Английская Википедия:Dutch phonology
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Self-reference Шаблон:More footnotes needed
Шаблон:IPA notice Шаблон:Dutch Grammar
Dutch phonology is similar to that of other West Germanic languages, especially Afrikaans and West Frisian.
Standard Dutch has two main de facto pronunciation standards: Northern and Belgian. Northern Standard Dutch is the most prestigious accent in the Netherlands. It is associated with high status, education and wealth. Although its speakers seem to be concentrated mainly in the densely-populated Randstad area in the provinces of North Holland, South Holland and Utrecht, it is often impossible to tell where in the country its speakers were born or raised and so it cannot be considered a regional dialect in the Netherlands. Belgian Standard Dutch is used by the vast majority of Flemish journalists and it is sometimes called VRT-Nederlands ("VRT Dutch"; formerly BRT-Nederlands "BRT Dutch"), after VRT, the national public broadcaster for the Flemish Region.Шаблон:Sfnp[1]
Consonants
The following table shows the consonant phonemes of Dutch:
Obstruents
Шаблон:More citations needed section
- The glottal stop Шаблон:IPA is not a phoneme because it only occurs optionally in a few specific, predictable environments. It often occurs at the beginning of vowel-initial words after a pause. The glottal stop can also separate vowel articulations within words, such as in IQ-onderzoek, milieu-imago, toe-eigenen, coöperatie, and beaam. This is particularly common in the case of compounds where both elements have the same vowel at the syllable-boundary, examples being Шаблон:IPA hippie-ideaal, Шаблон:IPA mee-eten, Шаблон:IPA glijijzer, Шаблон:IPA bui-uitdoving, kilo-ohm, Шаблон:IPA trouwauto, and Шаблон:IPA na-apen.
- Apart from Шаблон:IPA, all alveolar consonants are laminalШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp and can be realized as denti-alveolar in Belgium.
- Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are fully voiced.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:IPA is not a native phoneme of Dutch and occurs only in loanwords, like goal ('goal'); however Шаблон:IPA is nevertheless analyzed as a phoneme because minimal pairs exist—e.g. goal Шаблон:IPA and kool Шаблон:IPA ('cabbage'). Additionally, in native words, Шаблон:IPA occurs as an allophone of Шаблон:IPA when it undergoes regressive voicing assimilation, like in zakdoek Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- In the north, Шаблон:IPA often devoices and merges with Шаблон:IPA; the quality of that merged sound has been variously described as a voiceless post-velar Шаблон:IPAblink or uvular Шаблон:IPAblink fricative.Шаблон:Sfnp
- In the south, the distinction between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is generally preserved as velar Шаблон:IPA or post-palatal Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Some southern speakers may alternate between the velar and post-palatal articulation, depending on the backness of the preceding or succeeding vowel. Post-velar and uvular variants are called harde g "hard g", while the post-palatal and velar variants are called zachte g "soft g".Шаблон:Sfnp There is also a third variant called zwakke harde g "weak hard g", in which Шаблон:IPA is realized as Шаблон:IPAblink and Шаблон:IPA is realized as Шаблон:IPAblink and is used in Zeeland and West Flanders, which are h-dropping areas, so that Шаблон:IPA does not merge with glottal variants of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Citation needed
- In the Netherlands, Шаблон:IPA can devoice and merge with Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp According to Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, there are hardly any speakers of Northern Standard Dutch who consistently contrast Шаблон:IPA with Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- In low-prestige varieties of Netherlandic Dutch (such as the Amsterdam accent)Шаблон:Sfnp also Шаблон:IPA can devoice and merge with Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- Speakers who devoice Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA may also hypercorrectively voice Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA: concert "concert" may thus be Шаблон:IPA compared to the more usual Шаблон:IPA.
- Some speakers pronounce Шаблон:IPA as a voiceless Шаблон:IPAblink. Some dialects, particularly those from the southwest, exhibit h-dropping.
- In the Netherlands, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA may have only mid-to-low pitched friction, and for many Netherlandic speakers, they are retracted. In Belgium, they are more similar to English Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- The sequences Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are often assimilated to palatalized Шаблон:IPA, alveolo-palatal Шаблон:IPA, postalveolar Шаблон:IPA or similar realizations.
- The onset sequence Шаблон:IPA is commonly realized as a tenuis alveolo-palatal affricate Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Sfnp or intervocalically as a stop Шаблон:IPAblink or fricative Шаблон:IPAblink, barring some loanwords and names.
- The onset sequence Шаблон:IPA is commonly realized as a tenuis alveolo-palatal affricate Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp or intervocalically as a stop Шаблон:IPAblink or fricative Шаблон:IPAblink, barring some loanwords and names.
- Before Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA is realized as a voiceless post-palatal affricate Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:IPA are not native phonemes of Dutch and usually occur only in borrowed words, like show and bagage "baggage". Depending on the speaker and the position in the word, they may or may not be distinct from the assimilated realizations of the clusters Шаблон:IPA. If they are not distinct, they will have the same range of realizations noted above.
- Unlike English and German, in Dutch the voiceless stops are unaspirated in all positions: English tip and German Шаблон:Lang are both Шаблон:IPA, but Dutch Шаблон:Lang is Шаблон:IPA with an unaspirated Шаблон:IPA.
Sonorants
- Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA assimilate their articulation to a following obstruent in many cases:
- Both become Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA.
- Шаблон:IPA merges into Шаблон:IPA before velars (Шаблон:IPA). The realisation of Шаблон:IPA, in turn, depends on how a following velar fricative is realized. For example, it will be uvular Шаблон:IPA for speakers who realise Шаблон:IPA as uvulars.
- Шаблон:IPA is realized as Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp That occurs also before Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA and, under assimilation, before Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.
- The exact pronunciation of Шаблон:IPA varies regionally:
- In the North, Шаблон:IPA is 'clear' before vowels and 'dark' before consonants and pauses. Intervocalic Шаблон:IPA tends to be clear except after the open back vowels Шаблон:IPA. However, some speakers use the dark variant in all intervocalic contexts.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Some accents, such as the Amsterdam and the Rotterdam ones, have dark Шаблон:IPA in all positions. Conversely, some accents in the eastern regions, along the German border (for example around Nijmegen), as well as some Standard Belgian speakers, have clear Шаблон:IPA in all contexts.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The quality of dark Шаблон:IPA varies; in the North it is pharyngealized Шаблон:IPA, but in a final position, many speakers produce a strongly pharyngealized vocoid with no alveolar contact (Шаблон:IPA) instead. In Belgium, it is either velarized Шаблон:IPA or post-palatalized Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The realization of Шаблон:IPA phoneme varies considerably from dialect to dialect and even between speakers in the same dialect area:
- The historically original pronunciation is an alveolar trill Шаблон:IPAblink, with the alveolar tap Шаблон:IPAblink as a common allophone.
- The uvular trill Шаблон:IPAblink is a common alternative, found particularly in the central and southern dialect areas. Uvular pronunciations appear to be gaining ground in the Randstad.Шаблон:Sfnp Syllable-finally, it may be vocalized to Шаблон:IPAblink, much as in German. This is more common in the (south)eastern areas (Limburg, southeast Brabantian, Overijssel).
- The coastal dialects of South Holland produce a voiced uvular fricative Шаблон:IPAblink.
- In the center of the country, more specifically in Amsterdam and especially Nijmegen, and in Flanders, the voiced uvular approximant Шаблон:IPAblink is a minority.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The velar bunched approximant Шаблон:IPA (the Gooise R, which sounds similar to the retroflex approximant) is found at the end of a syllable in the pronunciation of some speakers in the Netherlands, especially those from the Randstad, but not in Belgium. Its use has been increasing in recent years.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Other variants include Шаблон:IPAblink[2] and Шаблон:IPAblink[3] in North Brabant and North Holland.
- The realization of Шаблон:IPAslink also varies by area (and less so by speaker):
- The main realisation is a labiodental approximant Шаблон:IPAblink, found in central and northern Netherlands.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Speakers in southern Netherlands and Belgium use a bilabial approximant Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp It is like Шаблон:IPAblink but without velarization.
- In Suriname and among immigrant populations, Шаблон:IPAblink is usual.Шаблон:Citation neededШаблон:Clarify
- An epenthetic Шаблон:IPAblink may be inserted between Шаблон:IPA and word-final Шаблон:IPA. Thus melk Шаблон:IPA "milk" may be pronounced Шаблон:IPA. This may extend to compounds, e.g. melkboer Шаблон:IPA "milkman". Although this pronunciation is mistakenly thought of as non-standard, it is found in all types of Dutch, including the standard varieties. There is also another type of Шаблон:IPA-insertion that occurs word-medially (e.g. helpen Шаблон:IPA "to help"), which is considered non-standard.Шаблон:Sfnp
In many areas the final 'n' of the ending -en (originally Шаблон:IPA, with a variety of meanings) is pronounced only when a word is being individually stressed; this makes -en words homophonous with otherwise identical forms ending in -e alone. The -n is dropped both word-finally and, in compound words, word-internally. This pronunciation can be morphologically sensitive and serve to distinguish words since the -n is dropped only when it is part of the distinct ending -en and not when the word consists of an indivisible stem that happens to end in -en. Thus, the teken of ik teken ('I draw') always retains its -n because it is part of an indivisible stem whereas in teken ('ticks') it is dropped because it is part of a plural ending. Such pairs (teken = 'draw'; teken = 'ticks') are therefore not homophones in dialects that drop -n, despite being written identically.
Final -n is retained in the North East (Low Saxon) and the South West (East and West Flemish), where it is the schwa that disappears instead. This creates a syllabic Шаблон:IPA or (after velars) syllabic Шаблон:IPA sounds: laten Шаблон:IPA; maken Шаблон:IPA. Some Low Saxon dialects that have uvular pronunciations of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA (or one of them) also have a syllabic uvular nasal, like in lagen and/or lachen Шаблон:IPA
Final devoicing and assimilation
Dutch devoices all obstruents at the ends of words, which is partly reflected in the spelling. The voiced "z" in plural Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('house') in singular. Also, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('dove'). The other cases are always written with the voiced consonant, but a devoiced one is actually pronounced: the "d" in plural Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA is retained in singular spelling Шаблон:Lang ('beard'), but the pronunciation of the latter is Шаблон:IPA, and plural Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA has singular Шаблон:Lang ('rib'), pronounced Шаблон:IPA. Шаблон:Listen Шаблон:Listen
Because of assimilation, the initial Шаблон:IPA of the next word is often also devoiced: het vee ('the cattle') is Шаблон:IPA. The opposite may be true for other consonants: ik ben ('I am') Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
Example words for consonants
Vowels
Dutch has an extensive vowel inventory consisting of thirteen plain vowels and at least three diphthongs. Vowels can be grouped as front unrounded, front rounded, central and back. They are also traditionally distinguished by length or tenseness. The vowels Шаблон:IPA are included in one of the diphthong charts further below because Northern Standard Dutch realizes them as diphthongs, but they behave phonologically like the other long monophthongs.
Monophthongs
- Dutch vowels can be classified as lax and tense,[4] checked and free[5] or short and long.[6] Phonetically however, the close vowels Шаблон:IPA are as short as the phonological lax/short vowels unless they occur before Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- Phonologically, Шаблон:IPA can be classified as either close or close-mid. Carlos Gussenhoven classifies them as the former,Шаблон:Sfnp whereas Geert Booij says that they are the latter and classifies Шаблон:IPA and the non-native mid vowels as open-mid.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:IPA has been traditionally transcribed with Шаблон:Angbr IPA, but modern sources tend to use Шаблон:Angbr IPA or Шаблон:Angbr IPA instead.Шаблон:Sfnp[7] Beverley Collins and Inger Mees write this vowel with Шаблон:Angbr IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The phonemic status of Шаблон:IPA is not clear. Phonetically, a vowel of the Шаблон:IPA[8] type appears before nasals as an allophone of Шаблон:IPA, e.g. in jong Шаблон:IPA ('young'). This vowel can also be found in certain other words, such as op Шаблон:IPA ('on'), which can form a near-minimal pair with mop Шаблон:IPA ('joke'). This, however, is subject to both individual and geographical variation.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- Many speakers feel that Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA belong to the same phoneme, with Шаблон:IPAblink being its unstressed variant. This is reflected in spelling errors produced by Dutch children, for example Шаблон:Angbr for binnen Шаблон:IPA ('inside'). Adding to this, the two vowels have different phonological distribution; for example, Шаблон:IPA can occur word-finally, while Шаблон:IPA (along with other lax vowels) cannot. In addition, the word-final allophone of Шаблон:IPA is a close-mid front vowel with some rounding Шаблон:IPAblink, a sound that is similar to Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- The native tense vowels Шаблон:IPA are long Шаблон:IPA in stressed syllables and short Шаблон:IPA elsewhere. The non-native oral vowels appear only in stressed syllables and thus are always long.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The native Шаблон:IPA as well as the non-native nasal Шаблон:IPA are sometimes transcribed without the length marks, as Шаблон:Angbr IPA.[9]
- The non-native Шаблон:IPA occur only in stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, they are replaced by the closest native vowel. For instance, verbs corresponding to the nouns analyse Шаблон:Audio-IPA ('analysis'), centrifuge Шаблон:Audio-IPA ('spinner'), and zone Шаблон:Audio-IPA ('zone') are analyseren Шаблон:Audio-IPA ('to analyze'), centrifugeren Шаблон:Audio-IPA ('to spin-dry'), and zoneren Шаблон:IPA ('to divide into zones').Шаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:IPA is extremely rare, and the only words of any frequency in which it occurs are oeuvre Шаблон:Audio-IPA, manoeuvre Шаблон:Audio-IPA and freule. In the more common words, Шаблон:IPA tends to be replaced with the native Шаблон:IPA, whereas Шаблон:IPA can be replaced by either Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA (Belgians typically select the latter).Шаблон:Sfnp
- The non-native nasal vowels Шаблон:IPA occur only in loanwords from French.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:IPA are often nativized as Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, depending on the place of articulation of the following consonant. For instance, restaurant Шаблон:IPA ('restaurant') and pardon Шаблон:IPA ('excuse me') are often nativized as Шаблон:Audio-IPA and Шаблон:Audio-IPA, respectively.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:IPA is extremely rare, just like its oral counterpart[10] and the only word of any frequency in which it occurs is parfum Шаблон:IPA ('perfume'), often nativized as Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:Audio-IPA.
- The non-native Шаблон:IPA is listed only by some sources.[11] It occurs in words such as cast Шаблон:Audio-IPA ('cast').Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
The following sections describe the phonetic quality of Dutch monophthongs in detail.
Close vowels
- Шаблон:IPA is close to the canonical value of the IPA symbol Шаблон:Angbr IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp The Standard Belgian realization has also been described as close-mid Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp In regional Standard Dutch, the realization may be different: for example, in Antwerp it is closer, more like Шаблон:IPAblink, whereas in places like Dordrecht, Nijmegen, West and East Flanders the vowel is typically more open than the Standard Dutch counterpart, more like Шаблон:IPAblink. Affected speakers of Northern Standard Dutch may also use this vowel.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:IPA are close front Шаблон:IPA, close to cardinal Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- The majority of sources consider Шаблон:IPA to be close-mid central Шаблон:IPAblink,Шаблон:Sfnp[12]Шаблон:Sfnp yet Beverley Collins and Inger Mees consider it to be close-mid front Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp The study conducted by Vincent van Heuven and Roos Genet has shown that native speakers consider the canonical IPA value of the symbol Шаблон:Angbr IPA to be the most similar to the Dutch sound, much more similar than the canonical values of Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA (the sound represented by Шаблон:Angbr IPA was not a part of the study).[12] In regional Standard Dutch Шаблон:IPA may be raised to near-close Шаблон:IPAblink, for example in Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague. In Antwerp, the vowel may be as high as Шаблон:IPA and the two vowels may differ in nothing but length. A more open vowel of the Шаблон:IPAblink-type is found in southern accents (e.g. in Bruges) and in affected Northern Standard Dutch.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:IPA have been variously described as close front Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp near-close front Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Sfnp and, in Northern Standard Dutch, near-close central Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:IPA are close back Шаблон:IPA in Northern Standard Dutch and close near-back Шаблон:IPA in Belgian Standard Dutch and some varieties of regional Standard Dutch spoken in Antwerp and Flemish Brabant.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
Word-final Шаблон:IPA are raised and end in a voiceless vowel: Шаблон:IPA. The voiceless vowel in the first sequence may sound almost like a palatal fricative Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp
Шаблон:IPA are frequently longer in Belgian Standard Dutch and most Belgian accents than in Northern Standard Dutch in which the length of these vowels is identical to that of lax vowels.Шаблон:Sfnp
Regardless of the exact accent, Шаблон:IPA are mandatorily lengthened to Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA in the same word.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp In Northern Standard Dutch and in Randstad, these are laxed to Шаблон:IPA and often have a schwa-like off-glide (Шаблон:IPA). This means that before Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA are less strongly differentiated from Шаблон:IPA in Northern Standard Dutch and Randstad than is usually the case in other regional varieties of Standard Dutch and in Belgian Standard Dutch.Шаблон:Sfnp There is one exception to the lengthening rule: when Шаблон:IPA is followed by a consonant different than Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA remain short. Examples of that are words such as wierp Шаблон:IPA, Duisburg Шаблон:IPA (alternatively: Шаблон:IPA, with a lax vowel) and stierf Шаблон:IPA. The rule is also suppressed syllable-finally in certain compounds; compare roux-room Шаблон:IPA with roerroom Шаблон:IPA and Ruhr-Ohm Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
Mid vowels
- Шаблон:IPA are open-mid front Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp According to Jo Verhoeven, the Belgian Standard Dutch variants are somewhat raised.Шаблон:Sfnp Before Шаблон:IPA and the velarized or pharyngealized allophone of Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA is typically lowered to Шаблон:IPAblink. In some regional Standard Dutch (e.g. in Dordrecht, Ghent, Bruges and more generally in Zeeland, North Brabant and Limburg), this lowering is generalized to most or even all contexts. Conversely, some regional Standard Dutch varieties (e.g. much of Randstad Dutch, especially the Amsterdam dialect as well as the accent of Antwerp) realize the main allophone of Шаблон:IPA as higher and more central than open-mid front (Шаблон:IPAblink).Шаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:IPA is open-mid front Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:IPA has two allophones, with the main one being mid central unrounded Шаблон:IPAblink. The allophone used in word-final positions resembles the main allophone of Шаблон:IPA as it is closer, more front and more rounded (Шаблон:IPAblink).Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:IPA is open-mid back rounded Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Collins and Mees (2003) describe it as "very tense", with pharyngealization and strong lip-rounding.Шаблон:Sfnp There is considerable regional and individual variation in the height of Шаблон:IPA, with allophones being as close as Шаблон:IPAblink in certain words.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp The closed allophones are especially common in the Randstad area.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:IPA is close to Шаблон:IPA in terms of height and backness.
Шаблон:IPA are typically somewhat lengthened and centralized before Шаблон:IPA in Northern Standard Dutch and Randstad, usually with a slight schwa-like offglide: Шаблон:IPA. In addition, Шаблон:IPA in this position is somewhat less rounded (Шаблон:IPA) than the main allophone of Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
The free vowels Шаблон:IPA are realized as monophthongs Шаблон:IPA in Belgian Standard Dutch (Jo Verhoeven describes the Belgian Standard Dutch realization of Шаблон:IPA as mid-central Шаблон:IPAblink) and in many regional accents. In Northern Standard Dutch, narrow closing diphthongs Шаблон:IPA are used. The starting point of Шаблон:IPA is centralized back (Шаблон:IPAblink), and the starting point of Шаблон:IPA has been described as front Шаблон:IPAblink by Collins and Mees and as centralized front Шаблон:IPAblink by Gussenhoven. The monophthongal counterparts of Шаблон:IPA are peripheral; the former is almost as front as cardinal Шаблон:IPAblink, whereas the latter is almost as back as cardinal Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Many speakers of Randstad Dutch as well as younger speakers of Northern Standard Dutch realize Шаблон:IPA as rather wide diphthongs of the Шаблон:IPA type, which may be mistaken for the phonemic diphthongs Шаблон:IPA by speakers of other accents.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp The use of Шаблон:IPA for Шаблон:IPA goes hand in hand with the lowering the first elements of Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA, a phenomenon termed Polder Dutch. Therefore, the phonemic contrast between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is still strongly maintained, but its phonetic realization is very different from what one can typically hear in traditional Northern Standard Dutch.Шаблон:Sfnp In Rotterdam and The Hague, the starting point of Шаблон:IPA can be fronted to Шаблон:IPAblink instead of being lowered to Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp
In Northern Standard Dutch and in Randstad, Шаблон:IPA lose their closing glides and are raised and slightly centralized to Шаблон:IPA (often with a schwa-like off-glide Шаблон:IPA) before Шаблон:IPA in the same word. The first two allophones strongly resemble the lax monophthongs Шаблон:IPA. Dutch children frequently misspell the word weer ('again') as wir. These sounds may also occur in regional varieties of Standard Dutch and in Belgian Standard Dutch, but they are more typically the same as the main allophones of Шаблон:IPA (that is, Шаблон:IPA). An exception to the centralizing rule are syllable-final Шаблон:IPA in compounds such as zeereis Шаблон:Audio-IPA ('sea voyage'), milieuramp Шаблон:Audio-IPA ('environmental disaster') and bureauredactrice Шаблон:IPA ('desk editor (f.)').Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
In Northern Standard Dutch, Шаблон:IPA are mid-centralized before the pharyngealized allophone of Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
Several non-standard dialects have retained the distinction between the so-called "sharp-long" and "soft-long" e and o, a distinction that dates back to early Middle Dutch. The sharp-long varieties originate from the Old Dutch long ē and ō (Proto-Germanic ai and au), while the soft-long varieties arose from short i/e and u/o that were lengthened in open syllables in early Middle Dutch. The distinction is not considered to be a part of Standard Dutch and is not recognized in educational materials, but it is still present in many local varieties, such as Antwerpian, Limburgish, West Flemish and Zeelandic. In these varieties, the sharp-long vowels are often opening diphthongs such as Шаблон:IPA, while the soft-long vowels are either plain monophthongs Шаблон:IPA or slightly closing Шаблон:IPA.
Open vowels
In Northern Standard Dutch and some other accents, Шаблон:IPA are realized so that the former is a back vowel Шаблон:IPAblink, whereas the latter is central Шаблон:IPAblink or front Шаблон:IPAblink. In Belgian Standard Dutch Шаблон:IPA is also central or front, but Шаблон:IPA may be central Шаблон:IPAblink instead of back Шаблон:IPAblink, so it may have the same backness as Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
Other accents may have different realizations:
- Many accents (Amsterdam, Utrecht, Antwerp) realize this pair with 'inverted' backness, so that Шаблон:IPA is central Шаблон:IPAblink (or, in the case of Utrecht, even front Шаблон:IPAblink), whereas Шаблон:IPA is closer to cardinal Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Outside the Randstad, fronting of Шаблон:IPA to central Шаблон:IPAblink is very common. On the other hand, in Rotterdam and Leiden, the short Шаблон:IPA sounds even darker than the Standard Northern realization, being realized as a fully back and raised open vowel, unrounded Шаблон:IPAblink or rounded Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp
- In Groningen, Шаблон:IPA tends to be particularly front, similar to the quality of the cardinal vowel Шаблон:IPAblink, whereas in The Hague and in the affected Standard Northern accent, Шаблон:IPA may be raised and fronted to Шаблон:IPAblink, particularly before Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
Before Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA is typically a slight centering diphthong with a centralized first element (Шаблон:IPA) in Northern Standard Dutch and in Randstad.Шаблон:Sfnp
Diphthongs
Dutch also has several diphthongs, but only three of them are unquestionably phonemic. All three of them end in a non-syllabic close vowel Шаблон:IPA (henceforth written Шаблон:IPA for simplicity), but they may begin with a variety of other vowels.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
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- Шаблон:IPA has been variously transcribed with Шаблон:Angbr IPA,[13] Шаблон:Angbr IPA,[14] and Шаблон:Angbr IPA.[15]
- The starting points of Шаблон:IPA tend to be closer (Шаблон:IPA) in Belgian Standard Dutch than in Northern Standard Dutch (Шаблон:IPA). In addition, the Belgian Standard Dutch realization of Шаблон:IPA tends to be fully rounded, unlike the typical Northern Standard Dutch realization of the vowel. However, Jo Verhoeven reports rather open starting points of the Belgian Standard Dutch variants of Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA) and so the main difference between Belgian and Northern Standard Dutch in this respect may only be in the rounding of the first element of Шаблон:IPA, but the fully rounded variant of Шаблон:IPA is also used by some Netherlandic speakers, particularly of the older generation. It is also used in most of Belgium, in line with the Belgian Standard Dutch realization.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- In conservative Northern Standard Dutch, the starting points of Шаблон:IPA are open-mid and rounded in the case of the last two vowels: Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The backness of the starting point of the Belgian Standard Dutch realization of Шаблон:IPA has been variously described as front Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Sfnp and centralized front Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- In Polder Dutch, which is spoken in some areas of the Netherlands (especially Randstad and its surroundings), the starting points of Шаблон:IPA are further lowered to Шаблон:IPA. This is typically accompanied by the lowering of the starting points of Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA. These realizations have existed in Hollandic dialects since the 16th century and are now are becoming standard in the Netherlands. They are an example of a chain shift similar to the Great Vowel Shift in English. According to Jan Stroop, the fully lowered variant of Шаблон:IPA is the same as the phonetic diphthong Шаблон:IPA, making bij 'at' and baai 'bay' perfect homophones.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- The rounding of the starting point of the Northern Standard Dutch realization of Шаблон:IPA has been variously described as slight Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Sfnp and non-existent Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp The unrounded variant has also been reported to occur in many other accents, such as Leiden, Rotterdam and in some Belgian speakers.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Phonetically, the endpoints of the native diphthongs are lower and more central than cardinal Шаблон:IPA, i.e. more like Шаблон:IPA or even Шаблон:IPA (however, Jo Verhoven reports a rather close (Шаблон:IPAblink) endpoints of the Belgian Standard Dutch variant of Шаблон:IPA, so this might be somewhat variable). In Belgian Standard Dutch, the endpoints are shorter than in Northern Standard Dutch, but in both varieties the glide is an essential part of the articulation. Furthermore, in Northern Standard Dutch there is no appreciable difference between the endpoints of Шаблон:IPA and the phonetic diphthongs Шаблон:IPA, with both sets ending in vowels close to Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- In some regional varieties of Standard Dutch (Southern, regional Belgian), the endpoints of Шаблон:IPA are even lower than in Standard Dutch: Шаблон:IPA, and in the traditional dialect of The Hague they are pure monophthongs Шаблон:IPA. Broad Amsterdam speakers can also monophthongize Шаблон:IPA, but to Шаблон:IPAblink. It typically does not merge with Шаблон:IPA as that vowel has a rather back (Шаблон:IPAblink) realization in Amsterdam.Шаблон:Sfnp
While Шаблон:IPA occur only in Northern Standard Dutch and regional Netherlands Standard Dutch, all varieties of Standard Dutch have phonetic diphthongs Шаблон:IPA. Phonemically, they are considered to be sequences of Шаблон:IPA by Geert Booij and as monosyllabic sequences Шаблон:IPA by Beverley Collins and Inger Mees (they do not comment on Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA).Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp This article adopts the former analysis.
In Northern Standard Dutch, the second elements of Шаблон:IPA can be labiodental Шаблон:IPA. This is especially common in intervocalic positions.Шаблон:Sfnp
In Northern Standard Dutch and regional Netherlands Standard Dutch, the close-mid elements of Шаблон:IPA may be subject to the same kind of diphthongization as Шаблон:IPA, so they may be actually triphthongs with two closing elements Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA can instead be Шаблон:IPA, a closing diphthong followed by Шаблон:IPA). In Rotterdam, Шаблон:IPA can be phonetically Шаблон:IPA, with a central starting point.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
Шаблон:IPA is realized with more prominence on the first element according to Booij and with equal prominence on both elements according to Collins and Mees. Other diphthongs have more prominence on the first element.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
The endpoints of these diphthongs tend to be slightly more central (Шаблон:IPA) than cardinal Шаблон:IPA. They tend to be higher than the endpoints of the phonemic diphthongs Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
Example words for vowels and diphthongs
| Phoneme | Phonetic IPA | Orthography | English translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | kip | 'chicken' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA |
biet vier |
'beetroot' 'four' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | analyse | 'analysis' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | hut | 'cabin' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA |
fuut duur |
'grebe' 'expensive' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | centrifuge | 'centrifuge' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA |
hoed invoering |
'hat' 'introduction' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | cruise | 'cruise' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | bed | 'bed' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | blèr | 'yell' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA |
beet (north) beet (Belgium) leerstelling (north) leerstelling (Belgium) |
'bit'(past form of to bite) 'dogma' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | de | 'the' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | oeuvre | 'oeuvre' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA |
neus (north) neus (Belgium) scheur (north) scheur (Belgium) |
'nose' 'crack' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | bot | 'bone' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | roze | 'pink' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA |
boot (north) boot (Belgium) Noordzee (north) Noordzee (Belgium) |
'boat' 'North Sea' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | bad | 'bath' |
| Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | zaad | 'seed' |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA |
Argentijn (north) Argentijn (Belgium) |
'Argentine' |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA |
uit ui |
'out' 'onion' |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Audio-IPA Шаблон:Audio-IPA |
fout (north) fout (Belgium) |
'mistake' |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | ai | 'ouch' |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | hoi | 'hi' |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | nieuw | 'new' |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | duw | 'push' |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | groei | 'growth' |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | leeuw | 'lion' |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | mooi | 'nice' |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Audio-IPA | haai | 'shark' |
Stress
Шаблон:More citations needed section Most native Germanic words (the bulk of the core vocabulary) are stressed on the root syllable, which is usually the first syllable of the word. Germanic words may also be stressed on the second or later syllable if certain unstressed prefixes are added (particularly in verbs). Non-root stress is common in loanwords, which are generally borrowed with the stress placement unchanged. Secondary stress may also be present in polysyllabic words. Certain prefixes and suffixes will receive secondary stress: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA. The stressed syllable of a word receives secondary stress within a compound word: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA.
The vast majority of compound nouns are stressed on the first element: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Fix The word Шаблон:Lang generally takes secondary stress in compounds: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA. Some compounds formed from two words are stressed on the second element: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA. In some cases the secondary stress in a compound shifts to preserve a trochaic pattern: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, but Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA. Compounds formed from two compound words tend to follow the same rules. But in compounds formed of more than two words the stress is irregular.
Шаблон:Listen While stress is phonemic, minimal pairs are rare,Шаблон:Sfnp and marking the stress in written Dutch is always optional, but it is sometimes recommended to distinguish homographs that differ only in stress. It is common practice to distinguish een (indefinite article) from één (the cardinal number one),[16] but the distinction is not so much about stress as it is about the pronunciation of the vowel (Шаблон:IPA versus Шаблон:IPA), and while the former is always unstressed, the latter may or may not be stressed. Stress also distinguishes some verbs, as stress placement on prefixes also carries a grammatical distinction, such as in vóórkomen ('to occur') and voorkómen ('to prevent'). In vóórkomen and other verbs with a stressed prefix, the prefix is separable and separates as kom voor in the first-person singular present, with the past participle vóórgekomen. On the other hand, verbs with an unstressed prefix are not separable: voorkómen becomes voorkóm in the first-person singular present, and voorkómen in the past participle, without the past participle prefix ge-.
Dutch, like other Germanic languages, has a strong stress accent and uses stress timing because of its relatively complex syllable structure. It has a preference for trochaic rhythm, with relatively stronger and weaker stress alternating between syllables in such a way that syllables with stronger stress are produced at a more or less constant pace. Generally, each alternate syllable before and after the primary stress will receive relative stress, as far secondary stress placements allow: Wá.gə.nì.ngən. Relative stress preferably does not fall on Шаблон:IPA so syllables containing Шаблон:IPA may disrupt the trochaic rhythm. To restore the pattern, vowels are often syncopated in speech: kín.də.rən > Шаблон:IPA, há.ri.ngən > Шаблон:IPA, vər.gə.líj.king > Шаблон:IPA. In words for which the secondary stress is imposed lexically onto the syllable immediately following the stressed syllable, a short pause is often inserted after the stressed syllable to maintain the rhythm to ensure that the stressed syllable has more or less equal length to the trochaic unit following it: bóm..mèl.ding, wéér..lò.zə.
Historically, the stress accent has reduced most vowels in unstressed syllables to Шаблон:IPA, as in most other Germanic languages. This process is still somewhat productive, and it is common to reduce vowels to Шаблон:IPA in syllables carrying neither primary nor secondary stress, particularly in syllables that are relatively weakly stressed due to the trochaic rhythm. Weakly stressed long vowels may also be shortened without any significant reduction in vowel quality. For example, politie (phonemically Шаблон:IPA) may be pronounced Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or even Шаблон:IPA.
Phonotactics
The syllable structure of Dutch is (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C). As with English, there exist many words that begin with three consonants, such as straat (street). Words that end in four consonants are mostly superlative adjectives.
Onset
Notes on individual consonants:
- Шаблон:IPA is the only phoneme that can occur at the beginning of a sequence of three consonants: Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnp It is the only consonant that can occur before Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang. It cannot occur immediately before Шаблон:IPA, though it does phonetically for speakers who drop Шаблон:IPA in the Шаблон:IPA sequence (very common in Шаблон:Lang).
- The only possible consonant cluster with Шаблон:IPA is Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Lang.
- Шаблон:IPA is infrequent as the first element, mostly occurring in roots coming from Greek: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang. It is very common in the sequence Шаблон:IPA.
- Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA only occur outside clusters.
- Шаблон:IPA cannot appear in onsets except as an ambisyllabic word-internal consonant.Шаблон:Sfnp
A sequence of CCC always begins with Шаблон:IPA. The CC-structure can be realized by almost all stops and non-sibilant, non-glottal fricatives followed by the sonorants Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, exceptions are that Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are impossible: Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang. Voiced obstruents cannot appear in other clusters except for Шаблон:IPA. Voiceless obstruents can occur in stop-fricative and fricative-stop clusters. Sequences of a voiceless obstruent or Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are also possible, for Шаблон:IPA only Шаблон:IPA occurs:
- Stop-fricative clusters primarily occur in loan words: Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang.
- Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang and the rare Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang are typical of words derived from Greek.
- An obstruent followed by Шаблон:IPA appears in many native words: Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang, more rarely Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang (also in Greek words, gnostiek), Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang.
- Шаблон:IPA pneumatisch appears only in Greek words.
Nasals rarely begin clusters.
Coda
- Voiced consonants appear only in loan words: Шаблон:IPA jazz.
- Шаблон:IPA appears alone, preceded by Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, or followed by Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or a combination of these.
- Шаблон:IPA does not occur before labials and dorsals, Шаблон:IPA does not occur before labials and Шаблон:IPA does not occur before dorsals. Шаблон:IPA cannot follow long vowels or diphthongs.
- Шаблон:IPA cannot occur after diphthongs.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA do not occur.
Historic sound changes
Шаблон:Unreferenced section Dutch (with the exception of the Limburg dialects) did not participate in the second Germanic consonant shift:
- Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA: German machen vs. Dutch Шаблон:Audio, English make
- Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA: German Schaf vs. Dutch Шаблон:Audio, English sheep
- Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA: German Wasser vs. Dutch Шаблон:Audio, English water
Dutch has also preserved the fricative variety of Proto-Germanic Шаблон:IPA as Шаблон:IPA (devoiced to Шаблон:IPA in the north), in contrast with some dialects of German, which generalised the stop Шаблон:IPA, and English, which lost the fricative variety through regular sound changes. Dutch has, however, had a fortition of Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA like High (and Low) German:
- Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA: German das, Dutch Шаблон:Audio vs. English that
Dutch also underwent a few changes of its own:
- Words with -old, -olt or -ald and -alt lost the Шаблон:IPA in favor of a diphthong mostly in Middle Dutch, as a result of l-vocalisation. Compare English old, German alt, Dutch Шаблон:Audio.
- Шаблон:IPA changed to Шаблон:IPA, spelled Шаблон:Angbr, but it was later reverted in many words by analogy with other forms. Compare English loft, German Luft, Dutch lucht Шаблон:Audio-IPA.
- Proto-Germanic Шаблон:IPA turned into Шаблон:IPA through palatalisation, which, in turn, became the diphthong Шаблон:Audio-IPA, spelled Шаблон:Angbr. Long Шаблон:IPA also diphthongised to Шаблон:Audio-IPA, spelled Шаблон:Angbr.
Sample
The sample text is a reading of the first sentence of The North Wind and the Sun.
Northern Standard Dutch
The phonetic transcription illustrates a Western Netherlandic, educated, middle-generation speech and a careful colloquial style.Шаблон:Sfnp
Orthographic version
De noordenwind en de zon hadden een discussie over de vraag wie van hun tweeën de sterkste was, toen er juist iemand voorbijkwam die een dikke, warme jas aanhad.Шаблон:Sfnp
Phonemic transcription
Phonetic transcription
Belgian Standard Dutch
The phonetic transcription illustrates the speech of a highly educated 45-year-old male who speaks Belgian Dutch with a very slight regional Limburg accent.Шаблон:Sfnp
Orthographic version
De noordenwind en de zon waren ruzie aan het maken over wie het sterkste was toen er een reiziger voorbij kwam met een warme jas aan.Шаблон:Sfnp
Phonemic transcription
Phonetic transcription
See also
References
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite web
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite thesis
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite thesis
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite conference
- Шаблон:Cite conference A summary of the presentation can be found here Шаблон:Webarchive.
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
Further reading
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite thesis
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
External links
Шаблон:Commons category-inline
| Партнерские ресурсы | |
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| Криптовалюты | |
| Магазины |
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| Хостинг | |
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- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt. Authors do not say where exactly it is used.
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ For example by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
- ↑ For example by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
- ↑ For example by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
- ↑ Sources that use Шаблон:Angbr IPA include Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt. The online dictionary woorden.org also uses that symbol. Sources that use Шаблон:Angbr IPA include Шаблон:Harvcoltxt and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt. The traditional transcription of Шаблон:Angbr IPA is also used in certain modern sources, for example by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
- ↑ Described as close-mid Шаблон:IPAblink by Geert Booij and as mid Шаблон:IPAblink by Beverley Collins and Inger Mees.
- ↑ For example by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt as well as the online dictionary woorden.org.
- ↑ It is listed by only some sources, namely Шаблон:Harvcoltxt and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
- ↑ Such as Шаблон:Harvcoltxt and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
- ↑ 12,0 12,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, cited in Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
- ↑ For example by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
- ↑ For example by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
- ↑ For example by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
- ↑ The current collection at nl.wiktionary
- ↑ Source: Шаблон:Harvcoltxt. Close-mid vowels are transcribed as diphthongs according to the same page.
