Английская Википедия:Guttural R

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Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Short descriptionШаблон:More citations needed

Файл:Guttural R used in Western Europe.png
The language areas in Europe where some kind of guttural R may be heard by some local natives. Guttural R is not necessarily predominant in all of these areas.
Файл:Uvular rhotics in Europe.png
Distribution of guttural R (e.g. Шаблон:IPA) in northwestern Europe in the mid-20th century.[1]Шаблон:LegendШаблон:LegendШаблон:LegendШаблон:Legend

Шаблон:IPA notice Guttural R is the phenomenon whereby a rhotic consonant (an "R-like" sound) is produced in the back of the vocal tract (usually with the uvula) rather than in the front portion thereof and thus as a guttural consonant. Speakers of languages with guttural R typically regard guttural and coronal rhotics (throat-back-R and tongue-tip-R) to be alternative pronunciations of the same phoneme (conceptual sound), despite articulatory differences. Similar consonants are found in other parts of the world, but they often have little to no cultural association or interchangeability with coronal rhotics (such as Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink, and Шаблон:IPAblink) and are (perhaps) not rhotics at all.

The guttural realization of a lone rhotic consonant is typical in most of what is now France, French-speaking Belgium, most of Germany, large parts of the Netherlands, Denmark, the southern parts of Sweden and southwestern parts of Norway. It is also frequent in Flanders, eastern Austria, Yiddish (and hence Ashkenazi Hebrew), and among all French and some German speakers in Switzerland.

Outside of central Europe, it also occurs as the normal pronunciation of one of two rhotic phonemes (usually replacing an older alveolar trill) in standard European Portuguese and in other parts of Portugal, particularly the Azores, various parts of Brazil, among minorities of other Portuguese-speaking regions, and in parts of Puerto Rico, Cuba and the Dominican Republic.

Romance languages

French

Файл:Procrastinateur - Prononciation - France (Seine-et-Marne).ogg
Шаблон:Lang from Seine-et-Marne.

The r letter in French was historically pronounced as a trill, as was the case in Latin and as is still the case in Italian and Spanish. In Northern France, including Paris, the alveolar trill was gradually replaced with the uvular trill during the end of the 18th century.[2] Molière's Le Bourgeois gentilhomme, published in 1670, has a professor describe the sound of Шаблон:IPA as an alveolar trill (Act II, Scene IV).[3] It has since evolved, in Paris, to a voiced uvular fricative or approximant Шаблон:IPA.

The alveolar trill was still the common sound of r in Southern France and in Quebec at the beginning of the 20th century, having been gradually replaced since then, due to Parisian influence, by the uvular pronunciation. The alveolar trill is now mostly associated, even in Southern France and in Quebec, with older speakers and rural settings.Шаблон:Citation needed

The alveolar trill is still used in French singing in classical choral and opera. It is also used in other French speaking countries as well as on French oversea territories such as French Polynesia due to the influence of the indigenous languages which use the trill.

Portuguese

Файл:Pt-br-um carro.oga
Шаблон:Lang.

Standard versions of Portuguese have two rhotic phonemes, which contrast only between vowels. In older Portuguese, these were the alveolar flap Шаблон:IPA (written Шаблон:Angbr) and the alveolar trill Шаблон:IPA (written Шаблон:Angbr). In other positions, only Шаблон:Angbr is written in Modern Portuguese, but it can stand for either sound, depending on the exact position. The distribution of these sounds is mostly the same as in other Iberian languages, i.e.:

In the 19th century, the uvular trill Шаблон:IPA penetrated the upper classes in the region of Lisbon in Portugal as the realization of the alveolar trill. By the 20th century, it had replaced the alveolar trill in most of the country's urban areas and started to give way to the voiced uvular fricative Шаблон:IPA. Many northern dialects, like Transmontano, Portuese (which is heard in parts of Aveiro), Minhoto, and much of Beirão retain the alveolar trill. In the rural regions, the alveolar trill is still present, but because most of the country's population currently lives in or near the cities and owing to the mass media, the guttural Шаблон:IPA is now dominant in Portugal.

A common realization of the word-initial Шаблон:IPA in the Lisbon accent is a voiced uvular fricative trill Шаблон:IPAblink.[4]

The dialect of the fishermen of Setúbal used the voiced uvular fricative Шаблон:IPA for all instances of "r" – word start, intervocalic, postconsonantal and syllable ending. This same pronunciation is attested in people with rhotacism, in a new developing variety of young people in São Tomean Portuguese (Bouchard, 2017), and in non-native speakers of French or German origin.

In Africa, the classical alveolar trill is mostly still dominant, due to separate development from European Portuguese.

In Brazil, the normal pronunciation of Шаблон:Angle bracket is voiceless, either as a voiceless velar fricative Шаблон:IPA, voiceless uvular fricative Шаблон:IPA or a voiceless glottal fricative Шаблон:IPA.[5] In many dialects, this voiceless sound not only replaces all occurrences of the traditional trill, but is also used for all Шаблон:Angle bracket that is not followed by a vowel (i.e. when at the end of a syllable, which uses a flap in other dialects). The resulting distribution can be described as:

In the three southernmost states, however, the alveolar trill Шаблон:IPA remains frequent, and the distribution of trill and flap is as in Portugal. Some speakers use a guttural fricative instead of a trill, like the majority of Brazilians, but continue to use the flap Шаблон:IPA before consonants (e.g. in quarto) and between vowels (e.g. in caro). Among others, this includes many speakers in the city of São Paulo and some neighboring cities, though an alveolar approximant Шаблон:IPA is also common, not only in the city, but the approximant is the dominant articulation in the São Paulo state, outside the capital, the most populous state in Brazil. The caipira dialect has the alveolar approximant Шаблон:IPA in the same position.

In areas where Шаблон:Angle bracket at the end of a word would be a voiceless fricative, the tendency in colloquial speech is to pronounce this sound very lightly, or omit it entirely. Some speakers may omit it entirely in verb infinitives (amar "to love", comer "to eat", dormir "to sleep") but pronounce it lightly in some other words ending in Шаблон:Angle bracket (mar "sea", mulher "woman", amor "love"). Speakers in Rio often resist this tendency, pronouncing a strong fricative Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA at the end of such words. Шаблон:Citation needed

The voiceless fricative may be partly or fully voiced if it occurs directly before a voiced sound, especially in its weakest form of Шаблон:IPA, which is normally voiced to Шаблон:IPA. For example, a speaker whose Шаблон:Angbr sounds like Шаблон:IPA will often pronounce surdo "deaf" as Шаблон:IPA or even Шаблон:IPA, with a short epenthetic vowel that mimics the preceding vowel.

Spanish

In most Spanish-speaking territories and regions, guttural or uvular realizations of Шаблон:IPA are considered a speech defect. Generally the single flap Шаблон:IPA, spelled r as in cara, undergoes no defective pronunciations, but the alveolar trill in rata or perro is one of the last sounds learned by children and uvularization is likely among individuals who fail to achieve the alveolar articulation. This said, back variants for Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA) are widespread in rural Puerto Rican Spanish and in the dialect of Ponce,[6] whereas they are heavily stigmatized in the dialect of the capital.[7] To a lesser extent, velar variants of Шаблон:IPA are found in some rural Cuban (Yateras, Guantánamo Province)[8] and Dominican vernaculars (Cibao, eastern rural regions of the country)[9] In the 1937 Parsley Massacre, Dominican troops attacked Haitians in Cibao and the northwestern border. The popular name of the massacre comes from the shibboleth applied to distinguish Dominicans from Haitians: the suspects were ordered to name some parsley (Шаблон:Lang-es). If they used a French or Haitian Creole pronunciation for Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, they would be executed.

In the Basque-speaking areas of Spain, the uvular articulation Шаблон:IPA has a higher prevalence among bilinguals than among Spanish monolinguals.[10]

Italian

Guttural realization of Шаблон:IPA is mostly considered a speech defect in Italian (cf. rotacismo), but the so-called r moscia ('limp' or 'lifeless r', an umbrella term for realizations of Шаблон:IPA considered defective), which is sometimes uvular, is quite common in some northern areas, such as Aosta Valley, Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna.[11]

Occitan

As with all other Romance languages, the alveolar trill Шаблон:IPA is the original way to pronounce the letter r in Occitan, as it was in Latin. Nowadays, the uvular trill Шаблон:IPA and the Voiced uvular fricative or approximant Шаблон:IPA are common in some Occitan dialects (Provence, Auvergne, Alps, Limousin). The dialects of Languedoc and Gascony also have these realizations, but it is generally considered to be influence from French and therefore rejected from the standard versions of these dialects.Шаблон:Cn

Breton

Файл:Br-Breizh.flac
Шаблон:Lang.

Breton, spoken in Brittany (France), is a Celtic rather than Romance language, but is heavily influenced by French. It retains an alveolar trill in some dialects, like in Léon and Morbihan, but most dialects now have the same rhotic as French, Шаблон:IPA.

Continental West Germanic

The uvular rhotic is most common in Central German dialects and in Standard German. Many Low Franconian, Low Saxon, and Upper German varieties have also adopted it with others maintaining the alveolar trill (Шаблон:IPA). The development of uvular rhotics in these regions is not entirely understood, but a common theory is that these languages have done so because of French influence, though the reason for uvular rhotics in modern European French itself is not well understood (see above).

The Frisian languages usually retain an alveolar rhotic.Шаблон:Citation needed

Dutch and Afrikaans

Файл:LL-Q14196 (afr)-Oesjaar-Afrikaans.wav
Шаблон:Lang in Afrikaans.

In modern Dutch, quite a few different rhotic sounds are used. In Flanders, the usual rhotic is an alveolar trill, but the uvular rhotic Шаблон:IPA does occur, mostly in the province of Limburg, in Ghent and in Brussels. In the Netherlands, the uvular rhotic is the dominant rhotic in the southern provinces of North Brabant and Limburg, having become so in the early twentieth century. In the rest of the country, the situation is more complicated. The uvular rhotic is dominant in the western agglomeration Randstad, including cities like Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht (the dialect of Amsterdam conversely tends to use an alveolar rhotic, but the uvular is becoming increasingly common). The uvular rhotic is also used in some major cities such as Leeuwarden (Stadsfries). Outside of these uvular rhotic core areas, the alveolar trill is common. People learning Dutch as a foreign language also tend to use the alveolar trill because it contrasts better with the voiceless velar fricative Шаблон:IPA in Dutch.Шаблон:Citation needed The Afrikaans language of South Africa also uses an alveolar trill for its rhotic, except in the non-urban rural regions around Cape Town, chiefly in the town of Malmesbury, Western Cape, where it is uvular (called a bry). Some Afrikaans speakers from other areas also bry, either as a result of ancestry from the Malmesbury region or from difficulty pronouncing the alveolar trill.

Low Saxon

In the Dutch Low Saxon area there are several cities which have the uvular rhotic: Zutphen, Steenwijk,[12] Kampen,[13] Zwolle[14] and Deventer.[15] In IJsselmuiden near Kampen the uvular r can also be heard.[16] In the countryside the alveolar trill is common.[17]

Standard German

Файл:De-Puerto Rico.ogg
Шаблон:Lang /ˈpu̯ɛʁto ˈʁiːko/ from Berlin.

Although the first standardized pronunciation dictionary by Theodor Siebs prescribed an alveolar pronunciation, most varieties of German are now spoken with a uvular rhotic, usually a fricative or approximant Шаблон:IPAblink, rather than a trill Шаблон:IPAblink. The alveolar pronunciation Шаблон:IPA continues to be considered acceptable in all Standard German varieties, but is most common in the south as well as the far North of German-speaking Europe. It also remains prevailing in classical singing and, to a lesser degree, in stage acting (see Шаблон:Lang).

In German dialects, the alveolar has survived somewhat more widely than in the standard language, though there are several regions, especially in Central German, where even the broadest rural dialects use a uvular R.Шаблон:Citation needed

Regardless of whether a uvular or an alveolar pronunciation is used, German post-vocalic "r" is often vocalized to Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink, or a simple lengthening Шаблон:IPAblink. This is most common in the syllable coda, as in non-rhotic English, but sometimes occurs before an underlying schwa, too. Vocalization of "r" is rare only in Alemannic (velar) and Swabian (uvular) German.

Yiddish

Yiddish, the traditional language of Ashkenazi Jews in central and eastern Europe, is derived from Middle High German. As such it presumably used the alveolar R at first, but the uvular R then became predominant in many Yiddish dialects. It is unclear whether this happened through independent developments or under influence from modern German (a language widely spoken in large parts of eastern Europe until 1945).

Insular West Germanic

English

Speakers of the traditional English dialect of Northumberland and northern County Durham use a uvular rhotic, known as the "Northumbrian Burr".[18][19][20] However, it is no longer used by most contemporary speakers, who generally realize Шаблон:IPA as an alveolar approximant, Шаблон:IPA, in common with other varieties spoken in the English-speaking world.[21][22]

The Hiberno-English of northeastern Leinster in Ireland also uses a uvular Шаблон:IPA.[23]

North Germanic

Alveolar rhotics predominate in northern Scandinavia. Where they occur, they affect the succeeding alveolars, turning the clusters Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA retroflex: Шаблон:IPA. Thus the Norwegian word "norsk" is pronounced Шаблон:IPA by speakers with an alveolar flap. This effect is rare in the speech of those using a uvular R (Шаблон:IPA).

Danish and Swedish

The rhotic used in Denmark is a voiced uvular approximant, and the nearby Swedish ex-Danish regions of Scania, Blekinge, southern Halland as well as a large part of Småland and on the Öland island, use a uvular trill or a uvular fricative.

To some extent in Östergötland and still quite commonly in Västergötland, a mixture of guttural and rolling rhotic consonants (e.g. Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is used, with the pronunciation depending on the position in the word, the stress of the syllable and in some varieties depending on whether the consonant is geminated. The pronunciation remains if a word that is pronounced with a particular rhotic consonant is put into a compound word in a position where that realization would not otherwise occur if it were part of the same stem as the preceding sound. However, in Östergötland the pronunciation tends to gravitate more towards Шаблон:IPA and in Västergötland the realization is commonly voiced. Common from the time of Gustav III (Swedish king 1771–1792), who was much inspired by French culture and language, was the use of guttural R in the nobility and in the upper classes of Stockholm. This phenomenon vanished in the 1900s. The last well-known non-Southerner who spoke with a guttural R, and did not have a speech defect, was Anders Gernandt, a popular equitation commentator on TV.

Norwegian

Most of Norway uses an alveolar flap, but about one third of the inhabitants of Norway, primarily in the South-West region, are now using the uvular rhotic. In the western and southern part of South Norway, the uvular rhotic is still spreading and includes all towns and coastal areas of Agder, most of Rogaland, large parts of Hordaland, and Sogn og Fjordane in and around Florø. The origin was the city of Bergen as well as Kristiansand in the 18th century.[24][25] Because retroflex consonants are mutations of Шаблон:IPA and other alveolar or dental consonants, the use of a uvular rhotic means an absence of most retroflex consonants.

Icelandic

In Icelandic, the uvular rhotic-like Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA[26] is an uncommon[26] deviation from the normal alveolar trill or flap, and is considered a speech disorder.[27]

Slavic languages

Файл:Krušwica.ogg
Шаблон:Lang in Upper Sorbian.

In Slavic languages, the alveolar trill predominates, with the use of guttural rhotics seen as defective pronunciation.Шаблон:Citation needed However, the uvular trill is common among the languages of the Sorbian minority in Saxony, eastern Germany, likely due to German influence. The uvular rhotic may also be found in a small minority in Silesia and other German-influenced regions of Poland and also Slovenia, but is overall quite rare even in these regions. It can also be perceived as an ethnic marker of Jewishness, particularly in Russian where Eastern European Jews often carried the uvular rhotic from their native Yiddish into their pronunciation of Russian.

Semitic languages

Hebrew

In Tannaitic Hebrew, Gimel (Шаблон:Lang) allophonically alternated between [g] and Шаблон:IPAblink.

In most forms of Hebrew, the classical pronunciation of Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang) was a flapped Шаблон:IPAblink, and was grammatically treated as an ungeminable phoneme of the language. In most dialects of Hebrew among the Jewish diaspora, it remained a flap Шаблон:IPAblink or a trill Шаблон:IPAblink. However, in some Ashkenazi dialects as preserved among Jews in northern Europe it was a uvular rhotic, either a trill Шаблон:IPAblink or a fricative Шаблон:IPAblink. This was because many (but not all) native dialects of Yiddish were spoken that way, and their liturgical Hebrew carried the same pronunciation.Шаблон:Citation needed Some Iraqi Jews also pronounce Шаблон:Transl as a guttural Шаблон:IPAblink, reflecting their dialect of Arabic.Шаблон:Citation needed

An apparently unrelated uvular rhotic is believed to have appeared in the Tiberian vocalization of Hebrew, where it is believed to have coexisted with additional non-guttural, emphatic articulations of Шаблон:IPA depending on circumstances.[28]

Yiddish influence

Although an Ashkenazi Jew in the Russian Empire, the Zionist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda based his Standard Hebrew on Sephardi Hebrew, originally spoken in Spain, and therefore recommended an alveolar Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Citation needed However, just like him, the first waves of Jews to resettle in the Holy Land were Ashkenazi, and Standard Hebrew would come to be spoken with their native pronunciation. Consequently, by now nearly all Israeli Jews pronounce the consonant rêš (Шаблон:Script) as a uvular approximant Шаблон:IPAblink,[29]Шаблон:Rp which also exists in Yiddish.[29]Шаблон:Rp

The alveolar rhotic is still used today in some formal speech, such as radio news broadcasts, and in the past was widely used in television and singing.Шаблон:Citation needed

Sephardic Hebrew

Many Jewish immigrants to Israel spoke a variety of Arabic in their countries of origin and pronounced the Hebrew rhotic as an alveolar flap Шаблон:IPAblink, similar to Arabic Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang). Gradually, many of them began pronouncing their Hebrew rhotic as a voiced uvular fricative Шаблон:IPAblink, a sound similar or (depending on the Arabic dialect) identical to Arabic Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang). However, in modern Sephardic and Mizrahi poetry and folk music an alveolar rhotic continuesШаблон:Citation needed to be used.

Arabic

While most varieties of Arabic retain the classical pronunciation of Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang) as an alveolar trill Шаблон:IPAblink or flap Шаблон:IPAblink, a few varieties use a uvular trill Шаблон:IPAblink. These include:

The uvular Шаблон:IPA was attested already in vernacular Arabic of the Abbasid period. Nowadays Christian Arabic of Baghdad exhibits also an alveolar trill in very few lexemes, but primarily used in loanwords from Modern Standard Arabic. Native words with an alveolar trill are rare.[33] Moreover, Mosul Arabic commonly has the voiced alveolar trill instead of a uvular fricative in numbers (e.g. Шаблон:IPA "forty").[34] Although this guttural rhotic is rare in Arabic, uvular and velar sounds are common in this language. The uvular or velar fricative Шаблон:IPAblink~Шаблон:IPAblink is a common standard pronunciation of the letter Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang), and the uvular plosive Шаблон:IPAblink is a standard pronunciation of the letter Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang).

Ethiopic

In Amharic the alveolar trill Шаблон:IPAblink is the usual pronunciation of Шаблон:IPA. But there are also assertions that around Addis Abeba some dialects exhibit a uvular r. Note that this information is not very well supported among Semitists.[35] Also in Gafat (extinct since the 1950s) a uvular fricative or trill might have existed.[36]

Akkadian

The majority of Assyriologists deem an alveolar trill or flap the most likely pronunciation of Akkadian Шаблон:IPA in most dialects. However, there are several indications toward a velar or uvular fricative Шаблон:IPAblink~Шаблон:IPAblink particularly supported by John Huehnergard.[37] The main arguments constitute alternations with the voiceless uvular fricative Шаблон:IPA (e.g. ruššû/ḫuššû "red"; barmātu "multicolored" (fem. pl.), the spelling ba-aḫ-ma-a-tù is attested).[38] Besides Шаблон:IPA shows certain phonological parallelisms with Шаблон:IPA and other gutturals (especially the glottal stop Шаблон:IPAblink).[39]

Austronesian

Malayan languages

Guttural R exists among several Malay dialects. While standard Malay commonly uses coronal r (Шаблон:IPAlink,Шаблон:IPAlink,Шаблон:IPAlink), the guttural fricative (Шаблон:IPAlink~Шаблон:IPAlink) are more prominently used in many dialects in Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia as well as some parts of Sumatra and East Kalimantan. These dialects include:

~ Perak Malay and Kedah Malay are the most notable examples.

These dialects mainly use the guttural fricative (Шаблон:IPAlink~Шаблон:IPAlink) for both /r/ and /gh/. Standard Malay includes both coronal r (Шаблон:IPAlink,Шаблон:IPAlink,Шаблон:IPAlink) and voiced guttural fricative /gh/ (Шаблон:IPAlink~Шаблон:IPAlink) as two different phonemes. To denote the guttural r in the dialects, the letter "r" is often replaced by "gh" or "q" in informal writing Шаблон:Citation needed. Standard Malay words with voiced velar fricative (Шаблон:IPAlink), such as loghat (dialect) and ghaib (invisible, mystical) are mostly Arabic loanwords spelled in their origin language with the letter Шаблон:Lang in the Jawi alphabet.

Other Austronesian languages

Other Austronesian languages with similar features are:

Other language families

Basque

Standard Basque uses a trill for Шаблон:IPA (written as r-, -rr-, -r), but most speakers of the Lapurdian and Low Navarrese dialects use a voiced uvular fricative as in French. In the Southern Basque Country, the uvular articulation is seen as a speech defect, but the prevalence is higher among bilinguals than among Spanish monolinguals. Recently, speakers of Lapurdian and Low Navarrese are uvularizing the tap (-r-) as well, thus neutralizing both rhotics.[10]

Khmer

Whereas standard Khmer uses an alveolar trill for Шаблон:IPA, the colloquial Phnom Penh dialect uses a uvular pronunciation for the phoneme, which may be elided and leave behind a residual tonal or register contrast.[40]

Bantu

Sesotho originally used an alveolar trill Шаблон:IPA, which has shifted to uvular Шаблон:IPA in modern times.Шаблон:Citation needed

Hill-Maṛia

Hill-Maṛia (sometimes considered a dialect of Gondi) has a Шаблон:IPA corresponding to Шаблон:IPA in other realated languages or *t̠ from proto Dravidian.[41]

Rhotic-agnostic guttural consonants written as rhotics

There are languages where certain indigenous guttural consonants came to be written with symbols used in other languages to represent rhotics, thereby giving the superficial appearance of a guttural R without actually functioning as true rhotic consonants.

Inuit languages

The Inuit languages Greenlandic and Inuktitut either orthographize or transliterate their voiced uvular obstruent as Шаблон:Angle bracket. In Greenlandic, this phoneme is Шаблон:IPA, while in Inuktitut it is Шаблон:IPA. This spelling was convenient because these languages do not have non-lateral liquid consonants, and guttural realizations of Шаблон:Angbr are common in various languages, particularly the colonial languages Danish and French. But the Alaskan Inupiat language writes its Шаблон:IPA phoneme instead as Шаблон:Angbr, reserving Шаблон:Angbr for its retroflex Шаблон:IPA phoneme, which Greenlandic and Inuktitut do not have.

See also

References

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

Works cited

External links

Шаблон:LetterR

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Map based on Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  5. ↑ Mateus, Maria Helena & d'Andrade, Ernesto (2000). The Phonology of Portuguese Шаблон:ISBN (Excerpt from Google Books) Шаблон:Webarchive
  6. ↑ Navarro-Tomás, T. (1948). "El español en Puerto Rico". Contribución a la geografía lingüística latinoamericana. Río Piedras: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, pp. 91-93.
  7. ↑ López-Morales, H. (1983). Estratificación social del español de San Juan de Puerto Rico. México: UNAM.
  8. ↑ López-Morales, H. (1992). El español del Caribe. Madrid: MAPFRE, p. 61.
  9. ↑ Jiménez-Sabater, M. (1984). Más datos sobre el español de la República Dominicana. Santo Domingo: Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo, p. 87.
  10. ↑ 10,0 10,1 Grammar of Basque, page 30, José Ignacio Hualde, Jon Ortiz De Urbina, Walter de Gruyter, 2003
  11. ↑ Romano A. (2013). "A preliminary contribution to the study of phonetic variation of Шаблон:IPA in Italian and Italo-Romance". In: L. Spreafico & A. Vietti (eds.), Rhotics. New data and perspectives. Bolzano/Bozen: BU Press, 209–225 [1] Шаблон:Webarchive
  12. ↑ De Taal van Overijssel. Over de taal van Steenwijk.
  13. ↑ De Taal van Overijssel. Over de taal van Kampen.
  14. ↑ De Taal van Overijssel. Over de taal van Zwolle.
  15. ↑ De Taal van Overijssel. Over de taal van Deventer
  16. ↑ Ph Bloemhoff-de Bruijn, Anderhalve Eeuw Zwols Vocaalveranderingsprocessen in de periode 1838–1972. IJsselacademie (2012). Шаблон:ISBN
  17. ↑ Ph Bloemhoff-de Bruijn, Anderhalve Eeuw Zwols Vocaalveranderingsprocessen in de periode 1838–1972. IJsselacademie (2012). Шаблон:ISBN.
  18. ↑ Wells, J.C. 1982. Accents of English 2: The British Isles. Cambridge University Press. Page 368
  19. ↑ Survey of English Dialects, Heddon-on-the-Wall, Northumberland
  20. ↑ Survey of English Dialects, Ebchester, County Durham
  21. ↑ Millennium Memory Bank, Alnwick, Northumberland
  22. ↑ Millennium Memory Bank, Butterknowle, County Durham
  23. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  24. ↑ Chambers, J.K. and Trudgill, P. (1998): Dialectology. Cambridge University Press, p. 173f.
  25. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  26. ↑ 26,0 26,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  27. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  28. ↑ Khan, Geoffrey (1995), The Pronunciation of reš in the Tiberian Tradition of Biblical Hebrew, in: Hebrew Union College Annual, Vol.66, p.67-88.
  29. ↑ 29,0 29,1 Шаблон:Cite book
  30. ↑ Otto Jastrow (2007), Iraq, in: The Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, Vol. 2, p.414-416
  31. ↑ Philippe Marçais (1956), Le Parler Arabe de Djidjelli (Nord Constantinois, Algérie), Paris, 16–17; cf. also Marcel Cohen (1912), Le Parler Arabe des Juifs d’Alger (= Collection linguistique 4), Paris, p.27
  32. ↑ Georges-Séraphin Colin (1987), Morocco (The Arabic Dialects), in: E. J. Brill’s First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936, Vol. 6, Leiden, 599
  33. ↑ Farida Abu-Haidar (1991), Christian Arabic of Baghdad (= Semitica Viva 7), Wiesbaden, p.9-10.
  34. ↑ Otto Jastrow (1979), Zur arabischen Mundart von Mosul, in: Zeitschrift für arabische Linguistik, Vol. 2., p.38.
  35. ↑ Edward Ullendorf (1955), The Semitic Languages of Ethiopia, London, p.124-125.
  36. ↑ Edward Lipiński (1997), Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar (= Orientalia Lovaniensa Analecta 80), Leuven, p.132-133.
  37. ↑ John Huehnergard and Christopher Woods (2004), Akkadian and Eblaite, in: Roger D. Woodard Roger (ed.), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages, Cambridge, p.230-231.
  38. ↑ Wolfram von Soden (1995), Grundriß der akkadischen Grammatik (= Analecta Orientalia 33), Rom, p.44 (§ 35); see also Benno Landsberger (1964), Einige unerkannt gebliebene oder verkannte Nomina des Akkadischen, in: Die Welt des Orients 3/1, p.54.
  39. ↑ John Huehnergard (2013), Akkadian e and Semitic Root Integrity, in: Babel und Bibel 7: Annual of Ancient Near Eastern, Old Testament and Semitic Studies (= Orientalia et Classica 47), p.457 (note 45); see also Edward L. Greenstein (1984), The Phonology of Akkadian Syllable Structure, in: Afroasiatic Linguistics 9/1, p.30.
  40. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  41. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
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