Английская Википедия:Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor
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Ferdinand II (9 July 1578 – 15 February 1637) was Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia, Hungary, and Croatia from 1619 until his death in 1637. He was the son of Archduke Charles II of Inner Austria and Maria of Bavaria, who were devout Catholics. In 1590, when Ferdinand was 11 years old, they sent him to study at the Jesuits' college in Ingolstadt because they wanted to isolate him from the Lutheran nobles. A few months later, his father died, and he inherited Inner Austria–Styria, Carinthia, Carniola and smaller provinces. His cousin, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, who was the head of the Habsburg family, appointed regents to administer these lands.
Ferdinand was installed as the actual ruler of the Inner Austrian provinces in 1596 and 1597. Rudolf II also charged him with the command of the defense of Croatia, Slavonia, and southeastern Hungary against the Ottoman Empire. Ferdinand regarded the regulation of religious issues as a royal prerogative and introduced strict Counter-Reformation measures from 1598. First, he ordered the expulsion of all Protestant pastors and teachers; next, he established special commissions to restore the Catholic parishes. The Ottomans captured Nagykanizsa in Hungary in 1600, which enabled them to invade Styria. A year later, Ferdinand tried to recapture the fortress, but the action ended in November 1601 with a defeat, due to unprofessional command of his troops. During the first stage of the family feud known as the Brothers' Quarrel, Ferdinand initially supported Rudolph II's brother, Matthias, who wanted to convince the melancholic emperor to abdicate, but Matthias' concessions to the Protestants in Hungary, Austria, and Bohemia outraged Ferdinand. He planned an alliance to strengthen the position of the Catholic Church in the Holy Roman Empire, but the Catholic princes established the Catholic League without his participation in 1610.
Philip III of Spain, who was the childless Matthias' nephew, acknowledged Ferdinand's right to succeed Matthias in Bohemia and Hungary in exchange for territorial concessions in 1617. Spain also supported Ferdinand against the Republic of Venice during the Uskok War in 1617–18. The Diets of Bohemia and Hungary confirmed Ferdinand's position as Matthias' successor only after he had promised to respect the Estates' privileges in both realms. The different interpretation of the Letter of Majesty, which summarized the Bohemian Protestants' liberties, gave rise to an uprising, known as the Second Defenestration of Prague on 23 May 1618. The Bohemian rebels established a provisional government, invaded Upper Austria, and sought assistance from the Habsburgs' opponents. Matthias II died on 20 March 1619. Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor on 28 August 1619 (Frankfurt), two days before the Protestant Bohemian Estates deposed Ferdinand (as king of Bohemia). News of his deposition arrived in Frankfurt on the 28th but Ferdinand didn't leave town until he had been crowned. The rebel Bohemians offered their crown to the Calvinist Frederick V of the Palatinate on 26 August 1619.
The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 as a result of inadequacies of his predecessors Rudolf II and Matthias. But Ferdinand's acts against Protestantism caused the war to engulf the whole empire. As a zealous Catholic, Ferdinand wanted to restore the Catholic Church as the only religion in the Holy Roman Empire and to wipe out any form of religious dissent. The war left the empire devastated and its population did not recover until 1710.
Childhood
Born in the castle in Graz on 9 July 1578, Ferdinand was the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and Maria of Bavaria.Шаблон:Sfn Charles II, who was the youngest son of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, had inherited the Inner Austrian provincesШаблон:MdashStyria, Carinthia, Carniola, Gorizia, Fiume, Trieste and parts of Istria and FriuliШаблон:Mdashfrom his father in 1564.Шаблон:Sfn Being a daughter of Albert V, Duke of Bavaria, by Charles II's sister Anna, Maria of Bavaria was her husband's niece.Шаблон:Sfn Their marriage brought about a reconciliation between the two leading Catholic families of the Holy Roman Empire.Шаблон:Sfn They were devout Catholics, but Charles II had to grant concessions to his Lutheran subjects in 1572 and 1578 to secure the predominantly Protestant nobles and burghers' financial support for the establishment of a new defense system against the Ottoman Empire.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand's education was managed primarily by his mother.Шаблон:Sfn He matriculated at the Jesuits' school in Graz at the age of 8.Шаблон:Sfn His separate household was set up three years later.Шаблон:Sfn His parents wanted to separate him from the Lutheran Styrian nobles and sent him to Ingolstadt to continue his studies at the Jesuits' college in Bavaria.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand chose Paul the Apostle's wordsШаблон:Mdash"To Those Who Fight Justly Goes the Crown"Шаблон:Mdashas his personal motto before he left Graz in early 1590.Шаблон:Sfn His parents asked his maternal uncle, William V, Duke of Bavaria, to oversee his education.Шаблон:Sfn
Reign
Inner Austria
First years
Charles II died unexpectedly on 10 July 1590,Шаблон:Sfn having named his wife, his brother Archduke Ferdinand II, their nephew Emperor Rudolf II, and his brother-in-law Duke William V the guardians of Ferdinand.Шаблон:Sfn Maria and William V tried to secure the regency for her, but Rudolph II, who was the head of the Habsburg family, appointed his own brothersШаблон:Mdashfirst Ernest in 1592, and then in 1593, Maximilian IIIШаблон:Mdashto the post.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Estates of Inner Austria urged the emperor to procure Ferdinand's return from Bavaria; Maria resisted this, and Ferdinand continued his studies at the Jesuit university.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand and his maternal cousin, Maximilian I, were the only future European rulers to have pursued university studies in the late 16th century.Шаблон:Sfn He regularly attended classes, although his delicate health often forced him to stay in his chamber.Шаблон:Sfn His religiosity was reinforced during his studies:Шаблон:Sfn he did not miss the Masses on Sundays and feast days, and made pilgrimages to Bavarian shrines.Шаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand completed his studies on 21 December 1594; Rudolph II permitted him to return to Graz only two months later.Шаблон:Sfn Before leaving for his homeland, Ferdinand solemnly promised to support the university and the Jesuits.Шаблон:Sfn Maximilian III renounced the regency and the emperor made the 17-year-old Ferdinand his own regent.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand chose the Jesuit Bartholomew Viller as his confessor.Шаблон:Sfn A burgher from Graz who had converted to Catholicism, Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg, became one of his most trusted courtiers.Шаблон:Sfn The weak position of Catholicism in Graz astonished Ferdinand, especially when he realized that only his relatives and most trusted courtiers celebrated the Eucharist during the Easter Mass.Шаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand reached the age of majority in late 1596.Шаблон:Sfn He was first officially installed as ruler in Styria in December.Шаблон:Sfn He avoided discussion of religious affairs with the Estates, taking advantage of their fear of an Ottoman invasion and the peasant uprisings in Upper Austria.Шаблон:Sfn Early the following year, the representatives of the other Inner Austrian provinces swore fealty to him.Шаблон:Sfn He left unchanged the traditional system of government, appointing only Catholics to the highest offices.Шаблон:Sfn He and his mother then met with Rudolph II in Prague,Шаблон:Sfn where Ferdinand informed the emperor of his plans to strengthen the position of Catholicism.Шаблон:Sfn The emperor's advisors acknowledged Ferdinand's right to regulate religious issues, yet requested he not provoke his Protestant subjects.Шаблон:Sfn Rudolph II gave Ferdinand responsibility for the defense of Croatia, Slavonia and the southeastern parts of Royal Hungary against the Ottomans.Шаблон:Sfn He visited Nagykanizsa, Cetin Castle and the nearby fortresses and ordered their repair.Шаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand made an unofficial journey to Italy before getting fully involved in state administration.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He named his mother regent and left Graz on 22 April 1598.Шаблон:Sfn He met with Pope Clement VIII in Ferrara in early May,Шаблон:Sfn and briefly mentioned that he wanted to expel all Protestants from Inner Austria, which the Pope discouraged.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand continued his journey, visiting the Holy House in Loreto.Шаблон:Sfn At the shrine, he ceremoniously pledged that he would restore Catholicism, according to his first biography, written after his death by his confessor, Wilhelm Lamormaini.Шаблон:Sfn
Counter-Reformation
Ferdinand returned to Graz on 20 June 1598.Шаблон:Sfn Johannes Kepler, who had been staying in the town, noted that the Protestant burghers watched Ferdinand's return with some apprehension.Шаблон:Sfn He had already made unsuccessful attempts to appoint Catholic priests to churches in predominantly Lutheran towns prior to his Italian journey.Шаблон:Sfn A former Jesuit student, Lorenz Sonnabenter, whom Ferdinand had sent to a parish in Graz, made a formal complaint against the local Lutheran pastors on 22 August, accusing them of unlawfully interfering in his office.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand's mother and Jesuit confessor urged him to take vigorous measures.Шаблон:Sfn He ordered the expulsion of all Protestant pastors and teachers from Styria, Carinthia and Carniola on 13 September, emphasizing that he was the "general overseer of all ecclesiastical foundations in his hereditary lands".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn When the Protestant nobles and burghers protested against his decree, he replied that the Estates had no jurisdiction in religious affairs.Шаблон:Sfn He summoned Italian and Spanish mercenaries to Graz.Шаблон:Sfn Due to his firm actions, no riots broke out when the leaders of the Protestant community left Graz on 29 September.Шаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand forbade the Estates of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola to hold a joint assembly. The Styrian nobles and burghers unsuccessfully sought assistance from Rudolph II and their Austrian peers against him.Шаблон:Sfn Although he issued new decrees to strengthen the position of the Catholic Church without seeking the Estates' consent, the Estates granted the subsidies that he had demanded from them.Шаблон:Sfn After the Styrian general assembly was dissolved, Ferdinand summarized his views of the Counter-Reformation in a letter to the delegates.Шаблон:Sfn He claimed that the unlawful prosecution of Catholics had forced him to adopt strict measures, adding that the Holy Spirit had inspired his acts.Шаблон:Sfn In October 1599, Ferdinand set up special commissions, consisting of a prelate and a high officer, to install Catholic priests in each town and village, and authorized them to apply military force if necessary.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn During the visit of the commissioners, local Protestants were to choose between conversion or exile, although in practice peasants were rarely allowed to leave.Шаблон:Sfn The commissioners also burnt prohibited books.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand did not force the Lutheran noblemen to convert to Catholicism, but forbade them to employ Protestant priests.Шаблон:Sfn
Brothers' Quarrel and Turkish war
Ferdinand married his cousin, Maria Anna of Bavaria, in Graz on 23 April 1600.Шаблон:Sfn Their marriage improved the relationship between the Habsburgs and the Wittelsbachs, which had deteriorated because of the appointment of Ferdinand's brother Leopold V to the Bishopric of Passau.Шаблон:Sfn Around the same time, the relationship between Rudolph II and his brother, Matthias, deteriorated.Шаблон:Sfn Fearing that the Protestant prince-electors could take advantage of his childless brother's death to elect a Protestant emperor, Matthias wanted to convince Rudolph II to name him as his successor.Шаблон:Sfn Matthias discussed the issue with his younger brother, Maximilian, and with Ferdinand at a secret meeting in Schottwien in October 1600.Шаблон:Sfn They agreed to jointly approach the emperor, but the superstitious and melancholic Rudolph flatly refused to talk about his succession.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
The UskoksШаблон:Mdashirregular soldiers of mixed origin along the northeastern coast of the Adriatic SeaШаблон:Mdashmade several attacks against the Venetian ships, claiming that the Venetians cooperated with the Ottomans.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Venetians urged Ferdinand to prevent further piratical actions.Шаблон:Sfn In 1600, he sent an envoy to the Uskoks, whom the Uskoks murdered.Шаблон:Sfn Ottoman raids against the borderlands continued and the expenses of the defence of Croatia, Slavonia and southwestern Hungary were almost exclusively financed from Inner Austria.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand could never properly manage financial affairs, and the most important fortresses were poorly supplied.Шаблон:Sfn The Ottomans occupied Nagykanizsa on 20 October 1600, which left the Styrian border almost defenseless against Ottoman raids.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand urged the Pope and Philip III of Spain to send reinforcements and funds to him.Шаблон:Sfn The Pope appointed his nephew, Gian Francesco Aldobrandini, as the commander of the papal troops.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand's counselors warned him against a counter-invasion before further reinforcements arrived, but Aldobrandini convinced him to lay siege to Nagykanizsa on 18 October 1601.Шаблон:Sfn After his troops were decimated by hunger and bad weather, Ferdinand was forced to lift the siege and return to Styria on 15 November.Шаблон:Sfn
The Ottomans failed to exploit this victory, as Rudolph II's troops managed to defeat them near Székesfehérvár.Шаблон:Sfn This victory restored Rudolph's self-confidence, and he decided to introduce severe Counter-Reformation measures in Silesia and Hungary, outraging his Protestant subjects.Шаблон:Sfn The Calvinist magnate István Bocskai rose up against Rudolph, and most Hungarian noblemen joined him before the end of 1604.Шаблон:Sfn Taking advantage of his relatives' anxiety, Matthias persuaded Ferdinand, Maximilian and Ferdinand's brother, Maximilian Ernest, to start new negotiations concerning Rudolph's succession.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn At their meeting in Linz in April 1606, the four archdukes concluded that the emperor was incompetent and decided to replace him with Matthias in Bohemia, Hungary and Upper and Lower Austria.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand later claimed that he only signed the secret treaty because he feared that his relatives could otherwise accuse him of pursuing the throne for himself.Шаблон:Sfn Rudolph did not abdicate the throne, and announced that he was thinking of appointing Ferdinand's brother, Leopold, his successor.Шаблон:Sfn In fact, the emperor authorised Matthias to start negotiations with Bocskai.Шаблон:Sfn The resulting agreement was included in the Treaty of Vienna, which granted religious freedom to Hungarian Protestants and prescribed the election of a palatine (or royal deputy) in Hungary on 23 June 1606.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The subsequent Peace of Zsitvatorok put an end to the war with the Ottoman Empire on 11 November 1606.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Rudolph II convoked the Imperial Diet to Regensburg and appointed Ferdinand as his deputy in November 1607.Шаблон:Sfn At the opening session of the Diet on 12 January 1608, Ferdinand demanded funds from the Imperial Estates on the emperor's behalf to finance 24,000 troops.Шаблон:Sfn The delegates of the Protestant princes stated that they would vote for the tax only if the Catholic Estates accepted their interpretation of the Religious Peace of Augsburg, especially their right to retain the lands they had confiscated from Catholic clerics in their realms.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand urged both parties to respect the Religious Peace, but without much success.Шаблон:Sfn He started negotiations with William V of Bavaria about the formation of an alliance of the Catholic princes, but his uncle wanted to establish it without the Habsburgs' participation.Шаблон:Sfn After the Diet was closed in early May, the Electoral Palatinate, Brandenburg, Würtemberg and other Protestant principalities formed an alliance, known as the Protestant Union, to defend their common interests.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand's appointment as the emperor's deputy to the Diet implied that Rudolph regarded FerdinandШаблон:Mdashthe only Habsburg who had already fathered childrenШаблон:Mdashas his successor.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Matthias made public his secret treaty with Ferdinand, and the emperor pardoned Ferdinand.Шаблон:Sfn Matthias concluded a formal alliance with the representatives of the Hungarian and Austrian Estates and led an army of 15,000 strong to Moravia.Шаблон:Sfn The envoys of the Holy See and Philip III of Spain mediated a compromise in June 1608.Шаблон:Sfn According to the Treaty of Lieben, Rudolph retained most Lands of the Bohemian Crown and the title of Holy Roman Emperor, but had to renounce Hungary, Lower and Upper Austria and Moravia in favor of Matthias.Шаблон:Sfn Both brothers were forced to confirm the privileges of the Estates in their realms, including religious freedom.Шаблон:Sfn
Matthias's successor
Negotiations and alliances
Ferdinand's mother died on 29 April 1608, while he was staying in Regensburg.Шаблон:Sfn With her death, as historian Robert Bireley noted, Ferdinand "lost the most important person in his life, the one who more than any other had formed his character and his outlook."Шаблон:Sfn He requested the scholar Caspar Schoppe, whom he had met at the Imperial Diet, to elaborate a detailed plan for an alliance of the Catholic monarchs.Шаблон:Sfn Schoppe argued that the alliance was to guarantee the Religious Peace, but he also demanded the restoration of Catholicism in all former ecclesiastic principalities and the return of the confiscated Church lands.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand embraced Schoppe's views and appointed him to start negotiations with Pope Paul V about a "just war" for the defence of the interests of Catholics, but the Pope avoid making a commitment, because he did not want to outrage Henry IV of France.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand also tried to strengthen his relationship with his Bavarian relatives, because Matthias' rebellion against Rudolph II and his concessions to the Protestants had shocked Ferdinand.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn However, William V and Maximilian of Bavaria ignored him when they and the three ecclesiastical electorsШаблон:Mdashthe archbishops of Mainz, Trier and CologneШаблон:Mdashestablished the Catholic League in February 1610.Шаблон:Sfn Only Philip III of Spain, who promised financial aid to the League, could persuade the Catholic princes to accept Ferdinand as a director and the vice-protector of the League in August.Шаблон:Sfn
Cooperating with Rudolph II's principal advisor, Melchior Klesl, Bishop of Vienna, Ferdinand persuaded the emperor to seek a reconciliation with Matthias.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand and other imperial princes came to Prague to meet with the emperor on 1 May 1610.Шаблон:Sfn He stayed neutral in the family feud, which enabled him to mediate between the two brothers.Шаблон:Sfn They reached a compromise, but Rudolph refused to name Matthias as his successor.Шаблон:Sfn Instead, he adopted Ferdinand's younger brother, Leopold, who had hired 15,000 mercenaries at his request.Шаблон:Sfn Leopold invaded Bohemia in February 1611, but the troops of the Bohemian Estates defeated him.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Bohemian Estates dethroned Rudolph and elected Matthias king on 23 May 1611.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Since Rudolph retained the title of emperor, his succession in the Holy Roman Empire remained uncertain.Шаблон:Sfn Matthias, Ferdinand and Maximilian III assembled at Vienna to discuss the issue with Philip III's envoy, Baltasar de Zúñiga, in December.Шаблон:Sfn They decided to support Matthias's election as King of the Romans (which could have secured his right to succeed Rudolph II), but the three ecclesiastical electors opposed the plan because of Matthias's concessions to the Protestants in Hungary, Austria and Bohemia.Шаблон:Sfn
Matthias was elected Holy Roman Emperor only months after Rudolph II died on 20 June 1612.Шаблон:Sfn Since Matthias and his two surviving brothers, Maximilian III and Albert VII were childless, his succession in Austria, Bohemia, Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire was uncertain.Шаблон:Sfn Matthias made Ferdinand the governor of Lower and Upper Austria and appointed him as his representative in Hungary, but Klesl became his most influential advisor.Шаблон:Sfn Klesl wanted to forge a new princely alliance in the Holy Roman Empire with the participation of both Catholic and Protestant princes.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ferdinand and Maximilian III regarded his plan dangerous and sent envoys to Rome to convince the Pope about the importance of a pure Catholic alliance.Шаблон:Sfn Although the Catholic League was renewed, it declared, in accordance with Klesl's proposal, the defense of the imperial constitution as its principal purpose instead of the protection of Catholicism.Шаблон:Sfn Philip III of Spain announced his claim to succeed Matthias in Bohemia and Hungary, emphasizing that his mother, Anna, the sister of Matthias, had never renounced her right to the two realms.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Matthias and Ferdinand discussed the issue with Zúñiga in Linz in June and July 1613, but they did not reach an agreement.Шаблон:Sfn Maximilian III and Albert VII who preferred Ferdinand to Philip III renounced their claims in favor of him in August 1614, but Klesl made several efforts to delay the decision.Шаблон:Sfn
Uskok War and royal elections
Ferdinand sent troops against the Uskoks' principal center at Senj to put an end to their piratical raids in 1614.Шаблон:Sfn Dozens of Uskok commanders were captured and beheaded, but his action did not satisfy the Venetians who invaded Istria and captured Habsburg territories in 1615.Шаблон:Sfn They besieged Gradisca from 12 February to 30 March, but they could not capture the fortress.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand sought assistance from Spain and the Venetians received support from the Dutch and English, but neither side could achieve a decisive victory in the Uskok War.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Matthias adopted Ferdinand as his son in 1615, but without proposing Ferdinand's election as king of the Romans, because he feared that Ferdinand would force him to abdicate.Шаблон:Sfn In early 1616, Ferdinand pledged that he would not interfere in state administration in Matthias's realms.Шаблон:Sfn Klesl who regarded Ferdinand as the Jesuits' puppet continued to oppose his appointment as Matthias's successor.Шаблон:Sfn On 31 October 1616, Ferdinand and Maximilian III agreed to achieve the removal of Klesl, but Ferdinand wanted to conclude an agreement with Philip III about Matthias's succession before making further steps.Шаблон:Sfn Philip's new envoy at Vienna, Íñigo Vélez de Guevara, 7th Count of Oñate, and Ferdinand signed a secret treaty on 29 July 1617.[1] Philip acknowledged Ferdinand's right to inherit Matthias's realms, but Ferdinand promised to cede territories in Alsace, along with Finale Ligure and the Principality of Piombino in Italy to Philip after he succeeded Matthias as Holy Roman Emperor.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Philip also granted 1 million thalers to Ferdinand to finance the war against the Venetians.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Venetians again laid siege to Gradisca in March 1617.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand needed further funds, but the Estates did not vote new taxes.Шаблон:Sfn
Matthias fell seriously ill in late April 1617.Шаблон:Sfn Ignoring Klesl's advice, he convoked the Diet of Bohemia to secure Ferdinand's succession.Шаблон:Sfn He announced that his two brothers had abdicated in favor of Ferdinand, but the majority of the Bohemian delegates denied the Habsburgs' hereditary right to Bohemia.Шаблон:Sfn After some negotiations, all delegates but two noblemen and two burghers agreed to "accept" Ferdinand as king on 6 June.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ferdinand promised to respect the Letter of MajestyШаблон:Mdasha royal diploma that guaranteed religious freedom in the Lands of the Bohemian CrownШаблон:Mdashonly after consulting with the local Jesuits.Шаблон:Sfn He was crowned king in the St. Vitus Cathedral on 29 June.Шаблон:Sfn Ten regents (seven Catholics and three Protestants) were appointed and they established a censor office in Prague.Шаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand and Matthias met with the Lutheran John George I, Elector of Saxony in Dresden who promised to support Ferdinand at the imperial elections.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn John George also agreed to convince the two other Protestant electors, Frederick V of the Palatinate and John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, to vote for Ferdinand.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand hired new troops against the Venetians and volunteers also joined his army.Шаблон:Sfn The Catholic Bohemian nobleman, Albrecht von Wallenstein, recruited 260 soldiers at his own expense.Шаблон:Sfn The Venetians abandoned the Siege of Gradisca on 22 September, but peace was restored only in early 1618, after Ferdinand agreed to resettle the Uskoks from the coastline and ordered the destruction of their ships.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Venetians abandoned the territories that they had occupied in Istria and a permanent Austrian garrison was placed at Senj.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Matthias convoked the Diet of Hungary to Pressburg (now Bratislava in Slovakia) in early 1618.Шаблон:Sfn After the Hungarian delegates achieved the appointment of a new palatine (or royal lieutenant) and the confirmation of the Estates' privileges, they proclaimed Ferdinand king on 16 May 1618.Шаблон:Sfn He appointed the Catholic magnate, Zsigmond Forgách, as the new palatine.Шаблон:Sfn
Thirty Years' War
Bohemian revolt
Habsburg-controlled domains:
Шаблон:Farbindex
Шаблон:Farbindex
The application of the Letter of Majesty was controversial in Bohemia.Шаблон:Sfn The Protestants argued that it allowed them to build churches on Catholic prelates' lands, but the Catholics did not accept their interpretation.Шаблон:Sfn Royal officials arrested Protestant burghers who wanted to build a church in Broumov and destroyed a newly built church in Hrob.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Protestants principally blamed two of the four Catholic royal governors, Jaroslav Bořita of Martinice and Vilém Slavata of Chlum, for the violent acts.Шаблон:Sfn On 23 May 1618, Jindřich Matyáš ThurnШаблон:Mdashone of the two Czech magnates who had not accepted Ferdinand's successionШаблон:Mdashled a group of armed noblemen to the Prague Castle.Шаблон:Sfn They captured the two governors and one of their secretaries and threw them out of the window.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Second Defenestration of Prague was the start of a new uprising.Шаблон:Sfn Two days later, the Protestant Estates elected directors to form a provisional government and started to raise an army.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand was staying in Pressburg when he was informed of the Bohemian events on 27 May 1618.Шаблон:Sfn He urged Matthias to send an envoy to Prague, but Matthias' envoy could not reach a compromise.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand was crowned king of Hungary on 1 July, and he returned to Vienna two weeks later.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand and Maximilian III decided to get rid of Klesl, although the cardinal supported their demand for a more determined policy against the Bohemian rebels.Шаблон:Sfn After a meeting with Klesl at his home, they invited him to the Hofburg, but Ferdinand ordered his arrest at the entrance of the palace on 20 July.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand was automatically excommunicated for the imprisonment of a cardinal, but Pope Paul V absolved him before the end of the year.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand started negotiations with the rebels with the mediation of John George I of Saxony.Шаблон:Sfn He demanded the dissolution of the provisional government and the rebels' army.Шаблон:Sfn Instead of obeying his orders, the rebels concluded an alliance with the Estates of Silesia, Upper and Lower Lusatia, and Upper Austria.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy hired Ernst von Mansfeld to assist the Bohemians.Шаблон:Sfn Mansfeld and his mercenaries captured Plzeň, which was an important center of the Bohemian Catholics, and the rebels made raids into Lower Austria.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn From September 1618, Pope Paul V paid a monthly subsidy to Ferdinand to contribute to the costs of the war and Philip III of Spain also promised support to him.Шаблон:Sfn
Emperor Matthias died on 20 March 1619.Шаблон:Sfn Maximilian of Bavaria encouraged Ferdinand to adopt an aggressive policy against the Bohemian rebels, but Ferdinand again confirmed the Letter of Majesty and urged the Bohemians to send delegates to Vienna.Шаблон:Sfn The directors ignored Ferdinand's acts and made further preparations for an armed conflict.Шаблон:Sfn Wallenstein stormed into Olomouc and seized 96,000 thalers from the Moravian treasury on 30 April.Шаблон:Sfn He gave the booty to Ferdinand, but the king returned it to the Moravian Estates.Шаблон:Sfn The Protestant Estates of Upper Austria demanded the confirmation of their religious and political liberties before recognizing Ferdinand as Matthias' successor.Шаблон:Sfn Thurn and his 15,000 troops laid siege to Vienna on 5 June.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Since only 300 soldiers were staying in the town, Ferdinand sent envoys to his commander at Krems, Henri Duval, Count of Dampierre and entered into negotiations with the Upper Austrian Protestants about their demands.Шаблон:Sfn Dampierre and his troops reached Vienna by boat and forced the Protestant delegates to flee from the Hofburg.Шаблон:Sfn After Ferdinand's general, Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, 2nd Count of Bucquoy, defeated the Bohemian rebels in the Battle of Sablat, Thurn lifted the siege on 12 June.Шаблон:Sfn
Johann Schweikhard von Kronberg, Archbishop of Mainz, convoked the electors' meeting to Frankfurt.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand avoided the rebellious Upper Austria and approached the assembly through Salzburg and Munich.Шаблон:Sfn The Bohemians sent envoys to the conference and denied Ferdinand's right to vote as their king, but the electors ignored their demand.Шаблон:Sfn The Estates of all Lands of the Bohemian Crown formed a confederation on 31 July.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn They deposed Ferdinand on 22 August, and four days later, they offered the crown to Frederick V of the Palatinate.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Frederick had tried to convince the electors to elect Maximilian I of Bavaria as the new Holy Roman Emperor.Шаблон:Sfn Maximilian did not accept the candidacy and Ferdinand was unanimously elected as emperor on 28 August.Шаблон:Sfn The news about Ferdinand's deposition in Bohemia reached Frankfurt on the same day, but he did not leave the town before being crowned on 9 September.Шаблон:Sfn Gabriel Bethlen, Prince of Transylvania, made an alliance with the Bohemians and invaded Upper Hungary (mainly present-day Slovakia) in September.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn After learning of Bethlen's success, Frederick V accepted the Bohemian crown on 28 September.Шаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand concluded a treaty with Maximilian I in Munich on 8 October 1619.Шаблон:Sfn Maximilian became the head of a renewed Catholic League and Ferdinand promised to compensate him for the costs of the war.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He was still in Munich when Bethlen and Thurn united their forces and laid siege to Vienna in November.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand sought assistance from his staunchly Catholic brother-in-law, Sigismund III of Poland.Шаблон:Sfn Sigismund did not intervene, however, he did hire mercenaries from the Cossack lands which invaded Upper Hungary and forced Bethlen to hurry back to Transylvania in late January 1620.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ferdinand and Bethlen concluded a 9-month truce, which temporarily acknowledged Bethlen's conquests in Hungary.Шаблон:Sfn Abandoned by Bethlen, Thurn was forced to lift the siege.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ferdinand ordered Frederick to abandon Bohemia before 1 July, threatening him with an imperial ban.Шаблон:Sfn John George I of Saxony promised support against the Bohemian rebels in exchange for Lusatia,Шаблон:Sfn but Bethlen made a new alliance with the Bohemian Confederation and they sent envoys to Constantinople to seek Sultan Osman II's assistance.Шаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand continued the negotiations with the Estates of Lower and Upper Austria about his recognition as Matthias' successor in both provinces.Шаблон:Sfn After his new confessor, the Jesuit Martin Becanus, assured him that he could grant concessions to the Protestants to secure their loyalty, Ferdinand confirmed the Lutherans' right to practise their religion in Lower Austria, save the towns on 8 July 1620.Шаблон:Sfn Five days later, the vast majority of the noblemen swore fealty to him.Шаблон:Sfn Before long, Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, who was the commander of the army of the Catholic League, occupied Upper Austria, Bucquoy defeated the last rebels in Lower Austria and John George of Saxony invaded Lusatia.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Maximilian I retained Upper Austria as a security for Ferdinand's debts and the local Estates swore fealty to him on 20 August.Шаблон:Sfn The Diet of Hungary dethroned Ferdinand and elected Bethlen king on 23 August.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The envoy of Louis XIII of France, Charles de Valois, Duke of Angoulême, tried to mediate a compromise between Ferdinand and his opponents, but Ferdinand was determined to force his rebellious subjects into obedience.Шаблон:Sfn The united troops of Maximilian I of Bavaria, Tilly and Bucquoy invaded Bohemia and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Bohemians and their allies in the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Consolidation
Maximilian I of Bavaria urged Ferdinand to adopt strict measures against the Bohemians and their allies,Шаблон:Sfn and Ferdinand declared Frederick V an outlaw on 29 January 1621.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand charged Karl I, Prince of Liechtenstein and Cardinal Franz von Dietrichstein with the government of Bohemia and Moravia, respectively, and ordered the establishment of special courts of justice to hear the rebels' trials.Шаблон:Sfn The new tribunals sentenced most leaders of the rebellion to death, and 27 of them were executed in the Old Town Square in Prague on 21 June.Шаблон:Sfn The estates of more than 450 nobles and burghers were fully or partially confiscated.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand demanded further trials, but Liechtenstein convinced him to grant a general pardon, because Mansfeld's troops had not been expelled from western Bohemia.Шаблон:Sfn Bethlen also wanted to continue the war against Ferdinand, but the Ottomans did not support him.Шаблон:Sfn After lengthy negotiations, Bethlen renounced the title of king of Hungary, after Ferdinand ceded him seven Hungarian counties and two Silesian duchies in the Peace of Nikolsburg on 31 December 1621.Шаблон:Sfn By that time, Ferdinand had banned all Protestant pastors from Prague, ignoring John George I of Saxony's protests.Шаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand could not pay off his mercenaries' salaries.Шаблон:Sfn Liechtenstein, Eggenberg, Wallenstein and other noblemen established a consortium that also included the Jewish banker, Jacob Bassevi, and Wallenstein's financial manager, Hans de Witte.Шаблон:Sfn They persuaded Ferdinand to lease all Bohemian, Moravian and Lower Austrian mints to them for one year in return for 6 million gulden on 18 January 1622.Шаблон:Sfn The consortium minted debased silver coins, issuing almost 30 million gulden.Шаблон:Sfn They used the bad money to purchase silver and the rebels' confiscated property and also to pay off the lease.Шаблон:Sfn The liberal issue of the new currency caused "the western's worlds first financial crisis",Шаблон:Sfn featured by inflation, famine and other symptoms of economic and social disruption.Шаблон:Sfn Dietrichstein and the Jesuits urged Ferdinand to intervene, and he dissolved the consortium in early 1623.Шаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand met his second wife, the 23-year-old Eleonora Gonzaga, in Innsbruck on 1 February 1622.Шаблон:Sfn She was crowned as queen of Hungary in Sopron where the first Italian opera was performed in the Habsburgs' realms during the festivities that followed the coronation.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand had convoked the Diet of Hungary to Sopron to assure the Hungarian Estates that he would respect their privileges.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Diet elected a Lutheran aristocrat, Count Szaniszló Thurzó,Шаблон:Sfn as the new palatine.Шаблон:Sfn
The united Imperial and Spanish armies inflicted decisive defeats on the Protestant troops in the Holy Roman Empire in May and June 1622.Шаблон:Sfn Tilly conquered the capital of the Palatinate, Heidelberg, on 19 September.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand convoked the German princes to a conference to Regensburg, primarily to talk about the future of the Palatinate.Шаблон:Sfn He reached the town on 24 November, but most Protestant princes sent delegates to the convention.Шаблон:Sfn He had secretly promised the transfer of Frederick V's title of elector to Maximilian I and his heirs, but most of his allies did not support the plan.Шаблон:Sfn They only agreed to bestow the title on Maximilian personally.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand had to yield, but assured Maximilian that he had not abandoned their original plan.Шаблон:Sfn He invested Maximilian with the electoral title on 25 February 1623, but the envoys of the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony and the Spanish ambassador were absent from the ceremony.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand decided to unite the Habsburgs' hereditary landsШаблон:MdashInner Austria, Upper and Lower Austria and TyrolШаблон:Mdashinto a new kingdom.Шаблон:Sfn He informed his brothers, Leopold and Charles, about his plan in a letter on 29 April 1623, but they rejected it.Шаблон:Sfn Leopold wanted to establish his own principality.Шаблон:Sfn He renounced the bishoprics of Passau and Strasbourg in favor of Ferdinand's younger son, Leopold Wilhelm, and retained Further Austria and Tyrol (that he had administered since 1619).Шаблон:Sfn
Deprived of the Palatinate, Frederick V had made a new alliance with the Dutch Republic.Шаблон:Sfn Bethlen used Ferdinand's refusal to give one of his daughters to him in marriage as a pretext to join the new coalition.Шаблон:Sfn Christian of Brunswick was dispatched to invade Bohemia from the north, while Bethlen attacked from the east,Шаблон:Sfn but Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly routed Brunswick in the Battle of Stadtlohn on 6 August 1623.Шаблон:Sfn The Ottomans denied support to Bethlen and he was forced to sign a new peace treaty in Vienna in May 1624.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The treaty confirmed the provisions of the previous Peace of Nikolsburg.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Restoration
Becanus who died in late 1623 was succeeded by Lamormaini as Ferdinand's confessor.Шаблон:Sfn Lamormaini awakened Ferdinand's determination to adopt strict measures against the Protestants.Шаблон:Sfn At his initiative, Ferdinand decided to unite the medical and law faculties of the Charles University in Prague with the theological and philosophical faculties of the Jesuits' local college to strengthen the Jesuits' control of higher education.Шаблон:Sfn The new archbishop of Prague, Ernst Adalbert of Harrach did not renounce the control of the university and also wanted to prevent the Jesuits from seizing the estates of the Charles University.Шаблон:Sfn Valerianus Magnus, the head of the Capuchins in Bohemia, and the Holy See supported Harrach, but Ferdinand did not relent.Шаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand ceremoniously renewed his oath about the restoration of Catholicism in his realms on 25 March 1624.Шаблон:Sfn First, he banned Protestant ceremonies in Bohemia proper and Moravia, even prohibiting the noblemen to hold Protestant pastors on 18 May.Шаблон:Sfn Maximilian I of Bavaria, who still held Upper Austria in pledge, proposed a cautious approach in the province, but Ferdinand ordered the expulsion of all Protestant pastors and teachers on 4 October.Шаблон:Sfn A year later, he prescribed that all inhabitants were to convert to Catholicism in Upper Austria by the following Easter, allowing only noblemen and burghers to choose to leave the province.Шаблон:Sfn The Upper Austrian peasants rose up in a rebellion and took control of the territories to the north of the Danube in May–June 1626.Шаблон:Sfn They sent delegates to Ferdinand in Vienna, but he did not give them an audience.Шаблон:Sfn Instead, he sent troops from Lower Austria to assist the Bavarian army in the crushing of the rebellion which was accomplished by the end of November.Шаблон:Sfn Tens of thousands of Protestants left Upper Austria during the following years.Шаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand also took advantage of his peace with Bethlen to strengthen his position in Hungary.Шаблон:Sfn The Diet of Hungary confirmed the right of his son, Ferdinand III, to succeed him in October 1625.Шаблон:Sfn Ferdinand also achieved the election of a Catholic magnate, Count Miklós Esterházy, as the new palatine with the support of the Archbishop of Esztergom, Cardinal Péter Pázmány.Шаблон:Sfn
Conclusion
Шаблон:Refimprove section The chief minister of Louis XIII of France, Cardinal Richelieu, started to forge an alliance against the Habsburgs in 1624.Шаблон:Sfn French troops were garrisoned along the French frontiers and Richelieu sent envoys to the wealthy and ambitious Christian IV of Denmark and other Protestant rulers to convince them to form a new league.Шаблон:Sfn Christian IV raised new troops and stationed them in his Duchy of Holstein (in the Lower Saxon Circle of the Holy Roman Empire) and persuaded the other Lower Saxon rulers to make him the commander of their united armies in early 1625.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Initially, Ferdinand wanted to avoid the renewal of armed conflicts, but Maximilian of Bavaria urged him to gather an army against the new Protestant alliance.Шаблон:Sfn Wallenstein, who had accumulated immeasurable wealth in Bohemia, offered to hire mercenaries for him, but Ferdinand still hesitated.Шаблон:Sfn He authorized Maximilian to invade the Lower Saxon Circle if it were necessary to stop a Danish attack only in July.Шаблон:Sfn In the same month, Maximilian ordered Tilly to move his troops into Lower Saxony, and Wallenstein invaded the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Halberstadt, but a fierce rivalry between the two commanders prevented them from continuing the military campaign.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
The electors of Mainz and Saxony demanded that Ferdinand should convoke the electors to a new convention to discuss the status of the Palatinate, but Ferdinand adopted a delaying tactic.Шаблон:Sfn In a letter, he informed Maximilian of Bavaria about his plan to grant a pardon to Frederick V in exchange for Frederick's public submission and an indemnification for the costs of the war, but he also emphasized that he did not want to deprive Maximilian of the electoral title.Шаблон:Sfn The English, Dutch and Danish envoys concluded an alliance against the Catholic League in The Hague on 9 December 1625.Шаблон:Sfn Bethlen promised to launch a new military campaign against Royal Hungary and Richelieu agreed to send a subsidy to him.Шаблон:Sfn Taking advantage of the peasant revolt in Upper Austria, Christian IV departed from his headquarters in Wolfenbüttel, but Tilly routed his troops in the Battle of Lutter on 26 August 1626.Шаблон:Sfn Mansfeld had invaded Silesia and reached Upper Hungary, but Bethlen made a new peace with Ferdinand on 20 December 1626, because he could not wage war alone against the emperor.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Ferdinand deprived the dukes of Mecklenburg from their duchies for their support to Christian IV in February 1627.Шаблон:Sfn In the same month, Wallenstein occupied Mecklenburg, Pomerania and Holstein, and invaded Denmark.Шаблон:Sfn
His devout Catholicism and negative view of Protestantism caused immediate turmoil in his non-Catholic subjects, especially in Bohemia. He did not wish to uphold the religious liberties granted by the Letter of Majesty signed by the previous emperor, Rudolph II, which had guaranteed freedom of religion to the nobles and cities. Additionally, Ferdinand as an absolutist monarch infringed several historical privileges of the nobles.Шаблон:Citation needed Given the great number of Protestants among the ordinary population in the kingdom, and some of the nobles, the king's unpopularity soon caused the Bohemian Revolt. The Second Defenestration of Prague of 22 May 1618 is considered the first step of the Thirty Years' War.Шаблон:Cn
In the following events he remained a staunch backer of the Anti-Protestant Counter Reformation efforts as one of the heads of the German Catholic League. Ferdinand succeeded Matthias as Holy Roman Emperor in 1619. Supported by the Catholic League and the Kings of Spain and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Ferdinand decided to reclaim his possession in Bohemia and to quash the rebels. On 8 November 1620 his troops, led by the Flemish general Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, smashed the rebels of Frederick V, who had been elected as rival King in 1619. After Frederick's flight to the Netherlands, Ferdinand ordered a massive effort to bring about re-conversion to Catholicism in Bohemia and Austria, causing Protestantism there to nearly disappear in the following decades, and reducing the Diet's power.Шаблон:Cn
In 1625, despite the subsidies received from Spain and the Pope, Ferdinand was in a bad financial situation. In order to muster an imperial army to continue the war, he applied to Albrecht von Wallenstein, one of the richest men in Bohemia: the latter accepted on condition that he could keep total control over the direction of the war, as well as over the booties taken during the operations. Wallenstein was able to recruit some 30,000 men (later expanded up to 100,000), with whom he was able to defeat the Protestants in Silesia, Anhalt and Denmark. In the wake of these Catholic military successes, in 1629 Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution, by which all the lands stripped from Catholics after the Peace of Passau of 1552 would be returned.Шаблон:Cn
His military success caused the tottering Protestants to call in Gustavus II Adolphus, King of Sweden. Soon, some of Ferdinand's allies began to complain about the excessive power exercised by Wallenstein, as well as the ruthless methods he used to finance his vast army. Ferdinand replied by firing the Bohemian general in 1630. The leadership of the war thenceforth passed to Tilly, who was however unable to stop the Swedish march from northern Germany towards Austria. Some historians directly blame Ferdinand for the large civilian loss of life in the Sack of Magdeburg in 1631: he had instructed Tilly to enforce the edict of Restitution upon the Electorate of Saxony, his orders causing the Belgian general to move the Catholic armies east, ultimately to Leipzig, where they suffered their first substantial defeat at the hands of Adolphus' Swedes in the First Battle of Breitenfeld (1631).Шаблон:Cn
Tilly died in battle in 1632. Wallenstein was recalled, being able to muster an army in only a week, and immediately staked a tactical, if not strategic, victory at the September Battle of Fürth, quickly followed by his forces expelling the Swedes from Bohemia. In November 1632, however, the Catholics were defeated in the Battle of Lützen (1632), while Gustavus Adolphus was himself killed.Шаблон:Cn
A period of minor operations followed. Perhaps because of Wallenstein's ambiguous conduct, he was assassinated in 1634. Despite Wallenstein's fall, the imperial forces recaptured Regensburg and were victorious in the Battle of Nördlingen (1634). The Swedish army was substantially weakened, and the fear that the power of the Habsburgs would become overwhelming caused France, led by Louis XIII of France and Cardinal Richelieu, to enter the war on the Protestant side. (Louis's father Henry IV of France had once been a Huguenot leader.) In 1635 Ferdinand signed his last important act, the Peace of Prague (1635), yet this did not end the war.Шаблон:Cn
Ferdinand died in 1637, leaving to his son Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, an empire still engulfed in a war and whose fortunes seemed to be increasingly chaotic. Ferdinand II was buried in his Mausoleum in Graz. His heart was interred in the Herzgruft (heart crypt) of the Augustinian Church, Vienna.Шаблон:Cn
Marriages and issue
In 1600, Ferdinand married Maria Anna of Bavaria (1574–1616), daughter of Duke William V of Bavaria. They had seven children:
- Archduchess Christine (25 May 1601Шаблон:Spaced ndash12/21 June 1601)
- Archduke Charles (25 May 1603)
- Archduke John-Charles (1 November 1605Шаблон:Spaced ndash26 December 1619)
- Ferdinand III (13 July 1608Шаблон:Spaced ndash2 April 1657) married:
- 1631 Infanta Maria Anna of Spain
- 1648 Maria Leopoldine of Austria
- 1651 Eleanor Gonzaga (1630–1686)
- Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria (13 January 1610Шаблон:Spaced ndash25 September 1665)
- Archduchess Cecilia Renata of Austria (16 July 1611 – 24 March 1644), who married her cousin Władysław IV Vasa, King of Poland.
- Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria (1614–1662).
In 1622, he married Eleonore of Mantua (Gonzaga) (1598–1655), the daughter of Duke Vincenzo I of Mantua and Eleonora de' Medici, at Innsbruck. They had no children.
Ancestors
Male-line family tree
Titles
Ferdinand II, by the grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King in Germany, King of Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania, Bulgaria, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Margrave of Moravia, Duke of Luxemburg, of the Higher and Lower Silesia, of Württemberg and Teck, Prince of Swabia, Count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Kyburg and Goritia, Marquess of the Holy Roman Empire, Burgovia, the Higher and Lower Lusace, Lord of the Marquisate of Slavonia, of Port Naon and Salines, etc. etc.
See also
- Kings of Germany family tree. He was related to every other king of Germany.Шаблон:Citation needed
References
Sources
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
Further reading
- Bireley, Robert. Religion and Politics in the Age of the Counterreformation: Emperor Ferdinand II, William Lamormaini, SJ, and the Formation of the Imperial Policy (U Press of North Carolina, 2012).
- Шаблон:Cite EB1911
- Шаблон:CathEncy
- Saunders, Steven. Cross, sword, and lyre: sacred music at the imperial court of Ferdinand II of Habsburg (1619–1637) (Oxford UP, 1995).
- Шаблон:Cite web
External links
Шаблон:Commons category-inline
Regnal titles
Шаблон:S-start Шаблон:S-hou Шаблон:S-reg Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft Шаблон:S-break Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft Шаблон:S-break Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-break Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-break Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-break Шаблон:S-ttl |- Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft |- Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft Шаблон:S-end
Шаблон:House of Habsburg after Ferdinand II Шаблон:Holy Roman Emperors Шаблон:Monarchs of Bohemia Шаблон:German monarchs Шаблон:Rulers of Austria Шаблон:Austrian archdukes Шаблон:Hungarian kings Шаблон:Croatian kings
- ↑ Volker Press (1991), Kriege und Krisen. Deutschland 1600-1715 (Neue deutsche Geschichte (in German). Vol. 5
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- 1578 births
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