Английская Википедия:Flapping
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Other uses Шаблон:English phonology topics Шаблон:IPA notice Flapping or tapping, also known as alveolar flapping, intervocalic flapping, or t-voicing, is a phonological process involving a voiced alveolar tap or flap; it is found in many varieties of English, especially North American, Cardiff, Ulster, Australian and New Zealand English, where the voiceless alveolar stop consonant phoneme Шаблон:IPAslink is pronounced as a voiced alveolar flap Шаблон:IPA, a sound produced by briefly tapping the alveolar ridge with the tongue, when placed between vowels. In London English, the flapped Шаблон:IPAblink is perceived as a casual pronunciation intermediate between the "posh" affricate Шаблон:IPAblink and the "rough" glottal stop Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp In some varieties, Шаблон:IPAslink, the voiced counterpart of Шаблон:IPA, may also be frequently pronounced as a flap in such positions, making pairs of words like latter and ladder sound similar or identical. In similar positions, the combination Шаблон:IPA may be pronounced as a nasalized flap Шаблон:IPAblink, making winter sound similar or identical to winner.
Flapping of Шаблон:IPA is sometimes perceived as the replacement of Шаблон:IPA with Шаблон:IPA; for example, the word butter pronounced with flapping may be heard as "budder".[1]
In other dialects of English, such as South African English, Scottish English, some Northern England English (like Scouse), and older varieties of Received Pronunciation, the flap is a variant of Шаблон:IPA (see [[Pronunciation of English /r/|Pronunciation of English Шаблон:IPA]]).Шаблон:Sfnp
Terminology and articulation
The terms flap and tap are often used synonymously, although some authors make a distinction between them. When the distinction is made, a flap involves a rapid backward and forward movement of the tongue tip, while a tap involves an upward and downward movement.Шаблон:Sfnp Linguists disagree on whether the sound produced in the present process is a flap or a tap, and by extension on whether the process is better called flapping or tapping,Шаблон:Sfnp while flapping has traditionally been more widely used.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Harvcoltxt identify four types of sounds produced in the process: alveolar tap, down-flap, up-flap, and postalveolar tap (found in autumn, Berta, otter, and murder, respectively).Шаблон:Sfnp
In Cockney, another voiced variant of Шаблон:IPA that has been reported to occur to coexist with the alveolar tap (and other allophones, such as the very common glottal stop) is a simple voiced alveolar stop Шаблон:IPAblink, which occurs especially in the words little Шаблон:IPA, hospital Шаблон:IPA and whatever Шаблон:IPA. That too results in a (variable) merger with Шаблон:IPA, whereas the tap does not.Шаблон:Sfnp
In Cardiff English, the alveolar tap is less rapid than the corresponding sound in traditional RP, being more similar to Шаблон:IPA. It also involves a larger part of the tongue. Thus, the typical Cardiff pronunciation of hospital as Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA is quite similar to Cockney Шаблон:IPA, though it does not involve a neutralization of the flap with Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp
Distribution
Flapping of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is a prominent feature of North American English. Some linguists consider it obligatory for most American dialects to flap Шаблон:IPA between a stressed and an unstressed vowel.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Flapping of Шаблон:IPA also occurs in Australian, New Zealand and (especially Northern) Irish English, and more infrequently or variably in South African English, Cockney, and Received Pronunciation.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
The exact conditions for flapping in North American English are unknown, although it is widely understood that it occurs in an alveolar stop, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, when placed between two vowels, provided the second vowel is unstressed (as in butter, writing, wedding, loader).Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Across word boundaries, however, it can occur between any two vowels, provided the second vowel begins a word (as in get over Шаблон:IPA).Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp This extends to morphological boundaries within compound words (as in whatever Шаблон:IPA).Шаблон:Sfnp In addition to vowels, segments that may precede the flap include Шаблон:IPA (as in party)Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp and occasionally Шаблон:IPA (as in faulty).Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Flapping after Шаблон:IPA is more common in Canadian English than in American English.Шаблон:Sfnp Syllabic Шаблон:IPA may also follow the flap (as in bottle).Шаблон:Sfnp Flapping of Шаблон:IPA before syllabic Шаблон:IPA (as in button) is observed in Australian English,Шаблон:Sfnp while Шаблон:IPA (with nasal release) and Шаблон:IPAblink (t-glottalization) are the only possibilities in North American English.Шаблон:Sfnp
Morpheme-internally, the vowel following the flap must not only be unstressed but also be a reduced one (namely Шаблон:IPA, morpheme-final or prevocalic Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:IPA preceding Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, etc.Шаблон:Efn),Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp so words like botox, retail, and latex are not flapped in spite of the primary stress on the first syllables,Шаблон:Sfnp while pity, motto, and Keating can be.Шаблон:Sfnp The second syllables in the former set of words can thus be considered as having secondary stress.Шаблон:Sfnp
Word-medial flapping is also prohibited in foot-initial positions. This prevents words such as militaristic, spirantization, and Mediterranean from flapping, despite capitalistic and alphabetization, for example, being flapped. This is known as the Withgott effect.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
In North American English, the cluster Шаблон:IPA (but not Шаблон:IPA) in the same environment as flapped Шаблон:IPA may be realized as a nasal flap Шаблон:IPA. Intervocalic Шаблон:IPA is also often realized as a nasal flap, so words like winter and winner can become homophonous.Шаблон:Sfnp According to Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, in the United States, Southerners tend to pronounce winter and winner identically, while Northerners, especially those from the east coast, tend to retain the distinction, pronouncing winter with Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA and winner with Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
Given these intricacies, it is difficult to formulate a phonological rule that accurately predicts flapping.Шаблон:Sfnp Nevertheless, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt postulates that it applies to alveolar stops:
- after a sonorant other than Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:IPA, but with restrictions on Шаблон:IPA;
- before an unstressed vowel within words, or before any vowel across a word boundary;
- when not in foot-initial position.Шаблон:Sfnp
Exceptions include the preposition/particle to and words derived from it, such as today, tonight, tomorrow, and together, wherein Шаблон:IPA may be flapped when intervocalic (as in go to sleep Шаблон:IPA).Шаблон:Sfnp In Australian English, numerals thirteen, fourteen, and eighteen are often flapped despite the second vowel being stressed.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp In a handful of words such as seventy, ninety, and carpenter, Шаблон:IPA is frequently pronounced as Шаблон:IPA, retaining Шаблон:IPA and voicing Шаблон:IPA, although it may still become Шаблон:IPA in rapid speech.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
Homophony
Flapping is a specific type of lenition, specifically intervocalic weakening. It leads to the neutralization of the distinction between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in appropriate environments, a partial merger of the two phonemes, provided that both Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are flapped.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Some speakers, however, flap only Шаблон:IPA but not Шаблон:IPA. Yet, for a minority of speakers, the merger can occur only if neither sound is flapped. That is the case in Cockney, where Шаблон:IPA is occasionally voiced to Шаблон:IPAblink, yielding a variable merger of little and Lidl.Шаблон:Sfnp For speakers with the merger, the following utterances sound the same or almost the same:
Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | IPA | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
aborting | aboarding | Шаблон:IPA | |
alighted | elided | Шаблон:IPA | With weak vowel merger. |
ante | Annie | Шаблон:IPA | |
anti- | Annie | Шаблон:IPA | |
at 'em | Adam | Шаблон:IPA | |
at 'em | add 'em | Шаблон:IPA | |
atom | Adam | Шаблон:IPA | |
atom | add 'em | Шаблон:IPA | |
auntie | Annie | Шаблон:IPA | |
banter | banner | Шаблон:IPA | |
batter | badder | Шаблон:IPA | |
batty | baddie | Шаблон:IPA | |
beating | beading | Шаблон:IPA | |
Bertie | birdie | Шаблон:IPA | With fern-fir-fur merger. |
Bertie | Birdy; Birdie | Шаблон:IPA | With fern-fir-fur merger. |
betting | bedding | Шаблон:IPA | |
biting | biding | Шаблон:IPA | |
bitter | bidder | Шаблон:IPA | |
bitting | bidding | Шаблон:IPA | |
bitty | biddy | Шаблон:IPA | |
blatter | bladder | Шаблон:IPA | |
bleating | bleeding | Шаблон:IPA | |
boating | boding | Шаблон:IPA | |
bruter | brooder | Шаблон:IPA | With yod-dropping after Шаблон:IPA. |
butting | budding | Шаблон:IPA | |
butty | buddy | Шаблон:IPA | |
canter | canner | Шаблон:IPA | |
canton | cannon | Шаблон:IPA | |
canton | canon | Шаблон:IPA | |
carting | carding | Шаблон:IPA | |
catty | caddy | Шаблон:IPA | |
centre; center | sinner | Шаблон:IPA | With pen–pin merger. |
chanting | Channing | Шаблон:IPA | |
cited | sided | Шаблон:IPA | |
citer | cider | Шаблон:IPA | |
clotting | clodding | Шаблон:IPA | |
coating | coding | Шаблон:IPA | |
courting | chording | Шаблон:IPA | |
courting | cording | Шаблон:IPA | |
cuttle | cuddle | Шаблон:IPA | |
cutty | cuddy | Шаблон:IPA | |
daughter | dodder | Шаблон:IPA | With cot-caught merger. |
daunting | dawning | Шаблон:IPA | |
daunting | donning | Шаблон:IPA | With cot-caught merger. |
debtor | deader | Шаблон:IPA | |
diluted | deluded | Шаблон:IPA | |
don't it | doughnut | Шаблон:IPA | With weak vowel merger and toe-tow merger. |
dotter | dodder | Шаблон:IPA | |
doughty | dowdy | Шаблон:IPA | |
eluted | alluded | Шаблон:IPA | With weak vowel merger. |
eluted | eluded | Шаблон:IPA | |
enter | in a | Шаблон:IPA | In non-rhotic accents with pen-pin merger. |
enter | inner | Шаблон:IPA | With pen-pin merger. |
eta | Ada | Шаблон:IPA | |
fated | faded | Шаблон:IPA | |
flutter | flooder | Шаблон:IPA | |
fontal | faunal | Шаблон:IPA | With cot-caught merger. |
futile | feudal | Шаблон:IPA | With weak vowel merger. |
garter | guarder | Шаблон:IPA | |
gaunter | goner | Шаблон:IPA | With cot-caught merger. |
goated | goaded | Шаблон:IPA | |
grater | grader | Шаблон:IPA | |
greater | grader | Шаблон:IPA | |
gritted | gridded | Шаблон:IPA | |
gritty | Griddy | Шаблон:IPA | |
hearty | hardy | Шаблон:IPA | |
heated | heeded | Шаблон:IPA | With meet-meat merger. |
Hetty; Hettie | heady | Шаблон:IPA | |
hurting | herding | Шаблон:IPA | With fern-fir-fur merger. |
inter- | in a | Шаблон:IPA | In non-rhotic accents. |
inter- | inner | Шаблон:IPA | |
iter | eider | Шаблон:IPA | |
jaunty | Johnny | Шаблон:IPA | With cot-caught merger. |
jointing | joining | Шаблон:IPA | |
kitted | kidded | Шаблон:IPA | |
kitty | kiddie | Шаблон:IPA | |
knotted | nodded | Шаблон:IPA | |
latter | ladder | Шаблон:IPA | |
lauded | lotted | Шаблон:IPA | With cot-caught merger. |
linty | Lenny | Шаблон:IPA | With pen-pin merger. |
liter | leader | Шаблон:IPA | With meet-meat merger. |
little | Lidl | Шаблон:IPA | |
looter | lewder | Шаблон:IPA | With yod-dropping after Шаблон:IPA. |
manta | manna | Шаблон:IPA | |
manta | manner | Шаблон:IPA | In non-rhotic accents. |
manta | manor | Шаблон:IPA | In non-rhotic accents. |
Marty | Mardi | Шаблон:IPA | In the term Mardi Gras. |
matter | madder | Шаблон:IPA | |
mattocks | Maddox | Шаблон:IPA | |
meant it | minute | Шаблон:IPA | With pen–pin merger. |
metal | medal | Шаблон:IPA | |
metal | meddle | Шаблон:IPA | |
mettle | medal | Шаблон:IPA | |
mettle | meddle | Шаблон:IPA | |
minty | many | Шаблон:IPA | With pen–pin merger. |
minty | mini | Шаблон:IPA | |
minty | Minnie | Шаблон:IPA | |
motile | modal | Шаблон:IPA | With weak vowel merger. |
mottle | model | Шаблон:IPA | |
mutter | mudder | Шаблон:IPA | |
neater | kneader | Шаблон:IPA | |
neuter | nuder | Шаблон:IPA | |
nighter | nidor | Шаблон:IPA | |
nitre; niter | nidor | Шаблон:IPA | |
noted | noded | Шаблон:IPA | |
oater | odour; odor | Шаблон:IPA | |
otter | odder | Шаблон:IPA | |
painting | paining | Шаблон:IPA | |
panting | panning | Шаблон:IPA | |
parity | parody | Шаблон:IPA | With weak vowel merger |
patter | padder | Шаблон:IPA | |
patting | padding | Шаблон:IPA | |
patty | paddy | Шаблон:IPA | |
petal | pedal | Шаблон:IPA | |
petal | peddle | Шаблон:IPA | |
pettle | pedal | Шаблон:IPA | |
pettle | peddle | Шаблон:IPA | |
platted | plaided | Шаблон:IPA | |
planting | planning | Шаблон:IPA | |
pleating | pleading | Шаблон:IPA | |
plenty | Pliny | Шаблон:IPA | With pen–pin merger. |
plotting | plodding | Шаблон:IPA | |
potted | podded | Шаблон:IPA | |
pouter | powder | Шаблон:IPA | |
punting | punning | Шаблон:IPA | |
putting | pudding | Шаблон:IPA | |
rated | raided | Шаблон:IPA | With pane-pain merger. |
rattle | raddle | Шаблон:IPA | |
righting | riding | Шаблон:IPA | |
roti | roadie | Шаблон:IPA | |
rooter | ruder | Шаблон:IPA | With yod-dropping after Шаблон:IPA. |
rotting | rodding | Шаблон:IPA | |
router | ruder | Шаблон:IPA | With yod-dropping after Шаблон:IPA. |
runty | runny | Шаблон:IPA | |
rutty | ruddy | Шаблон:IPA | |
sainting | seining | Шаблон:IPA | |
Saturday | sadder day | Шаблон:IPA | |
satyr | Seder | Шаблон:IPA | |
saunter | sauna | Шаблон:IPA | In non-rhotic accents. |
scented | synod | Шаблон:IPA | With pen-pin merger. |
scenting | sinning | Шаблон:IPA | With pen-pin merger. |
seating | seeding | Шаблон:IPA | With meet-meat merger. |
sent it | senate | Шаблон:IPA | |
set it | said it | Шаблон:IPA | |
shunting | shunning | Шаблон:IPA | |
shutter | shudder | Шаблон:IPA | |
sighted | sided | Шаблон:IPA | |
sighter | cider | Шаблон:IPA | |
sinter | sinner | Шаблон:IPA | |
sited | sided | Шаблон:IPA | |
skitting | skidding | Шаблон:IPA | |
sorted | sordid | Шаблон:IPA | |
slighting | sliding | Шаблон:IPA | |
stunting | stunning | Шаблон:IPA | |
tarty | tardy | Шаблон:IPA | |
tenter | tenner | Шаблон:IPA | |
tenter | tenor | Шаблон:IPA | |
tenting | tinning | Шаблон:IPA | With pen-pin merger. |
title | tidal | Шаблон:IPA | |
toting | toading | Шаблон:IPA | |
traitor | trader | Шаблон:IPA | With pane-pain merger. |
tutor | Tudor | Шаблон:IPA | |
tweeted | tweeded | Шаблон:IPA | |
utter | udder | Шаблон:IPA | |
waiter | wader | Шаблон:IPA | With pane-pain merger. |
wattle | waddle | Шаблон:IPA | |
weighted | waded | Шаблон:IPA | With pane-pain merger. |
wetting | wedding | Шаблон:IPA | |
winter | winner | Шаблон:IPA | |
wheated | weeded | Шаблон:IPA | With wine-whine merger. |
whiter | wider | Шаблон:IPA | With wine–whine merger. |
writing | riding | Шаблон:IPA |
In accents characterized by Canadian raising, such words as riding and writing may be flapped yet still distinguished by the quality of the vowel: riding Шаблон:IPA, writing Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp Vowel duration may also be different, with a longer vowel before Шаблон:IPA than before Шаблон:IPA, due to pre-fortis clipping.Шаблон:Sfnp
Withgott effect
In a dissertation in 1982, M.M. Withgott demonstrated that, among speakers of American English, words seem to be chunked into pronunciation units she referred to as a foot, similar to a metrical unit in poetry. Such chunking was said to block flapping in the word ‘Mediterranean’ ([[Medi[terranean] ], cf. [ [sub[terranean]]). How a word is chunked relates to its morphological derivation, as seen by contrasting morphologically similar pairs such as the following (where the vertical bar shows where Withgott argued there is boundary between neighboring feet):
Initial-type t | vs. | flapped-t | ||
military | [ˈmɪlɨ | tʰɛɹi] | vs. | capital | [ˈkʰæpɨɾl̩] |
militaristic | [ˌmɪlɨ | tʰəˈɹɪstɪk] | vs. | capitalistic | [ˌkʰæpɨɾə | ˈlɪstɪk] |
The medial t in càpitalístic can be flapped as easily as in post-stress cátty [ˈkʰæɾi], in contrast to the medial t in mìlitarístic, which comes at the beginning of a foot, and so must be pronounced as [tʰ], like a t at the beginning of a word.
Long, seemingly monomorphemic words also are chunked in English for purposes of pronunciation. In such words [t]’s — as well as the other unvoiced stops — are pronounced like initial segments whenever they receive secondary stress or are at the beginning of a foot:
Navra tilóva
Abra cadábra
Ala kazám
Rázz matàzz
But:
Fliberti gibety
Humu humu nuku nuku apu a‘a
T-to-R rule
The origins of the T-to-R rule lie in the flapping of Шаблон:IPA and the subsequent reinterpretation of the flap as Шаблон:IPA, which was then followed by the use of the prevailing variant of Шаблон:IPA, namely the approximant Шаблон:IPAblink. It is applied in Northern England English and it is always stigmatized. The application of that rule means that shut in the phrasal verb to shut up Шаблон:IPA has a different phonemic form than the citation form of the verb to shut Шаблон:IPA. The rule is typically not applied in the word-internal position.Шаблон:Sfnp
The T-to-R rule has also been reported to occur in the Cardiff dialect (where the merged consonant can surface as either an approximant or a flap) and South African English (where only a flap is possible). In the Cardiff dialect, the rule is typically applied between any vowel (including long vowels) and Шаблон:IPA or the reduced Шаблон:IPA (also across word boundaries), so that starting Шаблон:IPA and starring Шаблон:IPA can be homophonous as Шаблон:IPA. In South African English, the merger is possible only for those speakers who use the flapped allophone of Шаблон:IPA (making the starting–starring minimal pair homophonous as Шаблон:IPA), otherwise the sounds are distinguished as a flap (or a voiceless stop) for Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA) vs. approximant for Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA). There, the merger occurs word-internally between vowels in those environments where flapping is possible in North American English.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | IPA | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
battle | barrel | Шаблон:IPA | |
batty | Barrie | Шаблон:IPA | |
batty | Barry | Шаблон:IPA | |
betty | berry | Шаблон:IPA | |
but a | borough | Шаблон:IPA | In Cardiff English. But has an alternative form Шаблон:IPA, with an elided Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp |
butter | borough | Шаблон:IPA | |
catty | carry | Шаблон:IPA | |
catty | kar(r)ee | Шаблон:IPA | |
daughter | Dora | Шаблон:IPA | |
Fetty | ferry | Шаблон:IPA | |
hotter | horror | Шаблон:IPA | |
jetty | jerry | Шаблон:IPA | |
Lottie | lorry | Шаблон:IPA | |
matty | marry | Шаблон:IPA | |
otter | horror | Шаблон:IPA | With h-dropping. |
petty | Perry | Шаблон:IPA | |
starting | starring | Шаблон:IPA | |
tarty | tarry | Шаблон:IPA | Tarry in the sense "resembling tar". |
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite EPD
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite conference
- Шаблон:Accents of English
- Шаблон:Cite LPD
- Шаблон:Cite web
Further reading
- Withgott, M. Margaret. 1982. Segmental Evidence for Phonological Constituents. Ph.D. Dissertation for the University of Texas at Austin.
- Iverson, Gregory K. and Sang-Cheol Ahn. 2004. English Voicing in Dimensional Theory. Language Sciences (Phonology of English).
- Kahn, Daniel. 1976. Syllable-Based Generalizations in English Phonology. Ph.D. Dissertation for the University of Massachusetts reproduced by I.U. Linguistics Club.
- Steriade, Donca. 1999. Paradigm uniformity and the phonetics-phonology boundary. In M. Broe and J. Pierrehumbert (eds.), Papers in Laboratory Phonology V: Acquisition and the lexicon, 313-334. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ↑ E.g. in Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.