Английская Википедия:History of Christianity in Hungary
The history of Christianity in Hungary started in the Roman province of Pannonia, centuries before the arrival of the Magyars, or Hungarians.
Antiquity and Early Middle Ages
Roman Pannonia
Celtic, Illyrian, Iranian and Dacian tribes inhabited the lands now forming Hungary in Antiquity.Шаблон:Sfn The Romans forced the tribes of TransdanubiaШаблон:Mdashthe western region of present-day HungaryШаблон:Mdashinto submission between 35Шаблон:NbspBC and 9Шаблон:NbspAD.Шаблон:Sfn The region was incorporated in the Roman province of Pannonia,Шаблон:Sfn and split into two new provinces, Pannonia Prima and Valeria, in the 290s.Шаблон:Sfn The Pannonian natives' religion is poorly documented but the Romans erected shrines to their gods.Шаблон:Sfn A Christian presence can certainly be documented from the 2ndШаблон:Nbspcentury.Шаблон:Sfn A decorated casket-mount depicting the marriage at Cana and other scenes from the Bible was unearthed in the Шаблон:Lang (or civil settlement) at Intercisa (now Dunaújváros).Шаблон:Sfn The first Christians were immigrants, particularly from Syria, Italy and Greece. Most of them had Greek names. One of the earliest tombstones with a Christian inscriptionШаблон:Mdash"Live in God"Шаблон:Mdashwas erected for Aurelius Iodorus, "a Greek citizen from Laodicea area", and his two children in the Шаблон:Lang of Savaria (now Szombathely).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn No Christian churches dated before the 4thШаблон:Nbspcentury have been unearthed, implying that Christian liturgy was celebrated in private homes.Шаблон:Sfn
The Diocletianic Persecution did not severely affect the Transdanubian Christian communities.Шаблон:Sfn No local martyrs are known, although Bishop Quirinus of Sescia (now Sisak in Croatia) was publicly executed in Savaria in 303.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn After Emperor Constantine the Great's Edict of Milan consolidated the Christians' position in 313,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Christian cemeteries, separated from the pagans' necropolises, developed near the towns and the fortresses.Шаблон:Sfn One of the largest Roman-era Christian cemeteries outside of Italy was located in Sopianae (present-day Pécs).[1]Шаблон:Failed verification The use of fibulae decorated with Christisn symbols such as crosses or "Chi Rho"-monograms spread, although they do not necessarily evidence their owners' genuine Christian faith because Christianity was developing into a state religion during this period.Шаблон:Sfn Although none of the towns of Pannonia Prima and Valeria are documented as episcopal sees, the historian András Mócsy says that bishoprics must have existed in the provincial capitals, Sopianae and Savaria.Шаблон:Sfn Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, writes that ArianismШаблон:Mdasha doctrine condemned as heresy at the First Council of NicaeaШаблон:Mdashspread in Pannonia Valeria in the 4thШаблон:Nbspcentury.Шаблон:Sfn The writer Sulpicius Severus states that Martin of Tours who was born to pagan parents in Savaria in 316 or 317 was expelled from the city by Arian clergy after he converted his mother to Christianity.Шаблон:Sfn
Migration period
The Huns crossed the Volga River from the east and forced large groups of Alans and Goths to abandon their homelands in the Pontic steppes.Шаблон:Sfn Hun, Alan and Goth troops pillaged Pannonia for the first time in the winter of 379–380.Шаблон:Sfn The Marcomannic queen Fritigil converted to Christianity before the Romans allowed her and her people to settle in Pannonia Prima around 396.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The barbarian incursions forced parts of the Romanized population to flee from Pannonia.Шаблон:Sfn Christians who fled from Scarbantia (now Sopron) took Bishop Quirinus's relics from Savaria to Rome around 408.Шаблон:Sfn The Huns' center of power was transferred to the lowlands along the Middle Danube in the 420s,Шаблон:Sfn but their empire collapsed due to a rebellion by the Germanic and Iranian subject peoples in 454.Шаблон:Sfn The Gepids took control of the lands to the east of the river Tisza, and the Romans allowed the Ostrogoths to settle in Pannonia. After the Ostrogoths left for Italy in the early 470s, less powerful Germanic peoples, like the Heruli and Suebi, seized parts of Pannonia, and in the 500s, the Lombards occupied the whole region.Шаблон:Sfn Native Christian groups survived the calamities.Шаблон:Sfn Anthony the Hermit who was born to an aristocratic family in Valeria left the province only after his parents' death sometime in the 5th century.Шаблон:Sfn In the next century, Martin, who would become archbishop of Braga, was born in Pannonia.Шаблон:Sfn
The Gepids' conversion to Arian Christianity started in the second half of the 4thШаблон:Nbspcentury. Archaeological finds proving the survival of Germanic paganism among the Gepids abound,[note 1] but their leaders were buried with reliquiaries, indicating the veneration of saints.Шаблон:Sfn The Lombards came into contact with Arian missionaries in the 490s, but their pagan funerary rites survived.Шаблон:Sfn They placed food and drink in the graves and buried their warriors with their hunting dogs and weapons.Шаблон:Sfn Arianism became their dominant religion in the 560s, which preserved their separation from the natives who adhered to mainstream Christianity.Шаблон:Sfn Nicetius, Bishop of Trier, addressed a letter to Chlothsind, the Frankish wife of King Alboin of the Lombards in the winter of 565–566, urging her to convert her Arian husband but she failed.Шаблон:Sfn
The AvarsШаблон:Mdasha powerful coalition of steppe peoplesШаблон:Mdashinvaded the Gepids' land and forced them into submission in 567.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A year later, the Lombards voluntarily left Pannonia for Italy, accompanied by Gepid, Saxon, Suebian and Romanized groups.Шаблон:Sfn The Avars were pagans who swore by the "God in heavens", or Tengri,Шаблон:Sfn placed large quantities of grave goods in the graves, and buried their warriors together with their horse or its parts.Шаблон:Sfn The Avars encouraged the Slavs to settle on the fringes of their empire, contributing to Slavs' expansion.Шаблон:Sfn Columbanus was the first missionary to be contemplating proselytizing among the Avars and the Slavs around 610. He quickly abandoned the idea after realizing that "progress in faith for this people was not ready to hand".Шаблон:Sfn Bishop Emmeram of Regensburg was also planning to visit the Avars, but Bavarian officials dissuaded him from crossing the border.Шаблон:Sfn
A Christian community, the bearers of the Keszthely culture, flourished in the region of a former Roman fortress at Keszthely in the Avar Khaganate.Шаблон:Sfn The local basilica with three apses was used and possibly reconstructed in the second half of the 6thШаблон:Nbspcentury.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The community leaders were buried in the basilica or in the nearby cemetery.Шаблон:Sfn A wealthy woman buried in the cemetery wore a silver garment pin with the inscription BONOSA, tentatively identified as her name.Шаблон:Sfn The origin of the community is uncertain, with some scholars regarding them as the descendants of the local Romanized population,Шаблон:Sfn others identifying them as Byzantine prisoners of war.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Historian Walter Pohl proposes that the culture developed through the cohabitation of local Christians and immigrants from various lands. Although the fortress and the basilica were destroyed, most probably during a civil war around 630, the community survived, developing new cemeteries in the region, but their distinctive culture quickly disappeared.Шаблон:Sfn
The Avars supported the opponents of the Frankish king Charlemagne, provoking a Frankish military campaign in 791.Шаблон:Sfn A civil war broke out in the khaganate and a high-ranking Avar dignitary, the tudun, sent envoys to Charlemagne, offering his conversion to Christianity.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The bishops who accompanied Charlemagne's son, Pepin the Hunchback, to a military campaign against the Avars held a synod on the Danube in 796.Шаблон:Sfn Under the direction of Patriarch Paulinus II of Aquileia, they discussed the methods of the Avars' conversion, describing them as an illiterate and irrational people.Шаблон:Sfn They emphasized that the Avars could not be converted by force.Шаблон:Sfn The missionary territories were distributed between the sees of Aquilea and Salzburg before 811. The lands north of the river Dráva came under the jurisdiction of the archbishops of Salzburg.Шаблон:Sfn
The Avars resisted the Franks and many of them left Transdanubia to settle east of the Tisza.Шаблон:Sfn Slavic tribes made raids against the Avars, forcing one of their leaders, the kapkhan Theodore, who was Christian, to seek assistance from the Franks.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He and his people were settled in the lands between Savaria and Carnuntum.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Avar khagan converted to Christianity and received the name Abraham on 21 September 805.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A Byzantine list of the dioceses, compiled probably between 806 and 815, mentions the Avars among the Christian peoples under the popes' jurisdiction.Шаблон:Sfn The Avars' power quickly disintegrated and no Avar dignitaries were mentioned after 821.Шаблон:Sfn Cemeteries testify to the survival of the traditional Avar burial rites in southwest Transdanubia until the 830s.Шаблон:Sfn
Carolingian Age
Transdanubia was integrated in the administrative system of the Carolingian Empire between 796 and 828.Шаблон:Sfn The see of Salzburg ceded the lands to the west of the river Rába to the bishopric of Passau and both prelates appointed suffragan bishops to direct the conversion in Pannonia.Шаблон:Sfn A pagan aristocrat, Pribina, whom the Moravians had expelled from his lands, sought refuge in the Carolingian Empire in 833.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He was baptised on the order of King Louis the German who also granted him estates on the river Zala.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Pribina built a fortress, Mosapurc, in the swamps near Lake Balaton (at present-day Zalavár) and settled Slavic, Bavarian and Swabian colonists in his estates.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Saxon wandering priest, Gottschalk, visited Pannonia in early 848, shortly before his teaching about predestination was condemned as heresy at a synod in Mainz.Шаблон:Sfn A baptistery must have existed in Mosapurc already in the late 840s and Liupramm, Archbishop of Salzburg, consecrated a church in the town on 24Шаблон:NbspJanuary 850.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A three-aisled basilica, dedicated to St Adrian, was built in Mosapurc around 855.Шаблон:Sfn
Pribina died fighting against the Moravians and his son, Kocel, succeeded him in 861.Шаблон:Sfn Adalwin, Archbishop of Salzburg, did not appoint suffragan bishops from around 863.Шаблон:Sfn Kocel met the Byzantine missionary brothers, Constantine and Methodius, during their journey from Moravia to Rome in 867.Шаблон:Sfn ConstantineШаблон:Mdashthe future St CyrilШаблон:Mdashhad constructed a special alphabet for the Slavic languages and developed a Slavic liturgy.Шаблон:Sfn Kocel learnt the new script and entrusted the brothers with the education of 50Шаблон:Nbspdisciples.Шаблон:Sfn Pope Hadrian II approved the Slavic liturgy and Methodius returned to Mosapurc in 869.Шаблон:Sfn Kocel persuaded the Pope to make Methodius bishop of the "see of St Andronicus", limiting the jurisdiction of the archbishops of Salzburg. Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn To defend the interests of the Salzburg see against Methodius, an unidentified cleric compiled a historical work, the Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians around 870.Шаблон:Sfn Bishop Ermanrich of Passau arrested Methodius and a synod of the Bavarian prelates ordered Methodius' imprisonment for his interference in Transdanubian church affairs.Шаблон:Sfn Methodius' pupils had to flee from Kocel's domains.Шаблон:Sfn Pope John VIII achieved Methodius' release early in 873, but Methodius could not return to Transdanubia.Шаблон:Sfn After Kocel died around 875, Arnulf of Carinthia seized his domains. The St Adrian Basilica was rebuilt in Mosapurc during his rule.Шаблон:Sfn
Cemeteries display the traits of Christianization of Pannonia from the 830s.Шаблон:Sfn Commoners were still buried near sacred groves, but the orientation of their graves became consequently west–east.Шаблон:Sfn The offerings of food and drink almost disappeared from their graves in 860s.Шаблон:Sfn The rulers' retainers were buried in new cemeteries near the churches.Шаблон:Sfn The Conversion lists more than 30Шаблон:Nbspchurches in Pannonia.Шаблон:Sfn It also refers to Christian Avars who paid tax to the royal treasury.Шаблон:Sfn
Pagan Magyars
Coming from the region of the Ural Mountains, the Magyars settled in the Pontic steppes before the late 830s.Шаблон:Sfn They were among the subject peoples of the Khazar Khaganate for an uncertain period, but from the mid-9th-century they acted as an independent power.Шаблон:Sfn Ahmad ibn Rustah, Abu Sa'id Gardezi and other medieval Muslim geographers who preserved earlier scholars' records of the 9th-century Magyars described them as star- and fire-worshipers.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Al-Bakri added that the 10th-century Magyars worshipped the "Lord of the Sky" whom modern historians associate with Tengri.Шаблон:Sfn Later prohibitions in Christian legislation indicate that sacrifices made at sacred groves and springs were important elements of the pagan Magyars' cult.Шаблон:Sfn The mutilation of corpses is well-documented in pre-Christian cemeteries, implying a fear of the return of spirits.Шаблон:Sfn
The Magyars came into contact with Muslims, Jews and Christians, but all theories on their influence on the Magyars' religious life are speculative.Шаблон:Sfn The hagiographic Life of Constantine mentions that the future St Cyril run into a band of Magyar warriors in the Crimea in 860.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn They wanted to kill him, but his prayers allegedly convinced them to spare his life.Шаблон:Sfn
The Magyars were regularly hired by their neighbors to intervene in their conflicts.Шаблон:Sfn The Byzantine Emperor Leo the Wise incited them to invade Bulgaria in 894, but the Bulgarians made an alliance with the Pechenegs.Шаблон:Sfn The Pechenegs attacked the Magyars from the east, forcing them to abandon the Pontic steppes.Шаблон:Sfn They crossed the Carpathian Mountains and settled in the plains along the Middle Danube around 895.Шаблон:Sfn They conquered Pannonia, destroyed Moravia and defeated the Bavarians between 900 and 907.Шаблон:Sfn Theotmar, Archbishop of Salzburg, recorded that they destroyed Christian churches in Pannonia.Шаблон:Sfn
Middle Ages
Towards conversion
Part of the local population survived the Magyar conquest and the Magyars captured Christians during their raids in Europe, but the role of the local Christians and the Christian prisoners in the Magyars' conversion is undocumented.Шаблон:Sfn Significant elements of the Christian vocabulary of the Hungarian language[note 2] were borrowed from local Slavic idioms.Шаблон:Sfn A sabretache decorated by a Greek cross, mythical animals and palmettes, found in a grave at Tiszabezdéd, may reflect Christian influence or religious syncretism, but the dead warrior was put in the grave together with his horse, in accordance with pagan practices.Шаблон:Sfn
A paramount chieftain (or grand prince), always a member of the Árpád dynasty, ruled the Hungarians in the 10thШаблон:Nbspcentury.Шаблон:Sfn The Árpáds were believed to have descended from a legendary bird of prey, called the turul.Шаблон:Sfn The Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos also wrote of two high-ranking Hungarian dignitaries, the gyula and the harka, around 950.Шаблон:Sfn Central authority was weak and the heads of the Magyar tribes pursued independent foreign policy.Шаблон:Sfn Magyar chieftains visited Constantinople and some of them converted to Christianity to facilitate the negotiations.Шаблон:Sfn The harka Bulcsú received baptism in 948,Шаблон:Sfn but he never became a devout Christian.Шаблон:Sfn The gyula was baptised around 950.Шаблон:Sfn Patriarch Theophylact of Constantinople consecrated the monk Hierotheos as bishop of Tourkia (or Hungary) to accompany the gyula back to his domains in eastern Hungary.Шаблон:Sfn The late-11th-century Byzantine historian John Skylitzes claimed that Hierotheos had converted many Hungarians, but archaeological finds do not substantiate a mass conversion to Orthodox Christianity.Шаблон:Sfn
A member of the Árpád dynasty, Termachu, was one of the Hungarian leaders visiting Constantinople in 948, but Hungarian raids against the Byzantine Empire resumed after the Germans defeated the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld in 955.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Grand Prince Géza decided to establish close relationships with Hungary's western neighbors in the early 970s.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to modern historians, he either wanted to stabilize Hungary's position in a period of Byzantine–German alliance, or he knew that he could only be second in the Byzantine court behind the gyula.Шаблон:Sfn Pope John XI had already sent a missionary bishop, Zacheus, to Hungary in the early 960s, but the Pope's opponent, Holy Roman Emperor Otto I captured Zacheus at Capua.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A Benedictine monk, Wolfgang, left the Einsiedeln Abbey to proselytize among the Hungarians in 972, but Piligrim, Bishop of Passau, forbade him to leave his diocese.Шаблон:Sfn In the same year, Emperor OttoШаблон:NbspI dispatched one Bishop Bruno to Hungary.Шаблон:Sfn Modern historians tentatively associate Bruno with "Bishop Prunwart" whom the necrology of the Abbey of Saint Gall credited with the baptism of Géza and many of his subjects.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Bishop Adalbert of Prague also come to Hungary, but his mission was not successful, according to his nearly contemporaneous Life.Шаблон:Sfn
Géza and his wife, Sarolt, remained half-pagans.Шаблон:Sfn Thietmar of Merseburg recorded that Géza offered sacrifices to pagan gods even after his baptism; Bruno of Querfurt accused Sarolt of mixing Christian and heathen practices.Шаблон:Sfn However, Géza launched military campaigns against the pagan chieftains, promoting Christianity and stabilizing central authority in parallel.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The development of the ecclesiastical structure during Géza's reign is unknown.Шаблон:Sfn The earliest charter of grant to the Benedictine Pannonhalma Abbey states that Géza ordered its establishment.Шаблон:Sfn
King St Stephen
Géza died in 997, leaving Hungary to his devout Christian son, Stephen.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Stephen had married Gisela of Bavaria, a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His kinsman, Koppány, challenged his right to rule, but Stephen's heavy cavalry, mainly Bavarian and Swabian knights, overcame Koppány.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn To demonstrate his right to rule by the grace of God, Stephen requested a royal crown from Emperor Otto or Pope Sylvester II.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His request was granted and he was crowned the first king of Hungary on 25Шаблон:NbspDecember 1000 or 1Шаблон:NbspJanuary 1001.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Stephen started the systematic Christianization of Hungary.Шаблон:Sfn He established at least eight bishoprics and six monasteries, making magnanimous grants to them.Шаблон:Sfn Evidently founded before Stephen's coronation, the see of Veszprém was the first Catholic bishopric.Шаблон:Sfn The Archbishopric of Esztergom was established in 1001.Шаблон:Sfn Whether Kalocsa was set up as a second archbishopric without suffragan bishops, or as a bishopric is uncertain.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Stephen founded the Benedictine monasteries at Pécsvárad, Zalavár, Bakonybél and Somlóvásárhely.Шаблон:Sfn He ordered the collection of the tithe, a church tax, for the clergy,Шаблон:Sfn and opened Hungary for pilgrims travelling to the Holy Land.Шаблон:Sfn
Christianity could not spread without the application of state violence.Шаблон:Sfn Stephen outlawed pagan practices and prescribed the adoption of a Christian way of life.Шаблон:Sfn Bruno of Querfurt witnessed how Christian soldiers blinded many of the Black HungariansШаблон:Mdashan ethnic group in southern HungaryШаблон:Mdashto enforce their baptism.Шаблон:Sfn Stephen's first laws ordered the observation of feast days and fasts and the punishment of those who disturbed the mass by murmuring.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The pagans were regularly baptized before their formal education of the Christian doctrines began.Шаблон:Sfn Written sources recorded the activities of Slavic, German and Italian missionaries.Шаблон:Sfn Bruno of Querfurt met with Adalbert of Prague's tutor, Radla, and one of Adalbert's disciples, Astrik, in Hungary.Шаблон:Sfn Bruno's own mission among the Black Hungarians was unsuccessful.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A Venetian monk, Gerard, who was consecrated the first bishop of Csanád in 1030, proselytized in the Banat.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The longer version of his Life describe him preaching among the pagan Hungarians who were brought to him by royal officials, with seven monks acting as his interpreters.Шаблон:Sfn
The first priests were foreigners.Шаблон:Sfn Bonipert, the first bishop of Pécs, came from France or Lombardy; one of his priests, Hilduin, was a Frenchman; the hermits Zoerard and Benedict were born in Poland or Istria.Шаблон:Sfn Hungarian liturgy followed southern German, Lotharingian and northern Italian patterns.Шаблон:Sfn The first native cleric known by name, Maurus, was consecrated as bishop of Pécs in 1036.Шаблон:Sfn Stephen's first laws mention priests acting together with the ispáns (or heads) of the counties, implying that the first parishes were established in county seats.Шаблон:Sfn His second law book prescribed that every ten villages were to build a church,Шаблон:Sfn but a fully developed parish system cannot be documented for centuries.Шаблон:Sfn The earliest churches, mainly made of wood or wattle-and-daub, were built in or near fortresses.Шаблон:Sfn Stone churches mainly followed Italian patterns (as it is demonstrated by the Acanthus spinosa carved on the chapiters of the columns in the Romanesque Veszprém Cathedral).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Latin literacy started in Hungary during Stephen's reign.Шаблон:Sfn Bishop Fulbert of Chartres sent a copy of Priscian's Institutes of GrammarШаблон:Mdasha popular handbook of LatinШаблон:Mdashto Bonipert of Pécs around 1020.Шаблон:Sfn An unidentified foreign cleric wrote a king's mirror, known as Admonitions, for Stephen's son and heir, Emeric, in the 1020s.Шаблон:Sfn Gerard of Csanád completed his Deliberatio in Hungary.Шаблон:Sfn
Orthodox communities existed in Stephen's kingdom.Шаблон:Sfn He (or his father) established a monastery for Byzantine nuns in Veszprémvölgy.Шаблон:Sfn One of his opponents, Ajtony, who ruled the Banat, converted to Orthodoxy and established a monastery for Greek monks at his seat.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn After Stephen's troops conquered Ajtony's domains, the monks were transferred to a new monastery, built for them.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Archaeologists assume that pectoral crosses found in almost thirty 11th-century graves reflect the dead's Orthodox faith.Шаблон:Sfn Byzantine documents made sporadic references to "metropolitan bishops of Tourkia", proving the existence of a titular Hungarian Orthodox metropolitanate for more than a century.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
The Admonitions and Gerard's Deliberatio wrote of anti-Trinitarians, presenting them as a serious problem for Catholic missions in Hungary.Шаблон:Sfn Gerard described them as heretics who denied the resurrection of the dead and threatened the Church's position with the assistance of the "followers of Methodius".Шаблон:Sfn Modern historians propose that these "heretics" were Bogumil refugees from Bulgaria or local Christians converted by non-Catholic missionaries.Шаблон:Sfn
Revolts and consolidation
StephenШаблон:NbspI who survived his son appointed his sister's son, the Venetian Peter Orseolo as his heir.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn To secure Peter's position, Stephen ordered the mutilation of his cousin, Vazul, who inclined towards paganism.Шаблон:Sfn Vazul's three sons, Levente, Andrew and Béla, were forced into exile.Шаблон:Sfn Peter succeeded Stephen in 1038.Шаблон:Sfn He distrusted the native aristocrats and replaced them with Germans and Italians.Шаблон:Sfn The neglected lords dethroned him and elected one of their number, Samuel Aba, king,Шаблон:Sfn but the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry III, invaded Hungary and restored Peter.Шаблон:Sfn Peter swore fealty to the Emperor and introduced Bavarian laws.Шаблон:Sfn
Peter remained unpopular and a group of discontented aristocrats offered the throne to Vazul's exiled sons in 1046.Шаблон:Sfn Before the three dukes returned to Hungary, a popular uprising began.Шаблон:Sfn The Annales Altahenses described the rebels as pagans who murdered clerics and foreigners.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Bishop Gerald of Csanád, thrown from the hill now bearing his name to the Danube, was one of their victims.Шаблон:Sfn They captured and blinded the King, paving the way for Vazul's sons.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The eldest of them, Levente, whom the Hungarian chronicles described as a pagan, died unexpectedly.Шаблон:Sfn The three bishops who survived the uprising crowned his Christian younger brother, Andrew, king.Шаблон:Sfn The Annales Altahenses accused him of anti-Christian acts during the revolt,Шаблон:Sfn but as king he restored StephenШаблон:NbspI's decrees, outlawing paganism.Шаблон:Sfn AndrewШаблон:NbspI was dethroned by his brother, Béla.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn BélaШаблон:NbspI held a general assembly, summoning two elders from each village to Székesfehérvár in 1061.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The assembled commoners put pressure on him to expel the priests from the country, but he dissolved the meeting by force.Шаблон:Sfn
Dynastic conflicts continued, but the position of Christianity consolidated in Hungary.Шаблон:Sfn Archaeological finds reveal the general adoption of Christian customs by around 1100.Шаблон:Sfn Grave goods disappeared and churches were built in pagan cemeteries.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn New Benedictine[note 3] and Orthodox[note 4] monasteries were established by the monarchs.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Otto from the Győr kindred was the first aristocrat to found a Benedictine family monastery at Zselicszentjakab in 1061.Шаблон:Sfn Cathedral chapters became important institutions of education.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The parishes in the dioceses were grouped into deaneries, each headed by a senior cleric, by around 1100.Шаблон:Sfn
BélaШаблон:NbspI's son, Ladislaus I, took Draconian measures for the protection of property rights, even ignoring the idea of church asylum.Шаблон:Sfn His laws also dealt with the local Muslim and Jewish communities.Шаблон:Sfn He forbade Muslims who had converted to Christianity to return to their old faith and ordered the Jews to abandon their Christian wives and to dismiss their Christian servants.Шаблон:Sfn Ladislaus supported Popes Victor III and Urban II against Antipope Clement III during the first phase of the Investiture Controversy.Шаблон:Sfn He procured the canonization of the first Hungarian saintsШаблон:MdashKing StephenШаблон:NbspI, Prince Emeric, Bishop Gerard and the hermits Zoerard and BenedictШаблон:Mdashin 1083.Шаблон:Sfn He summoned the Hungarian prelates to synod at Szabolcs in 1091.Шаблон:Sfn The synod forbade the village communities to abandon the land where their church stood, but authorized the villagers to elect one of their number to represent them at the Sunday mass if their village was far away from the church.Шаблон:Sfn The synod allowed the married priests to live with their wives in clear contradiction with the idea of clerical celibacy, promoted by the Gregorian Reform.Шаблон:Sfn
LadislausШаблон:NbspI's nephew and successor, Coloman the Learned, had to deal with the problems that the armies of the First Crusade caused during their march across Hungary towards the Holy Land in 1096.Шаблон:Sfn He defeated and massacred two crusader hordes to prevent their pillaging raids, but allowed Godfrey of Bouillon and his troops to cross Hungary after Godfrey offered his brother, Baldwin, as a hostage to guarantee his troops' good conduct.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Coloman renounced the right of appointing the bishops, but in practice the cathedral chapters continued to elect the monarchs' nominees as bishops.Шаблон:Sfn His decrees toned down the harshness of his predecessors' laws.Шаблон:Sfn The preamble to his law-code described Hungary as a fully converted Christian realm, but his decree ordering burials in graveyards shows that this was not a general practice.Шаблон:Sfn He ordered the Muslims to build Christian churches, to eat pork and to marry off their daughters to Christians, showing his intention to assimilate the local Muslim communities.Шаблон:Sfn The Esztergom synod of the Hungarian prelates prohibited the monks from preaching, baptizing and offering absolution to sinners.Шаблон:Sfn
Catholic heyday
Burials outside churchyards disappeared early in the 12thШаблон:Nbspcentury.Шаблон:Sfn Large three-aisled basilicas with two towers were built at the episcopal sees.Шаблон:Sfn Churches built at lay landowners' estates played an important role in the development of parishes.Шаблон:Sfn They were either single-naved churches or rotundas.Шаблон:Sfn The aristocrats regarded these churches as part of their patrimony and freely appointed their priests.Шаблон:Sfn
Most churches were dedicated to the Virgin Mary, George of Lydda, the Archangel Michael, Martin of Tours, Nicholas of Myra, and Peter the Apostle, but the first Hungarian saints' cult quickly spread after their canonization.Шаблон:Sfn The first Cistercian and the Premonstratensian monasteries were established in the 1140s.Шаблон:Sfn The monarchs preferred the Cistercians,[note 5] but the aristocrats founded Premonstratensian[note 6] houses.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn King Géza II settled the Knights Hospitaller and Templar in the country and established a Hungarian order of hospitaller canons in honor of King St Stephen.Шаблон:Sfn
Hungarian clerics studied in the universities of Paris and Oxford from the 1150s.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn They were mostly canons who financed their studies from the income of their prebends in collegiate chapters.Шаблон:Sfn The use of written records spread.Шаблон:Sfn The collegiate chapters and major monasteries played an important role in the process as "places of authentication", providing notary services from around 1200.Шаблон:Sfn The first extant religious text in HungarianШаблон:Mdasha burial speechШаблон:Mdashwas written around 1200.
GézaШаблон:NbspII concluded a concordat with Pope Alexander III. Géza's right to dismiss bishops or transfer them from a see to another was abolished, but he was authorized to deliver the pallium to the archbishops and to control correspondence between the Hungarian prelates and the Holy See.Шаблон:Sfn Géza's son and successor, Stephen III, renounced the right to appoint the abbots of the royal monasteries and to administer the goods of vacant bishoprics.Шаблон:Sfn When Stephen died in 1172, his younger brother, Béla, succeeded him. Lucas, Archbishop of Esztergom, denied to crown him, but the Pope authorized the archbishop of Kalocsa to perform the ceremony.Шаблон:Sfn Lucas referred to Béla's alleged simony to explain his resistance, but he most probably feared of the influence of the Orthodox Church Béla who had grewn up in the Byzantine Empire.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Schism between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches had deepened.Шаблон:Sfn BélaШаблон:NbspIII could not introduce the cult of the Bulgarian hermit John of Rila in Hungary.Шаблон:Sfn Job, Archbishop of Esztergom, entered into an unfriendly correspondence with the Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos about the differences between Catholic and Orthodox theologies.Шаблон:Sfn Béla's elder son and successor, Emeric, proposed Pope Innocent III to appoint a Catholic bishop to administer the Greek monasteries in Hungary in 1204.Шаблон:Sfn He did not achieve his goal, but the Greek monasteries disappeared during the following decades.Шаблон:Sfn
BélaШаблон:NbspIII and his successors adopted an active foreign policy, often in close alliance with the Papacy.Шаблон:Sfn Emeric waged a war against Ban Kulin of Bosnia whom Pope InnocentШаблон:NbspIII regarded as the Bogumils' main protector.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Emeric's brother, Andrew II, launched a crusade to the Holy Land in 1217–1218.Шаблон:Sfn Andrew's son, Béla IV, supported the Dominicans' missions among the Cumans of the Pontic steppes.Шаблон:Sfn The mendicant orders settled in Hungary in the 1220s.Шаблон:Sfn In contrast with the traditional monastic orders, the mendicants willingly mingled with the common people to spread Christian ideas.Шаблон:Sfn One of the eight initial provinces of the Dominicans was set up in Hungary. Friar Paulus Hungarus, who had taught Roman law at the university of Bologna, returned to his homeland to found the first Dominican priories in 1221.Шаблон:Sfn The Franciscans came to Hungary in 1229.Шаблон:Sfn
AndrewШаблон:NbspII made generous grants to the aristocrats, threatening the social position of the royal servants and castle warriors (small landholders who had been directly subject to the monarch or his officials).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The latter forced the monarch to summarize their liberties in a royal charter, known as the Golden Bull of 1222.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Golden Bull also confirmed the clerics' exemption of royal taxes, but limited the prelates' right to trade in salt and prohibited the collection of the tithe in cash.Шаблон:Sfn The clerics' liberties were summarized in a separate document, most probably around the end of 1222.Шаблон:Sfn The King confirmed that only ecclesiastical courts could sit in judgement on clerics, but it also prohibited the ordination of serfs as priests.Шаблон:Sfn
AndrewШаблон:NbspII employed Jews and Muslims in the administration of royal revenues, outraging the prelates and Pope HonoriusШаблон:NbspIII.Шаблон:Sfn The Pope authorized Robert, Archbishop of Esztergom to apply ecclesiastical sanctions against the King in 1231.Шаблон:Sfn AndrewШаблон:NbspII was forced to re-issue the Golden Bull, but without the articles that prejudged the interests of the Church.Шаблон:Sfn The new document exempted the prelates' estates of the jurisdiction of the ispáns and established the monopoly of ecclesiastical courts in matters relating to marriage and dowry.Шаблон:Sfn It also authorized the archbishop of Esztergom to excommunicate the monarch if he did not respect its articles.Шаблон:Sfn Arcbhbishop Robert placed Hungary under interdict for the employment of Muslims in state administration and the Pope sent a legate to negotiate with AndrewШаблон:NbspII.Шаблон:Sfn Their compromise was summarized in a treaty which obliged the King to dismiss his Muslim and Jewish officials and to enable the prelates to trade in salt.Шаблон:Sfn
The Dominican Friar Julian learnt of the Mongols' plan to invade Europe during his mission among the Eastern Magyars (a pagan people on the Volga) in 1236.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Mongols forced thousands of pagan Cumans to seek refuge in Hungary in 1240.Шаблон:Sfn The Mongols stormed into Hungary and defeated the royal army in the Battle of Muhi on 11Шаблон:NbspApril 1241.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Mongols devastated the country for a year, but they withdrew without leaving garrisons behind.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Hungary survived the Mongol occupation and BélaШаблон:NbspIV introduced measures to strengthen the defence system.Шаблон:Sfn He urged the wealthiest landowners, both the laymen and the prelates, to build stone castles.Шаблон:Sfn
The position of the archbishops of Esztergom strengthened.Шаблон:Sfn BélaШаблон:NbspIV authorized the archbishop to supervise royal coinage. He also enabled the noblemen to will their estates to the archbishopric and to enter into the archbishop's service.Шаблон:Sfn Béla's successor, Stephen V prevented the archbishop's noble warriors from demanding the privileges of the "true nobles of the realm".Шаблон:Sfn Stephen granted Esztergom County to the archbishops, making them its perpetual ispán.Шаблон:Sfn
Asceticism and the development of eremitical communities was an eminent feature of the spiritual life in the 13th century.Шаблон:Sfn A canon of Esztergom, Eusebius, settled in the woods of the Pilis Hills to live as a hermit in 1246.Шаблон:Sfn Ascetics joined him and their community developed into the new order of hermits, known as Paulines during the following decades.Шаблон:Sfn The Dominicans lost favour with BélaШаблон:NbspIV after his daughter, Margaret, who was a Dominican nun, refused to marry, ruining his plan of a marriage alliance.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Béla thereafter supported the Franciscans who established more than forty priories during the following decades.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
See also
Notes
References
Sources
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
Шаблон:History of Christianity in Europe
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