Английская Википедия:Insular dwarfism

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Other uses

Файл:Elephas falconeri 4.JPG
Skeletons of Malta's extinct Palaeoloxodon falconeri, the smallest known species of elephant. Adult males measured about one meter in shoulder height and weighed about 305 kg. Females were smaller.

Insular dwarfism, a form of phyletic dwarfism,[1] is the process and condition of large animals evolving or having a reduced body sizeШаблон:Refn when their population's range is limited to a small environment, primarily islands. This natural process is distinct from the intentional creation of dwarf breeds, called dwarfing. This process has occurred many times throughout evolutionary history, with examples including dinosaurs, like Europasaurus and Magyarosaurus dacus, and modern animals such as elephants and their relatives. This process, and other "island genetics" artifacts, can occur not only on islands, but also in other situations where an ecosystem is isolated from external resources and breeding. This can include caves, desert oases, isolated valleys and isolated mountains ("sky islands").Шаблон:Citation needed Insular dwarfism is one aspect of the more general "island effect" or "Foster's rule", which posits that when mainland animals colonize islands, small species tend to evolve larger bodies (island gigantism), and large species tend to evolve smaller bodies. This is itself one aspect of island syndrome, which describes the differences in morphology, ecology, physiology and behaviour of insular species compared to their continental counterparts.

Possible causes

There are several proposed explanations for the mechanism which produces such dwarfism.[2][3]

One is a selective process where only smaller animals trapped on the island survive, as food periodically declines to a borderline level. The smaller animals need fewer resources and smaller territories, and so are more likely to get past the break-point where population decline allows food sources to replenish enough for the survivors to flourish. Smaller size is also advantageous from a reproductive standpoint, as it entails shorter gestation periods and generation times.[2]

In the tropics, small size should make thermoregulation easier.[2]

Among herbivores, large size confers advantages in coping with both competitors and predators, so a reduction or absence of either would facilitate dwarfing; competition appears to be the more important factor.[3]

Among carnivores, the main factor is thought to be the size and availability of prey resources, and competition is believed to be less important.[3] In tiger snakes, insular dwarfism occurs on islands where available prey is restricted to smaller sizes than are normally taken by mainland snakes. Since prey size preference in snakes is generally proportional to body size, small snakes may be better adapted to take small prey.[4]

Dwarfism vs. gigantism

The inverse process, wherein small animals breeding on isolated islands lacking the predators of large land masses may become much larger than normal, is called island gigantism. An excellent example is the dodo, the ancestors of which were normal-sized pigeons. There are also several species of giant rats, one still extant, that coexisted with both Homo floresiensis and the dwarf stegodonts on Flores.

The process of insular dwarfing can occur relatively rapidly by evolutionary standards. This is in contrast to increases in maximum body size, which are much more gradual. When normalized to generation length, the maximum rate of body mass decrease during insular dwarfing was found to be over 30 times greater than the maximum rate of body mass increase for a ten-fold change in mammals.[5] The disparity is thought to reflect the fact that pedomorphism offers a relatively easy route to evolve smaller adult body size; on the other hand, the evolution of larger maximum body size is likely to be interrupted by the emergence of a series of constraints that must be overcome by evolutionary innovations before the process can continue.[5]

Factors influencing the extent of dwarfing

For both herbivores and carnivores, island size, the degree of island isolation and the size of the ancestral continental species appear not to be of major direct importance to the degree of dwarfing.[3] However, when considering only the body masses of recent top herbivores and carnivores, and including data from both continental and island land masses, the body masses of the largest species in a land mass were found to scale to the size of the land mass, with slopes of about 0.5 log(body mass/kg) per log(land area/km2).[6] There were separate regression lines for endothermic top predators, ectothermic top predators, endothermic top herbivores and (on the basis of limited data) ectothermic top herbivores, such that food intake was 7 to 24-fold higher for top herbivores than for top predators, and about the same for endotherms and ectotherms of the same trophic level (this leads to ectotherms being 5 to 16 times heavier than corresponding endotherms).[6]

Examples

Non-avian dinosaurs

Recognition that insular dwarfism could apply to dinosaurs arose through the work of Ferenc Nopcsa, a Hungarian-born aristocrat, adventurer, scholar, and paleontologist. Nopcsa studied Transylvanian dinosaurs intensively, noticing that they were smaller than their cousins elsewhere in the world. For example, he unearthed six-meter-long sauropods, a group of dinosaurs which elsewhere commonly grew to 30 meters or more. Nopcsa deduced that the area where the remains were found was an island, Hațeg Island (now the Haţeg or Hatzeg basin in Romania) during the Mesozoic era.[7][8] Nopcsa's proposal of dinosaur dwarfism on Hațeg Island is today widely accepted after further research confirmed that the remains found are not from juveniles.[9]

Sauropods

Example Species Range Time frame Continental relative
Файл:AmpelosaurusScale.png
Ampelosaurus
A. atacis Ibero-Armorican Island Late Cretaceous / Maastrichtian Файл:Tapuiasaurus NT.jpg
Nemegtosaurids
Файл:Europasaurus skull.JPG
Europasaurus
E. holgeri Lower Saxony Late Jurassic / Middle Kimmeridgian Файл:Giraffatitan scale.png
Brachiosaurs
Файл:Magyarosaurus- human size.JPG
Magyarosaurus
M. dacus Hateg Island Late Cretaceous / Maastrichtian Файл:Rapetosaurus BW.jpg
Rapetosaurus
Файл:Lirainosaurus.jpg
Lirainosaurus[10]
L. astibiae Ibero-Armorican Island Late Cretaceous
Файл:Paludititan nalatzsensis.jpg
Paludititan
P. nalatzensis Hateg Island Late Cretaceous / Maastrichtian Файл:Epachtosaurus sciuttoi.jpg
Epachthosaurus

Other

Example Species Range Time frame Continental relative
Файл:Langenburg theropod size.png
Langenberg Quarry
torvosaur (blue)
Unnamed Lower Saxony Late Jurassic / Middle Kimmeridgian Файл:Torvosaurus gurneyi.png
Torvosaurus
Файл:Struthiosaurus austriacus.jpg
Struthiosaurus[11]
S. austriacus

S. transylvanicus

S. languedocensis
Ibero-Armorican, Australoalpine, and Hateg islands Late Cretaceous Файл:Edmontonia Scale.svg
Edmontonia
Файл:Telmatosaurus Scale.svg
Telmatosaurus
T. transsylvanicus Hateg Island Late Cretaceous Файл:Hadrosaurus Scale.svg
Hadrosaurids
Файл:Thecodontosaurus Scale.svg
Thecodontosaurus[8]
T. antiquus Southern England Late Triassic / Rhaetian Файл:Human-plateosaurus size comparison.svg
Plateosaurs
Файл:Iguanodontian Sizes.svg
Zalmoxes[8] (purple)
Z. robustus

Z. shqiperorum
Hateg Island Late Cretaceous Файл:Perot Museum Tenontosaurus.jpg
Tenontosaurus

In addition, the genus Balaur was initially described as a Velociraptor-sized dromaeosaurid (and in consequence a dubious example of insular dwarfism), but has been since reclassified as a secondarily flightless stem bird, closer to modern birds than Jeholornis (thus actually an example of insular gigantism).

Birds

Example Binomial name Native range Status Continental relative Insular / mainland
length or mass ratio
Файл:Apteribis sp. (5212794163).jpg
Hawaiian flightless ibises
Apteribis glenos Molokai Extinct (Late Quaternary) Файл:White Ibis in Florida.jpg
American ibises
Apteribis brevis Maui
Cozumel curassow[12] Crax rubra griscomi Cozumel Unknown Файл:Crax rubra (Great Curassow) - female.jpg
Great curassow
Файл:Baudin emus.jpg
Kangaroo Island emu[13]
Dromaius novaehollandiae baudinianus Kangaroo Island, South Australia Extinct (c. AD 1827) Файл:Emu RWD1.jpg
Emu
Файл:Emu size.png
King Island emu[14] (black)
Dromaius novaehollandiae minor King Island, Tasmania Extinct (AD 1822) LR ≈ 0.48 Шаблон:Efn
Dwarf yellow eyed penguin[15] Megadyptes antipodes richdalei Chatham Islands, New Zealand Extinct (after 1300 AD) Файл:Megadyptes antipodes -Otago Peninsula, Dunedin, New Zealand -family-8.jpg
Yellow-eyed penguin
Файл:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - RMNH.AVES.128765 2 - Toxostoma guttatum (Ridgway, 1885) - Mimidae - bird skin specimen.jpeg
Cozumel thrasher[12]
Toxostoma gluttatum Cozumel Critically endangered Файл:Curve-billed Thrasher.jpg
Other thrashers

Squamates

Example Binomial name Native range Status Continental relative Insular / mainland
length or mass ratio
Файл:20150510-IMG 0786.jpg
Madagascar dwarf chameleon
Brookesia minima Nosy Be island, Madagascar Endangered Файл:Brookesia species male female (Journal.pone.0031314.g010).png
Madagascar leaf chameleons
Файл:Brookesia micra on a match head.jpg
Nosy Hara chameleon[16]
Brookesia micra Nosy Hara island, Madagascar Vulnerable
Roxby Island tiger snake[4] Notechis scutatus Roxby Island, South Australia Unknown Файл:Tiger snake 2.jpg
Tiger snake
Dwarf Burmese python Python bivittatus progschai Java, Bali, Sumbawa and Sulawesi, Indonesia Unknown Файл:Burmese python (6887388927).jpg
Burmese python
LR ≈ 0.44 Шаблон:Efn
Tanahjampea reticulated python[17] Python reticulatus jampeanus Tanahjampea, between Sulawesi and Flores Unknown Файл:Python reticulatus сетчатый питон-2.jpg
Reticulated python
LR ≈ 0.41, males
LR ≈ 0.49, females Шаблон:Efn

Mammals

Pilosans

Example Binomial name Native range Status Continental relative
Файл:Bradypus pygmaeus.jpg
Pygmy three-toed sloth
Bradypus pygmaeus Isla Escudo de Veraguas, Panama Critically endangered Файл:Bradypus variegatus, the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth (12687597105).jpg
Brown-throated sloth
Файл:Habanocnus.JPG
Acratocnus
A. antillensis

A. odontrigonus

A. ye
Cuba, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico Extinct (c. 3000 BC) Файл:Megalonyx size.svg
Continental ground sloths
Imagocnus I. zazae Cuba Extinct (Early Miocene)
Файл:Megalocnus.jpg
Megalocnus
M. rodens

M. zile
Cuba and Hispaniola Extinct (c. 2700 BC)
Файл:Synocnus comes.jpg
Neocnus
Neocnus spp. Cuba and Hispaniola Extinct (c. 3000 BC)

Proboscideans

Шаблон:Main article

Example Binomial name Native range Status Continental relative
Sulawesi dwarf elephant Elephas celebensis Sulawesi Extinct (Early Pleistocene) Файл:Indian-Elephant-444.jpg
Asian elephant
Файл:Elephas beyeri-bpk.jpg
Cabarruyan dwarf elephant
Elephas beyeri Luzon Extinct
Файл:Cretanelephant-petermaas.jpg
Cretan dwarf mammoth
Mammuthus creticus Crete Extinct Файл:Mammuthus Scale.svg
Mammuthus
Файл:M. exilis skeletal.png
Channel Islands mammoth
Mammuthus exilis Santa Rosae island Extinct (Late Pleistocene) Файл:M. columbi skeletals.png
Columbian mammoth
Sardinian mammoth Mammuthus lamarmorai Sardinia Extinct (Late Pleistocene) Файл:Steppe mammoth size 2.jpg
Steppe mammoth
Saint Paul Island woolly mammoth[18][19] Mammuthus primigenius Saint Paul Island, Alaska Extinct (c. 3750 BC) Файл:M. primigenius.png
Woolly mammoth
Файл:Elephas skeleton.JPG
Siculo-Maltese elephants
Palaeoloxodon antiquus leonardi

P. mnaidriensis

P. melitensis

P. falconeri
Sicily and Malta Extinct Файл:Palaeoloxodon-Species-Scale-Diagram-SVG-Steveoc86.svg
Straight-tusked elephant
(left)
Cretan elephants Palaeoloxodon chaniensis

P. creutzburgi
Crete Extinct
Файл:Elephas cypriotes Tusk and Molar.jpg
Cyprus dwarf elephant
Palaeoloxodon cypriotes Cyprus Extinct (c. 9000 BC)
Naxos dwarf elephant Palaeoloxodon sp. Naxos Extinct
Rhodes and Tilos dwarf elephant Palaeoloxodon tiliensis Rhodes and Tilos Extinct
Bumiayu dwarf sinomastodont[20] Sinomastodon bumiajuensis Bumiayu Island (now part of Java) Extinct (Early Pleistocene) Файл:Sinomastodon.png
Sinomastodon
Файл:のんほいパーク - アケボノゾウ.jpg
Japanese stegodont[21][22]
Stegodon miensis

Stegodon protoaurorae

Stegodon aurorae
Japan (Also Taiwan for S. aurorae)[23] Extinct (Early Pleistocene) Файл:Stegodon skeletal.png
Chinese Stegodon
Greater Flores dwarf stegodont[2] Stegodon florensis Flores Extinct (Late Pleistocene) Файл:Stegodon’s ivory displayed at Philippine National Museum.jpg
Sundaland Stegodon
Javan dwarf stegodonts Stegodon hypsilophus[20]

S. semedoensis[24]

S. sp.[20]
Java Extinct (Quaternary)
Mindanao pygmy stegodont[25] Stegodon mindanensis Mindanao and Sulawesi Extinct (Middle Pleistocene)
Sulawesi dwarf stegodont[20] Stegodon sompoensis Sulawesi Extinct
Lesser Flores dwarf stegodont[2] Stegodon sondaari Flores Extinct (Middle Pleistocene)
Sumba dwarf stegodont[26] Stegodon sumbaensis Sumba, Indonesia Extinct (Middle Pleistocene)
Timor dwarf stegodont[20] Stegodon timorensis Timor Extinct
Dwarf stegolophodont[27] Stegolophodon pseudolatidens Japan Extinct (Miocene) Файл:Stegolophodon latidens.JPG
Stegolophodon

Primates

Example Binomial name Native range Status Continental relative
Nosy Hara dwarf lemur[28] Cheirogaleus sp. Nosy Hara island off Madagascar Unknown Файл:Cheirogaleus-medius.jpg
Dwarf lemurs
Файл:Specimen LB1.jpg
Flores Man[29]
Homo floresiensis Flores Extinct (Late Pleistocene) Файл:Homme de Tautavel 01-08.jpg
Homo erectus
Файл:LuzonensisMolars.jpg
Callao Man
Homo luzonensis[30][31] Luzon, Philippines Extinct (Late Pleistocene)
Modern pygmies of Flores[32] Homo sapiens Flores Extant other members of Homo sapiens
Early Palau modern humans (disputed)[33] Homo sapiens Palau Extinct (?)
Andamanese[34] Homo sapiens Andaman Islands Extant
Файл:Macaca majori.JPG
Sardinian macaque[35]
Macaca majori Sardinia Extinct (Pleistocene) Файл:Barbary macaques of Gibraltar in search of food.jpg
Barbary macaque
Файл:Red Colobus 7.jpg
Zanzibar red colobus
Piliocolobus kirkii Unguja Endangered Файл:Udzungwa Red Colobus Stevage.JPG
Udzungwa red colobus

Carnivorans

Example Binomial name Native range Status Continental relative Insular / mainland
length or mass ratio
Файл:Canis lupus cristaldii subsp. nov.png
Sicilian wolf
Canis lupus cristaldii Sicily Extinct (AD 1970) Файл:Canis lupus Europe.jpg
Gray wolf
Файл:Honshu-wolf4.jpg
Japanese wolf
Canis lupus hodophilax Japan (excluding Hokkaido) Extinct (AD 1905)
Файл:Adaptations of the Pleistocene island canid Cynotherium sardous (2006) Fig. 1.png
Sardinian dhole
(forward)
Cynotherium sardous Corsica and Sardinia Extinct (c. 8300 BC) Файл:Xenocyon lycanoides restoration.jpg
Xenocyon
Trinil dog Mececyon trinilensis Java Extinct (Pleistocene)
Cozumel Island coati[12] Nasua narica nelsoni Cozumel Critically endangered Файл:White nosed Coati.jpg
Yucatan white-nosed coati
Файл:Zanzibar Leopard 2.JPG
Zanzibar leopard
Panthera pardus pardus Unguja Critically endangered or Extinct Файл:Male leopard samburu 2, crop.jpg
African leopard
Файл:Bali tiger zanveld.jpg
Bali tiger
Panthera tigris sondaica Bali Extinct (c. AD 1940) Файл:Panthera tigris sumatrae (Sumatran Tiger) close-up.jpg
Sumatran tiger
Файл:Panthera tigris sondaica 01.jpg
Javan tiger
Java Extinct (c. AD 1975)
Файл:Cozumel Raccoon2.jpg
Cozumel raccoon
Procyon pygmaeus Cozumel Critically endangered Файл:Raccoon-10.png
Common raccoon
Файл:Urocyon littoralis pair.jpg
Island fox
Urocyon littoralis Six of the Channel Islands of California Near Threatened Файл:Grey Fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus).jpg
Gray fox
LR ≈ 0.84 Шаблон:Efn
LR ≈ 0.75 Шаблон:Efn
Cozumel fox Urocyon sp. Cozumel Critically endangered or Extinct

Non-ruminant ungulates

Example Binomial name Native range Status Continental relative
Файл:Eumaiochoerus etruscus mandible.jpg
Eumaiochoerus
Eumaiochoerus etruscus Baccinello, Montebamboli Extinct (Miocene) Файл:Microstonyx skull.jpg
Microstonyx
Файл:Hippo1 final.jpg
Malagasy dwarf hippopotamuses
Hippopotamus laloumena

H. lemerlei

H. madagascariensis
Madagascar Extinct (c. AD 1000) Файл:Nijlpaard.jpg
Common hippopotamus
Bumiayu dwarf hippopotamus[20] Hexaprotodon simplex Bumiayu Island (now Java) Extinct (Early Pleistocene) Файл:Hexaprotodon sivalensis.jpg
Asian hippopotamuses
Файл:Hippopotamus cruetzburgi.JPG
Cretan dwarf hippopotamus
Hippopotamus creutzburgi Crete Extinct (Middle Pleistocene) Файл:Museo di paleologia, scheletro di hippopotamus antiquus, recuperato presso figline valdarno.JPG
European hippopotamus
Файл:Hippopotamus amphibius Linn at Ghar Dalam, Malta.png
Maltese dwarf hippopotamus
Hippopotamus melitensis Malta Extinct (Pleistocene)
Файл:Hippo-Cyprus.JPG
Cyprus dwarf hippopotamus
Hippopotamus minor Cyprus Extinct (c. 8000 BC)
Файл:Hippopotamus pentlandi 3.JPG
Sicilian dwarf hippopotamus
Hippopotamus pentlandi Sicily Extinct (Pleistocene)
Cozumel collared peccary[12] Pecari tajacu nanus Cozumel Unknown Файл:Running Javelina.jpg
Collared peccary
Philippine rhinoceros[36] Nesorhinus philippinensis Luzon Extinct (Middle Pleistocene) Файл:Javan Rhino 1900.jpg
Javan rhinoceros

Bovids

Example Binomial name Native range Status Continental relative
Sicilian bison[21] Bison priscus siciliae Sicily Extinct (Late Pleistocene) Файл:Prazubr rysunek 600.jpg
Steppe bison
Sicilian aurochs[37] Bos primigenius siciliae[21] Sicily Extinct (Late Pleistocene) Файл:Aurochs reconstruction.jpg
Eurasian aurochs
Cebu tamaraw Bubalus cebuensis Cebu, Philippines Extinct Файл:Indian Water Buffalo Bubalus arnee by Dr Raju Kasambe IMG 0347 (11) (cropped).jpg
Wild water buffalo
Файл:Lowland anoa.jpg
Lowland anoa
Bubalus depressicornis Sulawesi and Buton, Indonesia Endangered
Bubalus grovesi Bubalus grovesi Sulawesi, Indonesia Extinct
Файл:Bubalus mindorensis by Gregg Yan 01.jpg
Tamaraw
Bubalus mindorensis Mindoro, Philippines Critically endangered
Файл:Buablus quarlesi2.jpg
Mountain anoa
Bubalus quarlesi Sulawesi and Buton, Indonesia Endangered
Файл:Myotragus balearicus.JPG
Balearic Islands cave goat
Myotragus balearicus Majorca and Menorca Extinct (after 3000 BC) Gallogoral
Nesogoral[38] Nesogoral spp. Sardinia Extinct
Dahlak Kebir gazelle[39] Nanger soemmerringi ssp. Dahlak Kebir island, Eritrea Vulnerable Файл:The book of antelopes (1894) Gazella soemmerringi (white background).png
Soemmerring's gazelle
Файл:Tyrrhenotragus gracillimus mandible.jpg
Tyrrhenotragus
Tyrrhenotragus gracillimus Baccinello Extinct Antilopinae sp.

Cervids and relatives

Example Binomial name Native range Status Continental relative
Файл:Candiacervus ropalophorus.jpg
Cretan dwarf megacerinesШаблон:Refn
Candiacervus spp. Crete Extinct (Pleistocene) Файл:Praemegaceros verticornis.JPG
Praemegaceros verticornis[8]
Файл:Praemegaceros cazioti A6 digital.jpg
Sardinian megacerine[8]
Praemegaceros cazioti Sardinia Extinct (c. 5500 BC)
Файл:Cervus astylodon.jpg
Ryukyu dwarf deer[40]
Cervus astylodon Ryukyu Islands Extinct Файл:The deer of all lands (1898) Manchurian sika white background.png
Sika deer (?)

Cervus praenipponicus (?)
Jersey red deer population[41] Cervus elaphus jerseyensis Jersey Extinct (Pleistocene) Файл:Rothirsch.jpg
Red deer
Файл:CervusElaphusCorsicanus-pjt.jpg
Corsican red deer
Cervus elaphus corsicanus Corsica and Sardinia Near Threatened
Pleistocene Sicilian deer[21] Cervus siciliae Sicily Extinct (Late Pleistocene)
Файл:Hoplitomeryx matthei.jpg
HoplitomeryxШаблон:Refn
Hoplitomeryx spp. Gargano Island Extinct (Early Pliocene) Файл:Antilocapra americana male (Wyoming, 2012).jpg
Pecorans
Sicilian megacerine[21] Megaloceros carburangelensis Sicily Extinct (Late Pleistocene) Файл:Mégalocéros B&W rogné.png
Irish elk
Файл:Key deer male.jpg
Florida Key deer
Odocoileus virginianus clavium Florida Keys Endangered Файл:White-tailed deer.jpg
Virginia deer
Файл:Spitsbergen reindeer01.jpg
Svalbard reindeer
Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus Svalbard Vulnerable Файл:Fjellrein.jpg
Reindeer
Файл:Rusa marianna by Gregg Yan.jpg
Philippine deer
Rusa marianna Philippines Vulnerable Файл:Sambar (Rusa unicolor cambojensis) (7109798353).jpg
Sambar deer

Plants

Possible example Binomial name Native range Status Continental relative
Файл:El Tecolote.JPG
Insular elephant cacti[42][43]
Pachycereus pringlei Remote islands in the Sea of Cortez
(e.g. Santa Cruz, San Pedro Mártir)
Not evaluated Файл:Pachycereus pringlei cardon sahueso.JPG
Mainland elephant cacti

See also

Шаблон:Wikinews

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

External links

Шаблон:Biological rules

  1. Шаблон:Cite journal
  2. 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 Шаблон:Cite journal
  3. 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 Шаблон:Cite journal
  4. 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  5. 5,0 5,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  6. 6,0 6,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  7. Шаблон:Cite web
  8. 8,0 8,1 8,2 8,3 8,4 Шаблон:Cite journal
  9. Шаблон:Cite journal
  10. Шаблон:Cite journal
  11. Carpenter, K. (2001) The Armored Dinosaurs. Indiana University Press, 526 pages.
  12. 12,0 12,1 12,2 12,3 Шаблон:Cite journal
  13. Parker S (1984) The extinct Kangaroo Island Emu, a hitherto-unrecognised species. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 104: 19–22.
  14. Шаблон:Cite journal
  15. Cole, Theresa L., et al. "Mitogenomes uncover extinct penguin taxa and reveal island formation as a key driver of speciation." Molecular biology and evolution 36.4 (2019): 784-797.
  16. Шаблон:Cite journal
  17. Шаблон:Cite journal
  18. Schirber, Michael. Surviving Extinction: Where Woolly Mammoths Endured. Live Science. Imaginova Corporation. Retrieved 2007-07-20.
  19. The mammoths of Wrangel Island, north of Siberia, are no longer considered dwarfs. See: Tikhonov, Alexei; Larry Agenbroad; Sergey Vartanyan (2003). Comparative analysis of the mammoth populations on Wrangel Island and the Channel Islands. DEINSEA 9: 415–420. ISSN 0923-9308
  20. 20,0 20,1 20,2 20,3 20,4 20,5 Шаблон:Cite journal
  21. 21,0 21,1 21,2 21,3 21,4 Шаблон:Cite journal
  22. Шаблон:Cite journal
  23. Шаблон:Cite journal
  24. Siswanto, S., & Noerwidi, S. (2014). PROBOSCIDEA FOSSIL FROM SEMEDO SITE: Its Correlation With Biostratigraphy and Human Arrival in Java. Berkala Arkeologi, 34(2).
  25. Шаблон:Cite book
  26. Шаблон:Cite web
  27. Шаблон:Cite journal
  28. Шаблон:Cite web
  29. Scientist to study Hobbit morphing, abc.net.au
  30. Шаблон:Cite journal
  31. Шаблон:Cite journal
  32. Шаблон:Cite journal
  33. "Ancient Small People on Palau Not Dwarfs, Study Says". National Geographic News. August 27, 2008.
  34. Шаблон:Cite journal
  35. Шаблон:Cite journal
  36. Шаблон:Cite book
  37. Шаблон:Cite book
  38. Шаблон:Cite book
  39. Шаблон:Cite journal
  40. Шаблон:Cite book
  41. Шаблон:Cite journal
  42. Шаблон:Cite journal
  43. Шаблон:Cite book