ligature cla:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct CLa.svg
- च্ (c) + ङ (ŋa) gives the ligature cŋa:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct CNga.svg
- च্ (c) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature cña:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct CNya.svg
- च্ (c) + व (va) gives the ligature cva:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct CVa.svg
- द্ (d) + च (ca) gives the ligature dca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct DCa.svg
- ड্ (ḍ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ḍca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct DdCa.svg
- ढ্ (ḍʱ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ḍʱca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct DdhCa.svg
- ध্ (dʱ) + च (ca) gives the ligature dʱca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct DhCa.svg
- घ্ (ɡʱ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ɡʱca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct GhCa.svg
- ह্ (h) + च (ca) gives the ligature hca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct HCa.svg
- ज্ (j) + च (ca) gives the ligature jca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct JCa.svg
- झ্ (jʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature jʰca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct JhCa.svg
- क্ (k) + च (ca) gives the ligature kca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct KCa.svg
- ख্ (kʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature kʰca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct KhCa.svg
- ल্ (l) + च (ca) gives the ligature lca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct LCa.svg
- ळ্ (ḷ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ḷca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct LlCa.svg
- म্ (m) + च (ca) gives the ligature mca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct MCa.svg
- न্ (n) + च (ca) gives the ligature nca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct NCa.svg
- ङ্ (ŋ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ŋca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct NgCa.svg
- ञ্ (ñ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ñca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct NyCa.svg
- प্ (p) + च (ca) gives the ligature pca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct PCa.svg
- फ্ (pʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature pʰca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct PhCa.svg
- स্ (s) + च (ca) gives the ligature sca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct SCa.svg
- श্ (ʃ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ʃca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct ShCa.svg
- ष্ (ṣ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ṣca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct SsCa.svg
- त্ (t) + च (ca) gives the ligature tca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct TCa.svg
- थ্ (tʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature tʰca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct ThCa.svg
- ट্ (ṭ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ṭca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct TtCa.svg
- ठ্ (ṭʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ṭʰca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct TthCa.svg
- व্ (v) + च (ca) gives the ligature vca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct VCa.svg
- य্ (y) + च (ca) gives the ligature yca:
Файл:Devanagari Conjunct YCa.svg
Bengali script
The Bengali script চ is derived from the Siddhaṃ Файл:Siddham c.svg, and is marked by a similar horizontal head line, but less geometric shape, than its Devanagari counterpart, च. The inherent vowel of Bengali consonant letters is /ɔ/, so the bare letter চ will sometimes be transliterated as "co" instead of "ca". Adding okar, the "o" vowel mark, gives a reading of /t͡ʃo/. Like all Indic consonants, চ can be modified by marks to indicate another (or no) vowel than its inherent "a".
| ca | cā | ci | cī | cu | cū | cr | cr̄ | ce | cai | co | cau | c |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| চ | চা | চি | চী | চু | চূ | চৃ | চৄ | চে | চৈ | চো | চৌ | চ্ |
চ in Bengali-using languages
চ is used as a basic consonant character in all of the major Bengali script orthographies, including Bengali and Assamese.
Conjuncts with চ
Bengali চ exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts. Unlike other Bengali letters, Ca does not tend towards stacked ligatures.[5]
- চ্ (c) + চ (ca) gives the ligature cca:
- চ্ (c) + ছ (cʰa) gives the ligature ccʰa:
Файл:Bengali Conjunct Ccha.svg
- চ্ (c) + ছ্ (cʰ) + র (ra) gives the ligature ccʰra, with the ra phala suffix:
Файл:Bengali Conjunct Cchra.svg
- চ্ (c) + ছ্ (cʰ) + র (ra) gives the ligature ccʰra, with the ra phala suffix:
Файл:Bengali Conjunct Cchva.svg
- চ্ (c) + ঞ (ña) gives the ligature cña:
Файл:Bengali Conjunct Cnya.svg
- চ্ (c) + ব (va) gives the ligature cva, with the va phala suffix:
- চ্ (c) + য (ya) gives the ligature cya, with the ya phala suffix:
- ঞ (ñ) + চ (ca) gives the ligature ñca:
Файл:Bengali Conjunct NYca.svg
- র্ (r) + চ (ca) gives the ligature rca, with the repha prefix:
- র্ (r) + চ্ (c) + য (ya) gives the ligature rcya, with the repha prefix and ya phala suffix:
Файл:Bengali Conjunct Rcya.svg
- শ্ (ʃ) + চ (ca) gives the ligature ʃca:
Файл:Bengali Conjunct SHca.svg
Gurmukhi script
Chachaa Шаблон:IPA-pa (ਚ) is the eleventh letter of the Gurmukhi alphabet. Its name is [t͡ʃət͡ʃːɑ] and is pronounced as /t͡ʃ/ when used in words. It is derived from the Laṇḍā letter ca, and ultimately from the Brahmi ca. Gurmukhi chachaa does not have a special pairin or addha (reduced) form for making conjuncts, and in modern Punjabi texts do not take a half form or halant to indicate the bare consonant /t͡ʃ/, although Gurmukhi Sanskrit texts may use an explicit halant.
Gujarati Ca
Ca (ચ) is the sixth consonant of the Gujarati abugida. It is derived from the 16th century Devanagari Ca Cawith the top bar (shiro rekha) removed, and ultimately from the Brahmi letter Ca. The Gujarati letter Ca (ચ) should not be confused with the Gujarati vowel A (અ), and care should be taken when reading Gujarati script texts not to confuse the two.
Gujarati-using Languages
The Gujarati script is used to write the Gujarati and Kutchi languages. In both languages, ચ is pronounced as Шаблон:IPA-gu or Шаблон:IPAblink when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Gujarati uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:
| Ca | Cā | Ci | Cī | Cu | Cū | Cr | Cl | Cr̄ | Cl̄ | Cĕ | Ce | Cai | Cŏ | Co | Cau | C |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Файл:Gujarati Ca Matras.svg | ||||||||||||||||
| Gujarati Ca syllables, with vowel marks in red. | ||||||||||||||||
Conjuncts with ચ
Gujarati ચ exhibits conjunct ligatures, much like its parent Devanagari Script. Most Gujarati conjuncts can only be formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". A few conjunct clusters can be represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters, and vertically stacked conjuncts can also be found in Gujarati, although much less commonly than in Devanagari. True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Gujarati are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra.
- ર્ (r) + ચ (ca) gives the ligature RCa:
Файл:Gujarati conjunct RCa.svg
- ચ્ (c) + ર (ra) gives the ligature CRa:
Файл:Gujarati conjunct CRa.svg
- ચ્ (c) + ન (na) gives the ligature CNa:
Файл:Gujarati conjunct CNa.svg
- શ્ (ʃ) + ચ (ca) gives the ligature ŚCa:
Файл:Gujarati conjunct ShCa.svg
Thai script
Cho chan (จ) is the eighth letter of the Thai script. It falls under the middle class of Thai consonants. In IPA, cho chan is pronounced as [tɕ] at the beginning of a syllable and is pronounced as [t̚] at the end of a syllable. There are three other letters whose names contain cho in RTGS (and hence in the Unicode names), but their sounds at the beginning of syllable are [tɕʰ]. The ninth letter of the alphabet, cho ching (ฉ), is also named cho and falls under the high class of Thai consonants. The tenth and twelfth letters of the alphabet, cho chang (ช) and cho choe (ฌ), are also named cho, however, they all fall under the low class of Thai consonants. Unlike many Indic scripts, Thai consonants do not form conjunct ligatures, and use the pinthu—an explicit virama with a dot shape—to indicate bare consonants. In the acrophony of the Thai script, chan (จาน) means ‘plate’. Cho chan corresponds to the Sanskrit character ‘च’.
Javanese script
Telugu Ca
Шаблон:Multiple image Ca (చ) is a consonant of the Telugu abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter C. It is closely related to the Kannada letter ಚ. Most Telugu consonants contain a v-shaped headstroke that is related to the horizontal headline found in other Indic scripts, although headstrokes do not connect adjacent letters in Telugu. The headstroke is normally lost when adding vowel matras. Telugu conjuncts are created by reducing trailing letters to a subjoined form that appears below the initial consonant of the conjunct. Many subjoined forms are created by dropping their headline, with many extending the end of the stroke of the main letter body to form an extended tail reaching up to the right of the preceding consonant. This subjoining of trailing letters to create conjuncts is in contrast to the leading half forms of Devanagari and Bengali letters. Ligature conjuncts are not a feature in Telugu, with the only non-standard construction being an alternate subjoined form of Ṣa (borrowed from Kannada) in the KṢa conjunct.
Malayalam Ca
Ca (ച) is a consonant of the Malayalam abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter C, via the Grantha letter Ca Ca. Like in other Indic scripts, Malayalam consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.
Conjuncts of ച
As is common in Indic scripts, Malayalam joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. There are several ways in which conjuncts are formed in Malayalam texts: using a post-base form of a trailing consonant placed under the initial consonant of a conjunct, a combined ligature of two or more consonants joined together, a conjoining form that appears as a combining mark on the rest of the conjunct, the use of an explicit candrakkala mark to suppress the inherent "a" vowel, or a special consonant form called a "chillu" letter, representing a bare consonant without the inherent "a" vowel. Texts written with the modern reformed Malayalam orthography, put̪iya lipi, may favor more regular conjunct forms than older texts in paḻaya lipi, due to changes undertaken in the 1970s by the Government of Kerala.
- ച് (c) + ച (ca) gives the ligature cca:
Файл:Malayalam conjunct CCa.svg
- ഞ് (ñ) + ച (ca) gives the ligature ñca:
Файл:Malayalam conjunct NyCa.svg
Odia Ca
Шаблон:Multiple image Ca (ଚ) is a consonant of the Odia abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter C, via the Siddhaṃ letter Ca Ca. Like in other Indic scripts, Odia consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.
| Ca | Cā | Ci | Cī | Cu | Cū | Cr̥ | Cr̥̄ | Cl̥ | Cl̥̄ | Ce | Cai | Co | Cau | C |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big |
Conjuncts of ଚ
As is common in Indic scripts, Odia joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a small subjoined form of trailing consonants. Most consonants' subjoined forms are identical to the full form, just reduced in size, although a few drop the curved headline or have a subjoined form not directly related to the full form of the consonant. The second type of conjunct formation is through pure ligatures, where the constituent consonants are written together in a single graphic form. This ligature may be recognizable as being a combination of two characters or it can have a conjunct ligature unrelated to its constituent characters.
- ଚ୍ (c) + ଚ (ca) gives the ligature cca:
- ଚ୍ (c) + ଛ (cʰa) gives the ligature ccʰa:
- ଞ୍ (ñ) + ଚ (ca) gives the ligature ñca:
Kaithi Ca
Ca (𑂒) is a consonant of the Kaithi abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter C, via the Siddhaṃ letter Ca Ca. Like in other Indic scripts, Kaithi consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.
| Ca | Cā | Ci | Cī | Cu | Cū | Ce | Cai | Co | Cau | C |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big | Шаблон:Big |
Conjuncts of 𑂒
As is common in Indic scripts, Kaithi joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a half form of preceding consonants, although several consonants use an explicit virama. Most half forms are derived from the full form by removing the vertical stem. As is common in most Indic scripts, conjucts of ra are indicated with a repha or rakar mark attached to the rest of the consonant cluster. In addition, there are a few vertical conjuncts that can be found in Kaithi writing, but true ligatures are not used in the modern Kaithi script.
- 𑂒୍ (c) + 𑂩 (ra) gives the ligature cra:
- 𑂩୍ (r) + 𑂒 (ca) gives the ligature rca:
Comparison of Ca
The various Indic scripts are generally related to each other through adaptation and borrowing, and as such the glyphs for cognate letters, including Ca, are related as well. Шаблон:Indic glyph
Character encodings of Ca
Most Indic scripts are encoded in the Unicode Standard, and as such the letter Ca in those scripts can be represented in plain text with unique codepoint. Ca from several modern-use scripts can also be found in legacy encodings, such as ISCII. Шаблон:Indic encoding
See also
References
- Шаблон:Note Conjuncts are identified by IAST transliteration, except aspirated consonants are indicated with a superscript "h" to distinguish from an unaspirated cononant + Ha, and the use of the IPA "ŋ" and "ʃ" instead of the less dinstinctive "ṅ" and "ś".
Further reading
- Kurt Elfering: Die Mathematik des Aryabhata I. Text, Übersetzung aus dem Sanskrit und Kommentar. Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1975, Шаблон:ISBN
- Georges Ifrah: The Universal History of Numbers. From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2000, Шаблон:ISBN.
- B. L. van der Waerden: Erwachende Wissenschaft. Ägyptische, babylonische und griechische Mathematik. Birkhäuser-Verlag, Basel Stuttgart, 1966, Шаблон:ISBN
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Evolutionary chart, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Vol 7, 1838 [1]
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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