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{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{short description|Popular mid-19th century American minstrel song}}
{{redirect|Whistling Dixie|the Randy Houser song|Whistlin' Dixie|the cultural region of the American South|Dixie}}

{{Infobox anthem
| title         = Dixie
| image         = I Wish I Was In Dixie's Land, 1860.jpg
| prefix        = Unofficial national
| alt_title     = Dixie's Land
| alt_title_2   = I Wish I Was in Dixie
| country       = the [[Confederate States of America]]
| author        = [[Dan Emmett|Daniel Decatur Emmett]]
| lyrics_date   = 1859
| composer      = Daniel Decatur Emmett
| music_date    = 1859
| sound         = File:Dixie's Land Instrumental.mp3
| sound_title   = Instrumental Version performed by the United States Military Band
}}

"'''Dixie'''", also known as "'''Dixie's Land'''", "'''I Wish I Was in Dixie'''", and other titles, is a song about the [[Southern United States]] first made in 1859. It is one of the most distinctively Southern musical products of the 19th century. It was not a [[folk music|folk song]] at its creation, but it has since entered the American folk vernacular. The song likely rooted the word "[[Dixie]]" in the American vocabulary as a nickname for the Southern U.S.

Most sources credit [[Ohio]]-born [[Dan Emmett|Daniel Decatur Emmett]] with the song's composition, although other people have claimed credit, even during Emmett's lifetime. Compounding the problem are Emmett's own confused accounts of its writing and his tardiness in registering its [[copyright]].

"Dixie" originated in the minstrel shows of the 1850s and quickly became popular throughout the United States. During the [[American Civil War]], it was adopted as a ''[[de facto]]'' [[national anthem]] of the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]], along with "[[The Bonnie Blue Flag]]" and "[[God Save the South]]". New versions appeared at this time that more explicitly tied the song to the events of the Civil War.

The song was a favorite of Kentucky native President [[Abraham Lincoln]], who had it played at some of his political rallies and at the announcement of General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s surrender.<ref>{{cite book|
author=Herbert, David|title=Lincoln|page=580|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=1996}}</ref><ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1909/02/07/106116509.html?pageNumber=10|title=Lincoln Called For Dixie| format=PDF | work=The New York Times | date=February 7, 1909}}</ref> 

==Structure==
"Dixie" is structured into five two-[[bar (music)|measure]] groups of alternating [[Verse (popular music)|verse]]s and [[refrain]]s, following an AABC pattern.<ref>Crawford 266.</ref> As originally performed, a soloist or small group stepped forward and sang the verses, and the whole company answered at different times; the repeated line "look away" was probably one part sung in unison like this. As the song became popular, the audience likely joined the troupe in singing the chorus.<ref name="Warburton 230">Warburton 230.</ref> Traditionally, another eight measures of unaccompanied [[fiddle]] playing followed, coming to a partial close in the middle; since 1936, this part has rarely been printed with the sheet music.{{sfn|Sacks|Sacks|1993|p=194}}

The song was traditionally played at a [[tempo]] slower than the one usually played today. Rhythmically, the music is "characterized by a heavy, nonchalant, inelegant strut,"{{sfn|Nathan|1962|p=2478}} and is in [[duple meter]], which makes it suitable for both dancing and marching. "Dixie" employs a single rhythmic [[motif (music)|motive]] (two [[sixteenth note]] [[Anacrusis|pickups]] followed by a longer note), which is integrated into long, melodic phrases. The melodic content consists primarily of [[arpeggio|arpeggiations]] of the [[tonic (music)|tonic]] [[triad (music)|triad]], firmly establishing the [[major key|major]] [[tonality]]. The melody of the chorus emulates natural inflections of the voice (particularly on the word "away"), and may account for some of the song's popularity.{{sfn|Nathan|1962|pp=249–250}}

[[File:Bryant's Minstrels walkaround 1.jpg|thumb|right|Detail from a playbill of the Bryant's Minstrels depicting the first part of a walkaround, dated December 19, 1859]]

According to [[musicology|musicologist]] Hans Nathan, "Dixie" resembles other material that [[Dan Emmett]] wrote for [[Bryant's Minstrels]], and in writing it, the composer drew on a number of earlier works. The first part of the song is anticipated by other Emmett compositions, including "[[De Wild Goose-Nation]]" (1844), itself a derivative of "[[Gumbo Chaff]]" (1830s) and ultimately an 18th-century [[English art song|English]] song called "Bow Wow Wow". The second part is possibly related to other material, most likely [[music of Scotland|Scottish]] folk songs.{{sfn|Nathan|1962|pp=259–260}} The chorus follows portions of "[[Johnny Roach]]," an Emmett piece from earlier in 1859.{{sfn|Nathan|1962|p=254}}

As with other [[blackface]] material, performances of "Dixie" were accompanied by dancing. The song is a [[walkaround]], which originally began with a few [[minstrel show|minstrels]] acting out the lyrics, only to be joined by the rest of the company (a dozen or so individuals for the Bryants).{{sfn|Nathan|1962|p=260}} As shown by the original sheet music (see below), the dance tune used with "Dixie" by Bryant's Minstrels, who introduced the song on the New York stage, was "Albany Beef", an Irish-style reel later included by Dan Emmett in an instructional book he co-authored in 1862.<ref>"I Wish I Was in Dixie's Land, Written and Composed expressly for Bryant's Minstrels, arranged for the pianoforte by W.L. Hobbs," New York: Firth, Pond & Co., 1860, and New Orleans: P.P. Werlein, 1860. George B. Bruce and Dan Emmett, ''The Drummers and Fifers Guide'' (New York: Firth, Pond & Co., 1862). Nathan, ''op. cit.'', p. 260. "Albany Beef" was a name for Hudson River sturgeon. The tune shares a part with the reel known as "Buckley's Fancy" or "After the Sun Goes Down" in the Francis O'Neill collection, and "Lord St. Clair's Reel" in the Roche collection (see https://tunearch.org/wiki/Annotation:Albany_Beef).</ref>{{Unreliable source?|sure=y|date=October 2021}} Dancers probably performed between verses,<ref name="Warburton 230"/> and a single dancer used the fiddle solo at the end of the song to "strut, twirl his cane, or mustache, and perhaps slyly wink at a girl on the front row."<ref>Wootton, Ada Bedell (1936). "Something New about Dixie." ''The Etude.'' Quoted in Sacks and Sacks 194.</ref>

==Lyrics==
{{listen
 | filename    = 
 | title       = "Dixie's Land"
 | description = Civil War soldiers favored both war versions of the song and the original lyrics, as heard here. This performance is by Civil War re-enactors, the [[2nd South Carolina String Band]].{{deletable image-caption|Monday, October 10, 2022|F7}}
 | format      = [[Ogg]]
}}

Countless lyrical variants of "Dixie" exist, but the version attributed to Dan Emmett and its variations are the most popular.<ref name="Warburton 230"/> Emmett's lyrics as they were originally intended reflect the mood of the United States in the late 1850s toward growing [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionist]] sentiment. The song presented the point of view, common to minstrelsy at the time, that [[history of slavery in the United States|slavery]] was overall a positive institution. The pining slave had been used in minstrel tunes since the early 1850s, including Emmett's "[[I Ain't Got Time to Tarry]]" and "Johnny Roach". The fact that "Dixie" and its precursors are [[dance music|dance tunes]] only further made light of the subject.<ref>Spitzer and Walters 8.</ref> In short, "Dixie" made the case, more strongly than any previous minstrel tune had, that slaves belonged in bondage.{{sfn|Nathan|1962|p=245}} This was accomplished through the song's protagonist, who, in comic [[African American Vernacular English|black dialect]], implies that despite his freedom, he is homesick for the [[Plantations in the American South|plantation]] of his birth.{{sfn|Nathan|1962|pp=362–364}}

The lyrics use many common phrases found in minstrel tunes of the day—"I wish I was in&nbsp;..." dates to at least "[[Clare de Kitchen]]" (early 1830s), and "Away down south in&nbsp;..." appears in many more songs, including Emmett's "[[I'm Gwine ober de Mountain]]" (1843). The second [[stanza]] clearly echoes "Gumbo Chaff" from the 1830s: "Den Missus she did marry Big Bill de weaver / Soon she found out he was a [[Rakehell|gay deceiver]]."{{sfn|Nathan|1962|pp=260,262}} The final stanza rewords portions of Emmett's own "De Wild Goose-Nation": "De tarapin he thot it was time for to trabble / He screw aron his tail and begin to scratch grabble."{{sfn|Nathan|1962|p=262}} Even the phrase "Dixie's land" had been used in Emmett's "Johnny Roach" and "I Ain't Got Time to Tarry," both first performed earlier in 1859.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

As with other minstrel material, "Dixie" entered common circulation among blackface performers, and many of them added their own verses or altered the song in other ways. Emmett himself adopted the tune for a pseudo-African American [[spiritual (music)|spiritual]] in the 1870s or 1880s. The chorus changed to:

<blockquote><poem>
I wish I was in [[Dixie]]
Hooray, Hooray!
In Dixie's land, I'll take my stand to live and die in Dixie!
Away, away, away down South in Dixie!
Away, away, away down South in Dixie!
</poem></blockquote>

Both Union and Confederate composers produced war versions of the song during the [[American Civil War]]. These variants standardized the spelling and made the song more militant, replacing the slave scenario with specific references to the conflict or to Northern or Southern pride. This [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] verse by [[Albert Pike]] is representative:

<blockquote><poem>
Southrons! hear your country call you!
Up! lest worse than death befall you!&nbsp;...
Hear the Northern thunders mutter!&nbsp;...
Northern flags in South wind flutter;&nbsp;...
Send them back your fierce defiance!
Stamp upon the cursed alliance!{{sfn|Abel|2000|p=36}}</poem></blockquote>

Compare [[Frances J. Crosby|Frances J. Crosby's]] [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] lyrics:

<blockquote><poem>
On! ye patriots to the battle,
Hear [[Fort Moultrie]]'s cannon rattle!
Then away, then away, then away to the fight!
Go meet those Southern traitors,
With iron will.
And should your courage falter, boys,
Remember [[Battle of Bunker Hill|Bunker Hill]].

Hurrah! Hurrah! The Stars and Stripes forever!
Hurrah! Hurrah! Our Union shall not sever!{{sfn|Sacks|Sacks|1993|p=156}}</poem></blockquote>

A second "unofficial" Union version was popular among Union troops, referred to as ''[[Union Dixie]]'':

<blockquote><poem>
Away down south in the land of traitors,
[[Crocodiles]] and [[American alligator|alligator]]s,
Ride away, ride away, ride away, ride away.
Where [[King Cotton|cotton's king]] and [[Slavery in the United States|men are chattels]],
[[Union Army|Union boys]] will win the battles,
Ride away, ride away, ride away, ride away.

We're marching down to [[Dixie]],
Away, away,
Those [[Confederate Army|Dixie boy]] must understand
That he Will Face the Wrath of [[Uncle Sam]].{{sfn|Nathan|1962|p=}}</poem></blockquote>

"The New Dixie!: The True 'Dixie' for Northern Singers" takes a different approach, turning the original song on its head:

<blockquote><poem>
Then I'm glad I'm not in Dixie

Hooray! Hooray!

In Yankee land I'll take my stand,
Won't live or  die in Dixie{{sfn|Abel|2000|p=42}}</poem></blockquote>

Soldiers on both sides wrote endless [[parody]] versions of the song. Often these discussed the banalities of camp life: "Pork and cabbage in the pot, / It goes in cold and comes out hot," or, "Vinegar put right on red beet, / It makes them always fit to eat." Others were more nonsensical: "Way down South in the fields of cotton, / Vinegar shoes and paper stockings."<ref>Quoted in Silber 51.</ref>

Aside from its being rendered in standard English, the chorus was the only section not regularly altered, even for parodies.{{sfn|Nathan|1962|pp=362–363}} The first verse and chorus, in non-dialect form, are the best-known portions of the song today:<ref>Cornelius 31.</ref>

<blockquote><poem>
I wish I was in the land of cotton, old times there are not forgotten,
Look away, look away, look away, Dixie Land.
In Dixie Land where I was born in, early on a frosty mornin',
Look away, look away, look away, Dixie Land.

Then I wish I was in Dixie, hooray! hooray!
In Dixie Land I'll take my stand to live and die in Dixie,
Away, away, away down South in Dixie,
Away, away, away down South in Dixie.<ref>Quoted in Roland 218.</ref></poem></blockquote>

==Composition and copyright==
[[File:Dixe's Land Sheet Music.jpg|thumb|500px|"I Wish I Was in Dixie's Land" sheet music]]
According to tradition, [[Ohio]]-born minstrel show composer Daniel Decatur Emmett wrote "Dixie" around 1859.<ref>Asimov, Chronology of the World, p. 376</ref> Over his lifetime, Emmett often recounted the story of its composition, and details vary with each account. For example, in various versions of the story, Emmett said he had written "Dixie" in a few minutes, in a single night, and over a few days.{{sfn|Sacks|Sacks|1993|p=160}} An 1872 edition of the ''[[New York Clipper]]'' provides one of the earliest accounts, relating that on a Saturday night shortly after Emmett had been taken on as a songwriter for the Bryant's Minstrels, Jerry Bryant told him they would need a new walkaround by the following Monday. By this account, Emmett shut himself inside his [[New York City|New York]] apartment and wrote the song that Sunday evening.{{sfn|Sacks|Sacks|1993|p=244}}  The playbill for Jerry Bryant's Minstrel Show dated Monday, April 4, 1859, lists the first performance of "Dixie's Land" at Mechanics' Hall, New York.<ref>Mark Knowles, Tap Roots: The Early History of Tap Dancing. Wikipedia.</ref>

Other details emerge in later accounts. In one, Emmett said that "Suddenly... I jumped up and sat down at the table to work. In less than an hour, I had the first verse and chorus. After that it was easy."<ref>Clipping titled "Author of Dixie". Quoted in Sacks and Sacks 160.</ref> In another version, Emmett stared out at the rainy evening and thought, "I wish I was in Dixie." Then, "Like a flash the thought suggested the first line of the walk-around, and a little later the minstrel, fiddle in hand, was working out the melody"<ref>Clipping from "The War Song of the South". Quoted in Sacks and Sacks 160.</ref> (a different story has it that Emmett's wife uttered the famous line).<ref>Levin.</ref> Yet another variant, dated to 1903, further changes the details: "I was standing by the window, gazing out at the drizzly, raw day, and the old circus feeling came over me. I hummed the old refrain, 'I wish I was in Dixie,' and the inspiration struck me. I took my pen and in ten minutes had written the first verses with music. The remaining verses were easy."<ref>July 1, 1904. "The Author of 'Dixie' Passes to Great Beyond". ''Mount Vernon Democratic Banner''. Quoted in Sacks and Sacks 160.</ref> In his final years, Emmett even said he had written the song years before he had moved to New York.{{sfn|Sacks|Sacks|1993|p=161}} An article in ''[[The Washington Post]]'' supports this, giving a composition date of 1843.<ref>Quoted in "The Author of Dixie", ''New York Clipper''. Quoted in Sacks and Sacks 244 note 19.</ref>

Emmett published "Dixie" (under the title "I Wish I Was in Dixie's Land") on June 21, 1860, through [[Firth, Pond & Company|Firth, Pond & Co.]] in New York. The original [[manuscript]] has been lost; extant copies were made during Emmett's retirement, starting in the 1890s. Emmett's tardiness registering the [[copyright]] for the song allowed it to proliferate among other minstrel groups and [[variety show]] performers. Rival editions and variations multiplied in [[songbook]]s, [[newspaper]]s and [[Broadside (printing)|broadside]]s. The earliest of these that is known today is a copyrighted edition for piano from the [[John Church Company]] of [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]], published on June 26, 1860. Other publishers attributed completely made-up composers with the song: "Jerry Blossom" and "Dixie, Jr.," among others.{{sfn|Nathan|1962|p=266}} The most serious of these challenges during Emmett's lifetime came from Southerner [[William Shakespeare Hays]]; this claimant attempted to prove his allegations through a Southern historical society, but he died before they could produce any conclusive evidence.{{sfn|Abel|2000|p=47}} By 1908, four years after Emmett's death, no fewer than 37 people had claimed the song as theirs.{{sfn|Abel|2000|p=46}}<ref>Sacks and Sacks give the same number of claimants but say "By the time of Emmett's death in 1904&nbsp;...".</ref>

"Dixie" is the only song Emmett ever said he had written in a burst of inspiration, and analysis of Emmett's notes and writings shows "a meticulous copyist, [who] spent countless hours collecting and composing songs and sayings for the minstrel stage&nbsp;... ; little evidence was left for the improvisational moment."{{sfn|Sacks|Sacks|1993|p=164}} The ''New York Clipper'' wrote in 1872 that "[Emmett's] claim to authorship of 'Dixie' was and is still disputed, both in and out of the minstrel profession."<ref>September 7, 1872, "Cat and Dog Fight". ''New York Clipper''. Quoted in Nathan 256.</ref> Emmett himself said, "Show people generally, if not always, have the chance to hear every local song as they pass through the different sections of [the] country, and particularly so with minstrel companies, who are always on the look out for songs and sayings that will answer their business."<ref>Quoted in Toll 42.</ref> He claimed at one point to have based the first part of "Dixie" on "Come Philander Let's Be Marchin, Every One for His True Love Searchin", which he described as a "song of his childhood days." Musical analysis does show some similarities in the [[melody|melodic]] outline, but the songs are not closely related.<ref>Quoted in Nathan 257.</ref> Emmett also credited "Dixie" to an old circus song.{{sfn|Sacks|Sacks|1993|p=161}} Despite the disputed authorship, Firth, Pond & Co. paid Emmett $300 for all rights to "Dixie" on February 11, 1861, perhaps fearing complications spurred by the impending Civil War.<ref>Sacks and Sacks, p. 212 note 4, call $300 "a sum even then considered small"; Abel, p. 31, says that it was "a sizable amount of money in those days, especially for a song." Nathan, p. 269, does not comment on the fairness of the deal.</ref>

The latest{{when?|date=June 2023}} challenge has been made on behalf of the [[Snowden Family Band]] of [[Knox County, Ohio]], who may have been the source of Emmett's "Dixie." One strong assertion of the Snowden's claim is the point of view of the original lyrics—not making fun of "darkies," but describing relationships between the mistress of a house and her beau, along with the residents of the "Quarters." This unique point of view reflects the life circumstances of the Snowden family matriarch on her birthplace plantation in Maryland, prior to moving to Ohio.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

===Origin of the terms "Dixie" and "Dixieland"===
{{see also|Dixie#Origin of the name}}
Various theories exist regarding the origin of the term "Dixie". According to Robert LeRoy Ripley (founder of ''[[Ripley's Believe It or Not!]]''), "Dixieland" was a farm on Long Island, New York, owned by a man named John Dixie. He befriended so many slaves before the Civil War that his place became a sort of a paradise to them.{{fcn|date=January 2024}}

James H. Street says that "Johaan Dixie" was a Haarlem (Manhattan Island) farmer who decided that his slaves were not profitable because they were idle during the New York winter, so he sent them to Charleston where they were sold.<ref>''Look Away! A Dixie Notebook'', as condensed in the August 1937 ''Reader's Digest'', page 45.</ref> Subsequently, the slaves were busy constantly, longing for the less strenuous life on the Haarlem farm; they would chant, "I sure wish we was back on Dixie's land."{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

One explanation revolves around currency of the period, the ten-dollar note from ''Banque des Citoyens de la Louisiane'' (the Citizens Bank of New Orleans, in the French Quarter) which had engraved on the reverse a large DIX (ten, in French, the language of many in New Orleans of the period). The notes were known as Dixies by Southerners, and the area around [[New Orleans]] and the French-speaking parts of Louisiana came to be known as Dixieland.<ref>"Dixie". ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Retrieved August 18, 2017.</ref>

Another popular theory maintains that the term originated in the [[Mason–Dixon line]].<ref>{{cite news|last=McWhirter|first=Christian (March 31, 2012)|title=The Birth of 'Dixie'|url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/31/the-birth-of-dixie/|newspaper=The New York Times|date=March 31, 2012 |access-date=April 28, 2012}}</ref>

==Popularity through the Civil War==
[[File:Bryants Minstrels Dixie.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Detail from a playbill for Bryant's Minstrels at April 4, 1859, premiere of "Dixie", [[Mechanics' Hall, New York City]]]]
Bryant's Minstrels premiered "Dixie" in New York City on April 4, 1859, as part of their blackface minstrel show. It appeared second to last on the bill, perhaps an indication of the Bryants' lack of faith that the song could carry the minstrel show's entire finale.<ref>Nathan 245 states that the date of the first performance is often given incorrectly.</ref> The walkaround was billed as a "plantation song and dance."{{sfn|Abel|2000|p=30}} It was a runaway success, and the Bryants quickly made it their standard closing number.

"Dixie" quickly gained wide recognition and status as a minstrel standard, and it helped rekindle interest in plantation material from other troupes, particularly in the third act. It became a favorite of [[Abraham Lincoln]] and was played during his campaign in 1860.<ref>Knowles 97.</ref> The ''New York Clipper'' wrote that it was "one of the most popular compositions ever produced" and that it had "been sung, whistled, and played in every quarter of the globe."<ref>August 10, 1861. ''The New York Clipper''. Quoted in Nathan 269.</ref> [[Buckley's Serenaders]] performed the song in [[London]] in late 1860, and by the end of the decade, it had found its way into the repertoire of British sailors.<ref>Whall, W. B. (1913). ''Sea Songs and Shanties'', p. 14. Quoted in Nathan 269.</ref> As the American Civil War broke out, one New Yorker wrote,

<blockquote>Dixie" has become an institution, an irrepressible institution in this section of the country&nbsp;... As a consequence, whenever "Dixie" is produced, the pen drops from the fingers of the plodding clerk, spectacles from the nose and the paper from the hands of the merchant, the needle from the nimble digits of the maid or matron, and all hands go hobbling, bobbling in time with the magical music of "Dixie."<ref>Circa 1861. Clipping from the ''New York Commercial Advertiser''. Quoted in Nathan 271.</ref></blockquote>

The [[Rumsey and Newcomb Minstrels]] brought "Dixie" to [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] in March 1860; the walkaround became the hit of their show. That April, [[Mrs. John Wood]] sang "Dixie" in a [[John Brougham]] [[burlesque]] called ''[[Po-ca-hon-tas, or The Gentle Savage]]'', increasing the song's popularity in New Orleans. On the surface "Dixie" seems an unlikely candidate for a Southern hit; it has a Northern composer, stars a black protagonist, is intended as a dance song, and lacks any of the patriotic bluster of most national hymns and marches. Had it not been for the atmosphere of [[sectionalism]] in which "Dixie" debuted, it might have faded into obscurity.<ref>Silber 50.</ref> Nevertheless, the refrain "In Dixie Land I'll took my stand / To lib an die in Dixie", coupled with the first verse and its sanguine picture of the South, hit a chord.<ref>Crawford 264–6.</ref> Woods's New Orleans audience demanded no fewer than seven encores.{{sfn|Abel|2000|p=32}}

[[File:Werlein's Dixie.jpg|thumb|upright|Unauthorized sheet music to "Dixie", published by [[P. P. Werlein]] and Halsey of New Orleans, Louisiana, in 1861]]

New Orleans publisher [[Philip Werlein|P. P. Werlein]] took advantage and published "Dixie" in New Orleans. He credited music to J. C. Viereck and Newcomb for lyrics. When the minstrel denied authorship, Werlein changed the credit to W. H. Peters. Werlein's version, subtitled "Sung by Mrs. John Wood," was the first "Dixie" to do away with the faux black dialect and misspellings. The publication did not go unnoticed, and Firth Pond & Co. threatened to sue. The date on Werlein's [[sheet music]] precedes that of Firth, Pond & Co.'s version, but Emmett later recalled that Werlein had sent him a letter offering to buy the rights for $5.<ref>Nathan 267 note 42.</ref> In a New York musical publishers' convention, Firth, Pond & Co. succeeded in convincing those present that Emmett was the composer. In future editions of Werlein's arrangement, Viereck is merely credited as "[[arrangement|arranger]]." Whether ironically or sincerely, Emmett dedicated a sequel called "[[I'm Going Home to Dixie]]" to Werlein in 1861.{{sfn|Nathan|1962|p=269}}

"Dixie" quickly spread to the rest of the South, enjoying vast popularity. By the end of 1860, secessionists had adopted it as theirs; on December 20 the band played "Dixie" after each vote for secession at [[St. Andrew's Hall, Charleston|St. Andrew's Hall]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], [[South Carolina]].{{sfn|Abel|2000|p=32}} On February 18, 1861, the song took on something of the air of [[national anthem]] when it was played at the inauguration of [[Jefferson Davis]], arranged as a [[quickstep]] by [[Herman Frank Arnold]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://finding-aids.lib.unc.edu/00024/|title=Herman Frank Arnold Biography, 1929.|website=finding-aids.lib.unc.edu}}</ref> and possibly for the first time as a band arrangement.<ref>A monument in Montgomery, Alabama, on the site of the inauguration reads, "Dixie was played as a band arrangement for the first time on this occasion". Quoted in Sacks and Sacks 4.</ref> Emmett himself reportedly told a fellow minstrel that year that "If I had known to what use they were going to put my song, I will be damned if I'd have written it."<ref>Letter from Col. T. Allston Brown to T. C. De Leon. Published in De Leon, ''Belles, Beaux, and Brains'' and quoted in Nathan 275.</ref>

In May 1861 Confederate [[Henry Hotze]] wrote:

<blockquote>It is marvellous with what wild-fire rapidity this tune "Dixie" has spread over the whole South. Considered as an intolerable nuisance when first the streets re-echoed it from the repertoire of wandering minstrels, it now bids fair to become the musical symbol of a new nationality, and we shall be fortunate if it does not impose its very name on our country.<ref>Hotze, Henry (5 May 1861). "Three Months in the Confederate Army: The Tune of Dixie." ''The Index''. Quoted in Harwell, ''Confederate Music'', 43; quoted in turn in Nathan 272.</ref></blockquote>

Southerners who shunned the song's low origins and comedic nature changed the lyrics, usually to focus on Southern pride and the war.{{sfn|Abel|2000|p=35}} Albert Pike's enjoyed the most popularity; the ''Natchez (Mississippi) Courier'' published it on May 30, 1861, as "The War Song of Dixie," followed by Werlein, who again credited Viereck for composition. [[Henry Throop Stanton]] published another war-themed "Dixie," which he dedicated to "the Boys in Virginia".{{sfn|Abel|2000|p=36}} The defiant "In Dixie Land I'll take my stand / To live and die in Dixie" were the only lines used with any consistency. The tempo also quickened, as the song was a useful quickstep tune. Confederate soldiers, by and large, preferred these war versions to the original minstrel lyrics. "Dixie" was probably the most popular song for Confederate soldiers on the march, in battle, and at camp.<ref>Cornelius 37.</ref>

Southerners who rallied to the song proved reluctant to acknowledge a [[Yankee]] as its composer. Accordingly, some ascribed it a longer tradition as a folk song. Poet [[John Hill Hewitt]] wrote in 1862 that "The homely air of 'Dixie,' of extremely doubtful origin&nbsp;... [is] generally believed to have sprung from a noble stock of Southern [[stevedore]] melodies."<ref>Postscript to the poem "War." Quoted in Harwell, Richard B. (1950). ''Confederate Music'', p. 50. Quoted in turn in Nathan p. 256.</ref>

Meanwhile, many Northern abolitionists took offense to the South's appropriation of "Dixie" because it was originally written as a satirical critique of the institution of slavery in the South. Before even the fall of [[Fort Sumter]], Frances J. Crosby published "Dixie for the Union" and "Dixie Unionized." The tune formed part of the repertoire of both Union [[band (music)|band]]s and common troops until 1863. Broadsides circulated with titles like "The Union 'Dixie'" or "The New Dixie, the True 'Dixie' for Northern Singers." Northern "Dixies" disagreed with the Southerners over the institution of slavery and this dispute, at the center of the divisiveness and destructiveness of the American Civil War, played out in the culture of American folk music through the disputes over the meaning of this song.<ref>Cornelius 36.</ref> Emmett himself arranged "Dixie" for the military in a book of [[Fife (musical instrument)|fife]] instruction in 1862, and a 1904 work by Charles Burleigh Galbreath claims that Emmett gave his official sanction to Crosby's Union lyrics.<ref>Galbreath, Charles Burleigh (October 1904). "Song Writers of Ohio," ''Ohio Archaeological Quarterly'', 13: 533–34. Quoted in Sacks and Sacks 156.</ref> At least 39 versions of the song, both vocal and instrumental, were published between 1860 and 1866.<ref>Cornelius 34.</ref>

Northerners, Emmett among them, also declared that the "Dixie Land" of the song was actually in the North. One common story, still cited today, claimed that Dixie was a [[Manhattan]] slave owner who had sent his slaves south just before New York's 1827 banning of slavery. The stories had little effect; for most Americans, "Dixie" was synonymous with the South.<ref>Introduction to sheet music for "I'm Going Home to Dixie." Quoted in Abel 39.</ref>

On April 10, 1865, one day after the [[Battle of Appomattox Court House|surrender]] of General [[Robert E. Lee]], Lincoln addressed a White House crowd:

<blockquote>I propose now closing up by requesting you play a certain piece of music or a tune. I thought "Dixie" one of the best tunes I ever heard&nbsp;... I had heard that our adversaries over the way had attempted to appropriate it. I insisted yesterday that we had fairly captured it&nbsp;... I presented the question to the Attorney-General, and he gave his opinion that it is our lawful prize&nbsp;... I ask the Band to give us a good turn upon it.<ref>Sandburg, Carl. (1939) ''Abraham Lincoln, The War Years'', vol. IV, 207–8. Quoted in Nathan 275.</ref></blockquote>

==Recordings==
Early recordings of the song include band versions by [[Issler's Orchestra]] ({{circa|1895}}), [[Patrick Gilmore|Gilmore's Band]] (1896), and the Edison Grand Concert Band (1896), and a vocal version by [[George J. Gaskin]] (1896).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://adp.library.ucsb.edu/|title=Discography of American Historical Recordings}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Edison Cylinder Records, 1889–1912|last=Koenigsberg|first=Allen|publisher=APM Press|year=1987}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/CylinderLists/page/n21|title=List of Famous Columbia Records|date=1896}}</ref>

The [[Norman Luboff Choir|Norman Luboff]] recorded it for the 1956 album ''Songs of the South''. This version was used on numerous tv & radio station sign-on & sign-offs in Southern USA including [[WRAL-TV]], [[WDAB|WBBR]], [[WGVL|WQOK]], & [[WOKK|WALT]].

=="Dixie" reconstructed==
[[File:DixiesLandPostcard.jpg|thumb|right|upright|"DIXIE'S LAND", 1904 [[postcard]]]]
"Dixie" slowly re-entered Northern repertoires, mostly in private performances.<ref name="Spitzer and Walters 9">Spitzer and Walters 9.</ref> New Yorkers resurrected stories about "Dixie" being a part of Manhattan, thus reclaiming the song for themselves. The ''[[New York Weekly]]'' wrote, "... no one ever heard of Dixie's land being other than Manhattan Island until recently, when it has been erroneously supposed to refer to the South, from its connection with pathetic negro allegory."<ref>1871 edition of the ''New York Weekly'', quoted in Abel 43.</ref> In 1888 the publishers of a [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] songbook included "Dixie" as a "patriotic song," and in 1895 the [[Confederate Veterans' Association]] suggested a celebration in honor of "Dixie" and Emmett in Washington as a bipartisan tribute. One of the planners noted that:

<blockquote>In this era of peace between the sections&nbsp;... thousands of people from every portion of the United States will be only too glad to unite with the ex-confederates in the proposed demonstration, and already some of the leading men who fought on the Union side are enthusiastically in favor of carrying out the programme. Dixie is as lively and popular an air today as it ever was, and its reputation is not confined to the American continent&nbsp;... [W]herever it is played by a big, strong band the auditors cannot help keeping time to the music.<ref>Clipping from "The Author of Dixie," c. 1895. Quoted in Sacks and Sacks 156.</ref></blockquote>

However, "Dixie" was still most strongly associated with the South. Northern singers and writers often used it for parody or as a [[quotation]] in other pieces to establish a person or setting as Southern.<ref name="Spitzer and Walters 9"/> For example, [[African American]]s [[Eubie Blake]] and [[Noble Sissle]] quoted "Dixie" in the song "Bandana Days" for their 1921 [[musical theatre|musical]] ''[[Shuffle Along]]''. In 1905 the [[United Daughters of the Confederacy]] mounted a campaign to acknowledge an official Southern version of the song (one that would purge it forever of its African American associations).{{sfn|Abel|2000|p=49}} Although they obtained the support of the [[United Confederate Veterans]] and the [[United Sons of Confederate Veterans]], Emmett's death the year before turned sentiments against the project, and the groups were ultimately unsuccessful in having any of the 22 entries universally adopted. The song was played at the dedication of Confederate monuments like [[Confederate Private Monument]] in [[Centennial Park (Nashville)|Centennial Park]], [[Nashville, Tennessee]], on June 19, 1909.<ref>{{cite news|title=TRIBUTE PAID RANK AND FILE|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/119221252/?terms=%22confederate%22%2B%22centennial%2Bpark%22|access-date=September 6, 2017|work=The Tennessean|date=June 20, 1909|pages=1–2|via=[[Newspapers.com]]|url-access=registration }}</ref>

As African Americans entered minstrelsy, they exploited the song's popularity in the South by playing "Dixie" as they first arrived in a Southern town. According to Tom Fletcher, a black minstrel of the time, it tended to please those who might otherwise be antagonistic to the arrival of a group of black men.<ref>Watkins 101.</ref>

[[File:Dan Emmett portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|Photograph of Dan Emmett with "Author of 'Dixie!'" written across the bottom. The portrait belonged to [[Snowden Family Band|Ben and Lew Snowden]] of Knox County, Ohio.]]

Still, "Dixie" was not rejected outright in the North. An article in the ''[[New York Tribune]]'', c. 1908, said that "though 'Dixie' came to be looked upon as characteristically a song of the South, the hearts of the Northern people never grew cold to it. President Lincoln loved it, and to-day it is the most popular song in the country, irrespective of section."<ref>Circa 1908, "How 'Dan' Emmett's Song Became the War Song of the South," New York ''Tribune''. Quoted in Sacks and Sacks 156.</ref> As late as 1934, the music journal ''[[The Etude]]'' asserted that "the sectional sentiment attached to ''Dixie'' has been long forgotten; and today it is heard everywhere—North, East, South, West."<ref>Smith, Will (September 1934). "The Story of Dixie and Its Picturesque Composer." ''Etude'' 52: 524. Quoted in Sacks and Sacks 156.</ref>

"Dixie" had become Emmett's most enduring legacy. In the 1900 census of Knox County, Emmett's occupation is given as "author of Dixie."<ref>Quoted in Sacks and Sacks 223 note 3.</ref> The band at Emmett's funeral played "Dixie" as he was lowered into his grave. His grave marker, placed 20 years after his death, reads,

{{center|To the Memory of}}
{{center|Daniel Decatur Emmett}}
{{center|1815—1904}}
{{center|Whose Song 'Dixie Land' inspired the courage}}
{{center|and Devotion of the Southern People and now}}
{{center|Thrills the Hearts of a Reunited Nation.{{sfn|Abel|2000|p=46}}}}

==Modern interpretations==
Beginning in the [[Civil Rights Movement]] in the 1950s and 1960s, African Americans have frequently criticised "Dixie", saying it is a [[racism|racist]] relic of the Confederacy and a reminder of decades of white domination and [[racial segregation|segregation]]. This position was amplified when white opponents to civil rights began answering songs such as "[[We Shall Overcome]]" with the song Dixie.<ref>Neely-Chandler, Thomasina, quoted in Johnston.</ref>{{sfn|Coski|2005|p=105}}

The earliest of these protests came from students of Southern universities, where "Dixie" was a staple of a number of marching bands.{{sfn|Sacks|Sacks|1993|p=155}} Similar protests have since occurred at the [[University of Virginia]], the [[Georgia Institute of Technology]], and [[Tulane University]]. In 1968, the President of the [[University of Miami]] banned the song from its band's performances.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www6.miami.edu/miami-magazine/fall01/boldbeginnigs.html |title=Bold Beginnings, Bright Tomorrows |work=Miami Magazine |date=Fall 2001 |access-date=November 30, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522054105/http://www6.miami.edu/miami-magazine/fall01/boldbeginnigs.html |archive-date=May 22, 2010 }}</ref>

The debate has since moved beyond student populations. Members of the 75th [[United States Army Band]] protested "Dixie" in 1971. In 1989, three black Georgia senators walked out when the Miss Georgia Sweet Potato Queen sang "Dixie" in the Georgia chamber. Some musicologists have challenged the song as racist. For example, [[Sam Dennison]] writes that "Today, the performance of 'Dixie' still conjures visions of an unrepentant, militarily recalcitrant South, ready to reassert its aged theories of white supremacy at any moment.... This is why the playing of 'Dixie' still causes hostile reactions."<ref>Dennison, Sam (1982). ''Scandalize My Name: Black Imagery in American Popular Music'', p. 188. Quoted in Sacks and Sacks 4.</ref>

Supporters consider the song a part of the patriotic American repertoire on a par with "[[America the Beautiful]]" and "[[Yankee Doodle]]." For example, Chief Justice [[William Rehnquist]] regularly included "Dixie" in his annual [[sing-along]] for the 4th Circuit Judicial Conference in [[Virginia]]. However, its performance prompted some African American lawyers to avoid the event.<ref>Timberg.</ref>

Campaigns against "Dixie" and other Confederate symbols have helped create a sense of political ostracism and marginalization among working-class white Southerners.<ref>Poole 124.</ref> Confederate heritage groups and literature proliferated in the late 1980s and early 1990s in response to criticism of the song.{{sfn|Coski|2005|p=194}} Journalist Clint Johnson calls modern opposition to "Dixie" "an open, not-at-all-secret conspiracy"<ref>Johnson 1.</ref> and an example of [[political correctness]]. Johnson believes that modern versions of the song are not racist and simply reinforce that the South "extols family and tradition."<ref name="Johnson 50">Johnson 50.</ref> Other supporters, such as former State Senator [[Glenn McConnell]] of South Carolina, have called the attempts to suppress the song [[cultural genocide]].<ref>Quoted in Prince 152.</ref>

In 2016, the [[University of Mississippi|Ole Miss]] athletics department announced the song would no longer be played at athletic events – a tradition that had spanned some seven decades at football games and other sporting events. Ole Miss athletic director at the time [[Ross Bjork]] said, "It fits in with where the university has gone in terms of making sure we follow our creed, core values of the athletic department, and that all people feel welcome."<ref>Ganucheau, Adam. (August 19, 2016). [https://mississippitoday.org/2016/08/19/for-ole-miss-sports-dixie-is-dead/ For Ole Miss sports, 'Dixie' is dead]. ''Mississippi Today''. Retrieved February 16, 2021.</ref>

==In popular culture==
The song added a new term to the [[American English|American lexicon]]: "Whistling 'Dixie'" is a [[slang]] expression meaning "[engaging] in unrealistically rosy fantasizing."<ref>2000. ''American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'', 4th ed.</ref> For example, "Don't just sit there whistling 'Dixie'!" is a reprimand against inaction, and "You ain't just whistling 'Dixie'!" indicates that the addressee is serious about the matter at hand.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

Dixie is sampled in the film scores of a great many American feature films, often to signify Confederate troops and the American Civil War. For example, [[Max Steiner]] quotes the song in the opening scene of his late 1930s score to ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' as a down-beat nostalgic instrumental to set the scene and [[Ken Burns]] makes use of instrumental versions in his 1990 ''[[The Civil War (documentary)|Civil War]]'' documentary. In 1943, [[Bing Crosby]]'s film ''[[Dixie (film)|Dixie]]'' (a biopic of Dan Emmett) features the song and it formed the centerpiece of the finale. Crosby never recorded the song commercially.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

The soundtracks of cartoons featuring Southern characters like [[Foghorn Leghorn]] often play "Dixie" to quickly set the scene. On the television series ''[[The Dukes of Hazzard]]'', which takes place in a fictional county in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], the musical car horn of the ''[[General Lee (car)|General Lee]]'' plays the initial twelve notes of the melody from the song. Sacks and Sacks argue that such apparently innocent associations only further serve to tie "Dixie" to its blackface origins, as these comedic programs are, like the minstrel show, "inelegant, parodic [and] dialect-ridden."{{sfn|
Sacks|Sacks|1993|p=159}} On the other hand, Poole sees the "Dixie" car horn, as used on the "General Lee" from the TV show and mimicked by white Southerners, as another example of the song's role as a symbol of "working-class revolt."<ref>Poole 140.</ref>

[[Carol Moseley Braun]], the first black woman in the Senate and only black senator at the time, claimed Senator [[Jesse Helms]] whistled "Dixie" while in an elevator with her.<ref>{{cite magazine
 | first = Jessica
 | last = Reaves
 | title= Is Jesse Helms Whistling 'Dixie' Over Nomination?
 | magazine=Time
 | date=October 27, 1999
| url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,33306,00.html
 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710072730/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,33306,00.html
 | url-status=dead
 | archive-date=July 10, 2008
| access-date=July 8, 2008}}</ref>

Performers who choose to sing "Dixie" today usually remove the black dialect and combine the song with other pieces. For example, [[Rene Marie]]'s jazz version mixes "Dixie" with "[[Strange Fruit]]", a [[Billie Holiday]] song about a [[lynching]]. [[Mickey Newbury]]'s "[[An American Trilogy]]" (often performed by [[Elvis Presley]]) combines "Dixie" with the Union's "[[Battle Hymn of the Republic]]" and the negro spiritual "[[All My Trials]]".<ref>Johnston.</ref> [[Bob Dylan]] also recorded a version of the song for the 2003 film ''[[Masked and Anonymous]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/masked-and-anonymous-mw0000040775|title=Masked and Anonymous – Bob Dylan – Songs, Reviews, Credits – AllMusic|website=[[AllMusic]] }}</ref>

The character [[Ian Malcolm (character)|Ian Malcolm]] from [[Michael Crichton]]'s novel [[The Lost World (Crichton novel)|''The Lost World'']] (1995) sings lines from the song while in a [[morphine]]-induced stupor.

For many white Southerners, "Dixie," like the [[Modern display of the Confederate flag|Confederate flag]], is a symbol of Southern heritage and identity.{{sfn|Abel|2000|p=51}} Until somewhat recently, a few Southern universities including the [[University of Mississippi]] maintained the "Dixie" [[fight song]], coupled with the Rebel mascot and the Confederate battle flag school symbol, which led to protests.{{sfn|Coski|2005|p=208}} Confederate heritage websites regularly feature the song,<ref>McPherson 107.</ref> and Confederate heritage groups routinely sing "Dixie" at their gatherings.<ref>Prince 1.</ref> In his song "[[Dixie on My Mind]]," country musician [[Hank Williams, Jr.]], cites the absence of "Dixie" on Northern radio stations as an example of how Northern culture pales in comparison to its Southern counterpart.<ref>McLaurin 26.</ref>

During 2022, the [[Union Army]]'s parody of the song re-surged in popularity as it became the [[anthem]] of an [[List of Internet phenomena|internet phenomenon]] known as "[[William Tecumseh Sherman|Sherman]]<nowiki/>posting", where it was used to disparage [[Neo-Confederates|neo-Confederacy]] in [[Internet meme|internet memes]] evoking nostalgia for the Union.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-03 |title=The Latest Online Influencer: General William Tecumseh Sherman |url=https://www.nysun.com/article/the-latest-online-influencer-general-william-tecumseh-sherman |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=The New York Sun |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* "[[God Save the South]]"
* "[[Battle Hymn of the Republic]]", the Union equivalent

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Abel |first=E. Lawrence |year=2000 |title=Singing the New Nation: How Music Shaped the Confederacy, 1861–1865 |location=Mechanicsburg, PA |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=978-0-8117-0228-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/singingnewnation00abel }}
* {{cite book |last=Cornelius |first=Steven H. |year=2004 |title=Music of the Civil War Era |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-313-32081-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Branham |first1=Robert James |first2=Stephen J. |last2=Hartnett |year=2002 |title=Sweet Freedom's Song: "My Country 'Tis of Thee" and Democracy in America | publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-513741-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Coski |first=John M. |year=2005 |title=The Confederate Battle Flag: America's Most Embattled Emblem |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. |isbn=0-674-01983-0 }}.
* {{cite book |last=Crawford |first=Richard |year=2001 |title=America's Musical Life: A History |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. |isbn=0-393-32726-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Clint |year=2007 |title=The Politically Incorrect Guide to the South (and Why It Will Rise Again) |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Regnery Publishing Inc. |isbn=978-1-59698-500-1 }}
* {{cite web |last=Johnston |first=Cynthia |date=November 11, 2002 |url=http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/patc/dixie/ |title=Dixie |work=Present at the Creation series |publisher=NPR |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128063328/http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/patc/dixie/ |access-date=December 1, 2005 |archive-date=January 28, 2012 }}
* {{cite news |last=Kane |first=G. A. Dr. |date=March 19, 1893 |url=http://www.civilwarhome.com/dixieorigin.htm |title='Dixie': Dan Emmett its Author and New York the Place of Its Production |work=Richmond Dispatch |access-date=December 1, 2005 }}
* {{cite book |last=Knowles |first=Mark |year=2002 |title=Tap Roots: The Early History of Tap Dancing |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc. |isbn=0-7864-1267-4 }}
* {{cite news |last=Levin |first=Steve |date=September 4, 1998 |url=http://www.post-gazette.com/regionstate/19980904dixie4.asp |title='Dixie' now too symbolic of old South, not of origins |newspaper=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |access-date=December 1, 2005 }}
* {{cite book |last=Matthews |first=Brander |year=1888 |edition=2007 |title=Pen and Ink: Papers on Subjects of More or Less Importance |publisher=Kessinger Publishing, LLC. |isbn=1-4304-7008-9 }}
* {{cite news |last=McDaniel |first=Alex |year=2009 |url=http://thedmonline.com/article/no-love-dixie-chancellor-pulls-bands-pregame-piece-after-chanting-continues |title=No love for 'Dixie': Chancellor pulls band pregame piece after chanting continues |newspaper=The Daily Mississippian |access-date=March 9, 2010 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite book |last=McLaurin |first=Melton A. |year=1992 |chapter=Songs of the South: The Changing Image of the South in Country Music |title=You Wrote My Life: Lyrical Themes in Country Music |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=2-88124-548-X }}
* {{cite book |last=McPherson |first=Tara |year=2003 |title=Reconstructing Dixie: Race, Gender, and Nostalgia in the Imagined South |location=Durham, North Carolina |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=0-8223-3040-7 }}
* {{cite news |last=McWhirter |first=Christian |url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/31/the-birth-of-dixie/ |title=The Birth of 'Dixie.' |work=The New York Times |date=March 31, 2012 |access-date=April 28, 2012 }}
* {{cite book |last=Nathan |first=Hans |year=1962 |title=Dan Emmett and the Rise of Early Negro Minstrelsy |location=Norman, Oklahoma |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn= }}
* {{cite book |last=Poole |first=W. Scott |year=2005 |chapter=Lincoln in Hell: Class and Confederate Symbols in the American South |title=National Symbols, Fractured Identities: Contesting the National Narrative |location=Middlebury, Vermont |publisher=Middlebury College Press |isbn=1-58465-437-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Prince |first=K. Michael |year=2004 |title=Rally 'Round the Flag, Boys!: South Carolina and the Confederate Flag |publisher=The University of South Carolina Press |isbn=1-57003-527-X }}
* {{cite book |last=Roland |first=Charles P. |year=2004 |title=An American Iliad: The Story of the Civil War, 2nd ed. |publisher=The University Press of Kentucky |isbn=0-8131-2300-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sacks |first1=Howard L. |last2=Sacks |first2=Judith |year=1993 |title=Way up North in Dixie: A Black Family's Claim to the Confederate Anthem |location=Washington |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |isbn=0-252-07160-3 }}.
* {{cite book |authorlink=Irwin Silber |last=Silber |first=Irwin |year=1960 |edition=1995 |title=Songs of the Civil War |location=Mineola, New York |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=0-486-28438-7 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Spitzer |first1=John |last2=Walters |first2=Ronald G. |url=http://historymatters.gmu.edu/mse/Songs/songs.pdf |title=Making Sense of an American Popular Song |website=History Matters: The U.S. Survey on the Web |access-date=December 18, 2005 }}
* {{cite news |last=Timberg |first=Craig |date=July 22, 1999 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/daily/july99/dixie22.htm |title=Rehnquist's Inclusion of 'Dixie' Strikes a Sour Note |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=December 1, 2005 }}
* {{cite book |last=Toll |first=Robert C. |year=1974 |title=Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth-century America |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-502172-X }}
* {{cite book |last=Warburton |first=Thomas |year=2002 |chapter=Dixie |title=The Companion to Southern Literature: Themes, Genres, Places, People, Movements, and Motifs |location=Baton Route |publisher=Louisiana State University Press |isbn=0-8071-2692-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Watkins |first=Mel |year=1994 |title=On the Real Side: Laughing, Lying, and Signifying—The Underground Tradition of African-American Humor that Transformed American Culture, from Slavery to Richard Pryor |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=1-55652-351-3 }}
* {{cite news |last=Yoste |first=Elizabeth |date=January 30, 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071104233628/http://media.www.thedmonline.com/media/storage/paper876/news/2002/01/30/News/dixie.Sees.Less.Play.At.Tad.Pad-1581532.shtml |archive-date=November 4, 2007 |url=http://media.www.thedmonline.com/media/storage/paper876/news/2002/01/30/News/dixie.Sees.Less.Play.At.Tad.Pad-1581532.shtml |title='Dixie' sees less play at Tad Pad |newspaper=The Daily Mississippian |access-date=October 16, 2007 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikisource|Dixie's Land}}
{{Commons category|Dixie (song)}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060305122036/http://home.att.net/~dmercado/audio/dixie.mid Example version of "Dixie's Land"] ([[MIDI]])
* [http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/sheetmusic/n/n08/n0807/ Sheet music for "Dixie's Land"] from [http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/sheetmusic/ Historic American Sheet Music] at [[Duke University]].
* [http://www.americanmusicpreservation.com/LincolnandLiberty.htm Lincoln and Liberty]
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.dod.dimoc.30155|name=A NATION SINGS (1963)}}

{{Duane Eddy|state=collapsed}}{{Billy Murray|state=autocollapse}}
{{List of official United States national symbols}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dixie (Song)}}
[[Category:1859 songs]]
[[Category:American folk songs]]
[[Category:North American anthems]]
[[Category:Billy Murray (singer) songs]]
[[Category:Jan and Dean songs]]
[[Category:Blackface minstrel songs]]
[[Category:Burl Ives songs]]
[[Category:American military marches]]
[[Category:Songs of the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Bob Dylan songs]]
[[Category:Race-related controversies in music]]
[[Category:Songs about the American South]]
[[Category:Historical national anthems]]
[[Category:Anthems of non-sovereign states]]
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