Английская Википедия:*Manu and *Yemo
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Cleanup lang Шаблон:Contains special characters *Manu and *Yemo were a duo in Proto-Indo-European mythology.Шаблон:Sfn In the creation myth, Manu kills Yemo as a foundational part of the origin of the universe.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Шаблон:PIE is sometimes also interpreted as a primordial hermaphrodite.Шаблон:Sfn[1]
The comparative analysis of different Indo-European tales has led scholars to reconstruct an original Proto-Indo-European creation myth involving twin brothers, *Шаблон:PIE ('Man') and *Шаблон:PIE ('Twin'), as the progenitors of the world and mankind, and a hero named *Шаблон:PIE ('Third') who ensured the continuity of the original sacrifice.
Although some thematic parallels can be made with Ancient Near East (the primordial couple Adam and Eve), and even Polynesian or South American legends, the linguistic correspondences found in descendant cognates of *Manu and *Yemo make it very likely that the myth discussed here has a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) origin.Шаблон:Sfn
Following a first paper on the cosmogonical legend of Manu and Yemo, published simultaneously with Jaan Puhvel in 1975 (who pointed out the Roman reflex of the story), Bruce Lincoln assembled the initial part of the myth with the legend of the third man Trito in a single ancestral motif.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Since the 1970s, the reconstructed motifs of Manu and Yemo, and to a lesser extent that of Trito, have been generally accepted among scholars.[2]
Overview
Reconstruction
There is no scholarly consensus as to which of the variants is the most accurate reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European cosmogonic myth.Шаблон:Sfn Bruce Lincoln's reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European motif known as "Twin and Man" is supported by a number of scholars such as Jaan Puhvel, J. P. Mallory, Douglas Q. Adams, David W. Anthony, and, in part, Martin L. West.[3] Although some thematic parallels can be made with traditions of the Ancient Near East (the twins Abel and Cain and their brother Seth), and even Polynesian or South American legends, Lincoln argues that the linguistic correspondences found in descendant cognates of *Manu and *Yemo make it very likely that the myth has a Proto-Indo-European origin.Шаблон:Sfn According to Edgar C. Polomé, "some elements of the [Scandinavian myth of Ymir] are distinctively Indo-European", but the reconstruction proposed by Lincoln "makes too [many] unprovable assumptions to account for the fundamental changes implied by the Scandinavian version".Шаблон:Sfn
Creation myth
Lincoln reconstructs a creation myth involving twin brothers, *Шаблон:PIE ("Man") and *Шаблон:PIE ("Twin"), as the progenitors of the world and humankind, and a hero named *Шаблон:PIE ("Third") who ensured the continuity of the original sacrifice.Шаблон:Sfn Regarding the primordial state that may have preceded the creation process, West notes that the Vedic, Norse and, at least partially, the Greek traditions give evidence of an era when the cosmological elements were absent, with similar formula insisting on their non-existence: "neither non-being was nor being was at that time; there was not the air, nor the heaven beyond it..." (Rigveda), "...there was not sand nor sea nor the cool waves; earth was nowhere nor heaven above; Ginnunga Gap there was, but grass nowhere..." (Völuspá), "...there was Chasm and Night and dark Erebos at first, and broad Tartarus, but earth nor air nor heaven there was..." (The Birds).Шаблон:Sfn
First Warrior
To the third man Trito, the celestial gods offer cattle as a divine gift, which is stolen by a three-headed serpent named *Шаблон:PIE ('serpent'; and the Indo-European root for negation).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Trito first suffers at his hands, but fortified by an intoxicating drink and aided by a helper-god (the Storm-God or *H₂ner, 'Man'),Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn together they go to a cave or a mountain, and the hero finally manages to overcome the monster. Trito then gives the recovered cattle back to a priest for it to be properly sacrificed.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He is now the first warrior, maintaining through his heroic deeds the cycle of mutual giving between gods and mortals.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Three Functions
According to Lincoln, Manu and Yemo seem to be the protagonists of "a myth of the sovereign function, establishing the model for later priests and kings", while the legend of Trito should be seen as "a myth of the warrior function, establishing the model for all later men of arms".Шаблон:Sfn He has thus interpreted the narrative as an expression of the priests's and kings's attempt to justify their role as indispensable for the preservation of the cosmos, and therefore as essential for the organization of society.Шаблон:Sfn The motif indeed recalls the Dumézilian tripartition of the cosmos between the priest (in both his magical and legal aspects), the warrior (the Third Man), and the herder (the cow).Шаблон:Sfn
Primeval hermaphrodite
Hermann Güntert, stressing philological parallels between the Germanic and Indo-Iranian texts, argued in 1923 for an inherited Indo-European motif of the creation of the world from the sacrifice and dismemberment of a primordial androgyne.Шаблон:Sfn
Some scholars have proposed that the primeval being Yemo was depicted as a two-folded hermaphrodite rather than a twin brother of Manu, both forming indeed a pair of complementary beings entwined together.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Germanic names Ymir and Tuisto were understood as twin, bisexual or hermaphrodite, and some myths give a sister to the Vedic Yama, also called Yamī ('Twin').Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The primordial being may therefore have self-sacrificed,Шаблон:Sfn or have been divided in two, a male half and a female half, embodying a prototypal separation of the sexes that continued the primordial union of the Sky Father (Dyēus) with the Mother Earth (Dʰéǵʰōm).Шаблон:Sfn
Interpretations
According to Lincoln, Manu and Yemo seem to be the protagonists of "a myth of the sovereign function, establishing the model for later priests and kings", while the legend of Trito should be interpreted as "a myth of the warrior function, establishing the model for all later men of arms".Шаблон:Sfn The myth indeed recalls the Dumézilian tripartition of the cosmos between the priest (in both his magical and legal aspects), the warrior (the Third Man), and the herder (the cow).Шаблон:Sfn
The story of Trito served as a model for later cattle raiding epic myths and most likely as a moral justification for the practice of raiding among Indo-European peoples. In the original legend, Trito is only taking back what rightfully belongs to his people, those who sacrifice properly to the gods.Шаблон:Sfn The myth has been interpreted either as a cosmic conflict between the heavenly hero and the earthly serpent, or as an Indo-European victory over non-Indo-European people, the monster symbolizing the aboriginal thief or usurper.Шаблон:Sfn
Legacy
Cognates deriving from the Proto-Indo-European First Priest *Manu ("Man", "ancestor of mankind") include the Indic Manu, legendary first man in Hinduism, and Manāvī, his sacrificed wife; the Germanic Mannus (PGmc *Mannaz), mythical ancestor of the West Germanic tribes; and the Persian Manūščihr (from Aves. Manūš.čiθra), a Zoroastrian high priest of the 9th century AD.Шаблон:Sfn From the name of the sacrificed First King *Yemo ("Twin") derive the Indic Yama, god of death and the underworld; the Avestan Yima, king of the golden age and guardian of hell; the Norse Ymir (from PGmc *Jumijaz), ancestor of the giants (jötnar); and most likely Remus (from Proto-Latin *Yemos or *Yemonos, with the initial y- shifting to r- under the influence of Rōmulus), killed in the Roman foundation myth by his twin brother Romulus.Шаблон:Sfn Cognates stemming from the First Warrior *Trito ("Third") include the Vedic Trita, the Avestan Thrita, and the Norse þriði.Шаблон:Sfn
Many Indo-European beliefs explain the origin of natural elements as the result of the original dismemberment of Yemo: his flesh usually becomes the earth, his hair grass, his bone yields stone, his blood water, his eyes the sun, his mind the moon, his brain the clouds, his breath the wind, and his head the heavens.Шаблон:Sfn The traditions of sacrificing an animal to disperse its parts according to socially established patterns, a custom found in Ancient Rome and India, has been interpreted as an attempt to restore the balance of the cosmos ruled by the original sacrifice.Шаблон:Sfn
The motif of Manu and Yemo has been influential throughout Eurasia following the Indo-European migrations. The Greek, Old Russian (Poem on the Dove King) and Jewish versions depend on the Iranian, and a Chinese version of the myth has been introduced from Ancient India.Шаблон:Sfn The Armenian version of the myth of the First Warrior Trito depends on the Iranian, and the Roman reflexes were influenced by earlier Greek versions.Шаблон:Sfn
Linguistic evidence
Manu and Yemo
Cognates deriving from the Proto-Indo-European First Priest *Manu ('Man', 'ancestor of humankind') include the Indic Mánu, legendary first man in Hinduism, and Manāvī, his sacrificed wife; the Germanic Mannus (from Germ. *Manwaz), mythical ancestor of the West Germanic tribes; and the Persian Manūščihr (from Av. Manūš.čiθra, 'son of Manuš'), Zoroastrian high priest of the 9th century AD.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
From the name of the sacrificed First King *Yemo ('Twin') derive the Indic Yama, god of death and the underworld; the Avestan Yima, king of the golden age and guardian of hell; the Norse Ymir (from Germ. *Yumiyáz), ancestor of the giants (jötnar); and most likely Remus (from Proto-Latin *Yemos), killed in the Roman foundation myth by his twin brother Rōmulus.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Latvian jumis ('double fruit'), Latin geminus ('twin') and Middle Irish emuin ('twin') are also linguistically related.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
| Tradition | First Priest | First King | First mammal | Heavenly gods |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proto-Indo-European | *Manu ('Man') | *Yemo ('Twin') | Primordial Cow | Sky-Father, Storm-God, Divine Twins |
| Indian | Mánu, Puruṣa | Yama, (Manāvī) | Manu's bull | The Vedic gods |
| Iranian | Spityura, Manūščihr | Yima, Gayōmart | Primordial Ox (Gōšūrvan) | – |
| Germanic | Mannus | Ymir, Tuisto | Primordial Cow (Auðhumla) | Óðinn and his brothers |
| Roman | Rōmulus | *Yemos (Remus) | She-wolf | The senators |
Trito and Ngwhi
Cognates stemming from the First Warrior *Trito ('Third') include the Vedic Trita, the hero who recovered the stolen cattle from the serpent Vṛtrá; the Avestan Thraētona ('son of Thrita'), who won back the abducted women from the serpent Aži Dahāka; and the Norse þriði ('Third'), one of the names of Óðinn.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Other cognates may appear in the Greek expressions trítos sōtḗr (τρίτος σωτήρ; 'Third Saviour'), an epithet of Zeus, and tritogḗneia (τριτογήνεια; 'Third born' or 'born of Zeus'), an epithet of Athena; and perhaps in the Slavic mythical hero Troyan, found in Russian and Serbian legends alike.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn
*Ngwhi, a term meaning 'serpent', is also related to the Indo-European root for negation (*ne-).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Descendent cognates can be found in the Iranian Aži, the name of the inimical serpent, and in the Indic áhi ('serpent'), a term used to designate the monstrous serpent Vṛtrá,Шаблон:Sfn both descending from Proto-Indo-Iranian *aj'hi.[5]
| Tradition | First Warrior | Three-headed Serpent | Helper God | Stolen present |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proto-Indo-European | *Trito ('Third') | *Шаблон:PIE | The Storm-god or Hanēr ('Man') | Cattle |
| Indian | Trita | Vṛtrá ('áhi') | Indra | Cows |
| Iranian | Thraētona ('son of Thrita') | Aži Dahāka | *Vr̥traghna | Women |
| Germanic | þriði, Hymir | Three serpents | Þórr | Goats (?) |
| Graeco-Roman | Herakles | Geryon, Cācus | Helios | Cattle |
Comparative mythology
Many Indo-European beliefs explain aspects of human anatomy from the results of the original dismemberment of Yemo: his flesh usually becomes the earth, his hair grass, his bone yields stone, his blood water, his eyes the sun, his mind the moon, his brain the clouds, his breath the wind, and his head the heavens.Шаблон:Sfn The traditions of sacrificing an animal before dispersing its parts following socially established patterns, a custom found in Ancient Rome and India, has been interpreted as an attempt to restore the balance of the cosmos ruled by the original sacrifice.Шаблон:Sfn
In the Indo-Iranian version of the myth, his brother Manu also sacrifices the cow, and from the parts of the dead animal are born the other living species and vegetables. In the European reflexes, however, the cow (represented by a she-wolf in the Roman myth) serves only as a provider of milk and care for the twins before the creation.Шаблон:Sfn This divergence may be explained by the cultural differences between the Indo-Iranian and European branches of the Indo-European family, with the former still strongly influenced by pastoralism, and the latter much more agricultural, perceiving the cow mainly as a source of milk.Шаблон:Sfn According to Lincoln, the Indo-Iranian version best preserves the ancestral motif, since they lived closer to the original Proto-Indo-European pastoral way of life.Шаблон:Sfn
Indo-Iranian
Creation myth
Mánu ('Man, human') appears in the Rigveda as the first sacrificer and the founder of religious law, the Law of Mánu.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He is the brother (or half-brother) of Yama ('Twin'), both presented as the sons of the solar deity Vivasvat. The association of Mánu with the ritual of sacrifice is so strong that those who do not sacrifice are named amanuṣāḥ, which means 'not belonging to Mánu', 'unlike Mánu', or 'inhuman'.Шаблон:Sfn The Song of Puruṣa (another word meaning 'man') tells how the body parts of the sacrificed primeval man led to the creation of the cosmos (the heaven from his head, the air from his navel, the earth from his legs) and the Hindu castes (the upper parts becoming the upper castes and the lower parts the commoners).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In the later Śatapatha Brāhmana, both a primordial bull and Mánu's wife Manāvī are sacrificed by the Asuras (demi-gods). According to Lincoln, this could represent an independent variant of the original myth, with the figure of Yama laying behind that of Manāvī.Шаблон:Sfn
After a religious transformation led by Zarathustra around the 7th–6th centuries BC that degraded the status of prior myths and deities, *Manuš was replaced in the Iranian tradition with three different figures: Ahriman, who took his role as first sacrificer; Manūščihr ('son' or 'seed of Manuš'), who replaced him as ancestor of the priestly line; and Zarathustra himself, who took his role as priest par excellence. Manūščihr is described in the Greater Bun-dahišnīh as the ancestor of all Mōpats ('High Priests') of Pars, and it has been proposed that *Manuš was originally regarded as the First Priest instead of Zarathustra by pre-Zoroastrian tribes.Шаблон:Sfn
The Indo-Iranian tradition portrays the first mortal man or king, *YamHa, as the son of the solar deity, *Hui-(H)uas-uant.Шаблон:Sfn[7] Invoked in funeral hymns of the Rigveda, Yama is depicted as the first man to die, the one who established the path towards death after he freely chose his own departure from life.Шаблон:Sfn Although his realm was originally associated with feasting, beauty and happiness, Yama was gradually portrayed as a horrific being and the ruler of the Otherworld in the epic and puranic traditions.Шаблон:Sfn Some scholars have equated this abandonment (or transcendence) of his own body with the sacrifice of Puruṣa.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In a motif shared with the Iranian tradition, which is touched in the Rigveda and told in later traditions, Yama and his twin sister Yamī are presented as the children of the sun-god Vivasvat. Discussing the advisability of incest in a primordial context, Yamī insists on having sexual intercourse with her brother Yama, who rejects it, thus forgoing his role as the creator of humankind.Шаблон:Sfn
In pre-Zoroastrian Iran, Yima was seen as the first king and first mortal. The original myth of creation was indeed condemned by Zarathustra, who makes mention of it in the Avesta when talking about the two spirits that "appeared in the beginning as two twins in a dream ... (and) who first met and instituted life and non-life".Шаблон:Sfn Yima in particular is depicted as the first to distribute portions of the cow for consumption,Шаблон:Sfn and is explicitly condemned for having introduced the eating of meat.Шаблон:Sfn After a brief reign on earth, the king Yima was said in a later tradition to be deprived of his triple royal nimbus, which embodied the three social classes in Iranian myths. Mithra receives the part of the Priest, Thraētona that of the Warrior, and Kərəsāspa that of the Commoner. The saga ends with the real dismemberment of Yima by his own brother, the daiwic figure Spityura.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In another myth of the Younger Avesta, the primal man Gayōmart (Gaya marətan; 'Mortal Life') and the primeval world ox Gōšūrvan are sacrificed by the destructive spirit Ahriman (Aŋra Mainyu, 'Evil Spirit').Шаблон:Sfn From the ox's parts came all the plants and animals, and from Gayōmart's body the minerals and humankind.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In the Vīdēvdāt, Yima is presented as the builder of an underworld, a sub-terrestrial paradise eventually ruled by Zarathustra and his son. The story, giving a central position to the new religious leader, is once again probably the result of a Zoroastrian reformation of the original myth, and Yima might have been seen as the ruler of the realm of the dead in the early Iranian tradition.Шаблон:Sfn Norbert Oettinger argues that the story of Yima and the Vara was originally a flood myth, and the harsh winter was added in due to the dry nature of Eastern Iran, as flood myths didn't have as much of an effect as harsh winters. He has argued that the Videvdad 2.24's mention of melted water flowing is a remnant of the flood myth, and mentions that the Indian Flood Myths originally had their protagonist as Yama, but it was changed to Manu later.[8]
Legacy
The motif of Manu and Yemo has been influential throughout Eurasia following the Indo-European migrations. The Greek, Old Russian (Poem on the Dove King) and Jewish versions depend on the Iranian, and a Chinese version of the myth has been introduced from Ancient India.Шаблон:Sfn The Armenian version of the myth of the First Warrior Trito depends on the Iranian, and the Roman reflexes were influenced by earlier Greek versions.Шаблон:Sfn
Baltic mythology records a fertility deity Jumis,[9] whose name means 'pair, double (of fruits)'.[10] His name is also considered a cognate to Indo-Iranian Yama, and related to Sanskrit yamala 'in pairs, twice' and Prakrit yamala 'twins'.[11] Ranko Matasović cites the existence of Jumala as a female counterpart and sister of Jumis in Latvian dainas (folksongs), as another fertility deity,[12][13] and in the same vein, Zmago Smitek mentioned the pair as having "pronounced vegetational characteristics".[14] Jumis, whose name can also mean 'double ear of wheat', is also considered a Latvian chthonic deity that lived "beneath the plowed field".[15]
Later Iranian tradition (Pahlavi) attests a brother-sister pair named Jima (Yima) and Jimak (Yimak).[16][17] Yimak, or Jamag, is described as Yima's twin sister in the Bundahishn from Central Iran.[14][18] Yima consorts with his sister Yimak to produce humankind, but is later killed by Azi Dahaka.[19]
The name Yama is attested as a compound in personal names of the historical Persepolis Administrative Archives, such as Yamakka and Yamakšedda (from Old Persian *Yama-xšaita- 'majestic Yama', modern Jamshid).[20]
Nuristani deity Imra is also considered a reflex of Indo-Iranian Yama. The name Imra is thought to derive from *Yama-raja "King Yama",[21][22] a name possibly cognate to the Bangani title Jim Raza 'god of the dead'.[23] He is also known as Mara "Killer, Death".[24][25] This name may have left traces in other Nuristani languages: Waigali Yamrai,[26] Kalash (Urtsun) imbro,[27] Ashkun im'ra, Prasun yumr'a and Kati im'ro - all referring to a "creator god".[28][29] This deity also acts as the guardian to the gates of hell (located in a subterranean realm), preventing the return to the world of the living - a motif that echoes the role of Yama as the king of the underworld.[30]
Linguist and comparativist Jaan Puhvel proposed that the characters of "Man" and "Twin" are present in Proto-Latin under the names of Romulus and Remus (from *Yemo(no)s). The former was deified as god Quirinus, a name he considered to be ultimately derived from Шаблон:PIE ('man').[31][32]Шаблон:Efn
Following Puhvel's line of argument, Belarusian scholar Siarhiej Sanko attempted to find a Proto-Baltic related pair, possibly named Jumis ("twin") and Viras ("male, hero"). He saw a connection with (quasi-pseudo-)historical Prussian king Widewuto and his brother Bruteno. Related to them is a pair of figures named Wirschaitos and Szwaybrutto (Iszwambrato, Schneybrato, Schnejbrato, Snejbrato) which he interprets as "Elder" and "His Brother", respectively.[33] These latter two would, in turn, be connected to the worship, by the Prussians, of stone statues erected during their expansion in the 12th and 13th centuries.[34]
See also
Notes
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite book
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References
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ See: Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb. Шаблон:Harvnb agrees with the reconstructed motif of Manu and Yemo, although he notes that interpretations of the myths of Trita and Thraētona are debated. According to Шаблон:Harvnb, "some elements of the [Scandinavian myth of Ymir] are distinctively Indo-Europeans", but the reconstruction of the creation myth of the first Man and his Twin proposed by Шаблон:Harvnb "makes too unprovable assumptions to account for the fundamental changes implied by the Scandinavian version".
- ↑ See: Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb. Шаблон:Harvnb agrees with the reconstructed motif of Manu and Yemo, although he notes that interpretations of the myths of Trita and Thraētona are debated.
- ↑ See: Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ See: Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book. See entries vivásvant- and yamá- [2] (online database).
- ↑ N. Oettinger, Before Noah: Possible Relics of the Flood myth in Proto-Indo-Iranian and Earlier, [in:] Proceedings of the 24th Annual UCLA Indo-European Conference, ed. S.W. Jamison, H.C. Melchert, B. Vine, Bremen 2013, p. 169–183
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Oinas, Felix J. (1980). "A Balto-Finnic and Baltic fertility spirit". In: Journal of Baltic Studies, 11:3, pp. 207-211. DOI: 10.1080/01629778000000231
- ↑ Vainik, Ene. (2014). "Jumala jälgi ajamas" [Tracing back the word jumal 'god']. Mäetagused 58: 21. 10.7592/MT2014.58.vainik.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 14,0 14,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Cacopardo, A.S. (2016). "A World In-between. The Pre-Islamic Cultures of the Hindu Kush". In: Pellò, S.(ed.). Borders. Itineraries on the Edges of Iran. Venezia, Eurasiatica Quaderni di studi su Balcani, Anatolia, Iran, Caucaso e Asia Centrale. Edizioni Ca' Foscari. p. 250. Шаблон:ISBN [DOI: 10.14277/6969-100-3/EUR-5-10]
- ↑ Zoller, Claus Peter. "Review Article: "Pagan Christmas: Winter feast of the Kalasha of the Hindu Kush" and the true frontiers of 'Greater Peristan'.". In: Acta Orientalia 2018, n. 79. 2018. pp. 217 and 232 (footnote nr. 174). Шаблон:ISSN
- ↑ Parpola, Asko. The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization. Oxford University Press. 2015. pp. 143 and 264. Шаблон:ISBN
- ↑ Cacopardo, A.S. (2016). "A World In-between. The Pre-Islamic Cultures of the Hindu Kush". In: Pellò, S.(ed.). Borders. Itineraries on the Edges of Iran. Venezia, Eurasiatica Quaderni di studi su Balcani, Anatolia, Iran, Caucaso e Asia Centrale. Edizioni Ca' Foscari. pp. 251 and 253. Шаблон:ISBN [DOI: 10.14277/6969-100-3/EUR-5-10]
- ↑ Klimburg, Max. "The Arts and Culture of Parun, Kafiristan's «Sacred Valley»". In: Arts asiatiques, tome 57, 2002. pp. 51-68. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/arasi.2002.1480]; www.persee.fr/doc/arasi_0004-3958_2002_num_57_1_1480
- ↑ Parkes, Peter. "Temple of Imra, Temple of Mahandeu: A Kafir Sanctuary in Kalasha Cosmology". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. University of London 54, no. 1 (1991): 85. http://www.jstor.org/stable/617315.
- ↑ Zoller, Claus Peter. "Review Article: "Pagan Christmas: Winter feast of the Kalasha of the Hindu Kush" and the true frontiers of 'Greater Peristan'.". In: Acta Orientalia 2018, n. 79. 2018. p. 232 (footnote nr. 174). Шаблон:ISSN
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Boyce, Mary. "The Pre-Zoroastrian Religion of the Medes and the Persians". In: A History of Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrianism under the Achaemenians. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1982. pp. 18-19. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004293908_003
- ↑ Puhvel, Jaan. "Devata-Dvandva in Hittite, Greek, and Latin". In: The American Journal of Philology 98, no. 4 (1977): 404-405. Accessed March 3, 2021. doi:10.2307/293802.
- ↑ Puhvel, Jaan. "Remus Et Frater". In: History of Religions 15, no. 2 (1975): 156-157. Accessed March 4, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1061928.
- ↑ SAŃKO, Siarhiej, and Aliaksej Shota. "PODSTAWOWE SKŁADNIKI BIAŁORUSKIEJ NARRACJI SAKRALNEJ W PERSPEKTYWIE PORÓWNAWCZEJ." Politeja, no. 22 (2012): 167-68. Accessed March 3, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24920134.
- ↑ Кулаков Владимир Иванович (2017). Каменные изваяния пруссов. Исторический формат, (1-2), 151-169. URL: (дата обращения: 03.03.2021).
Шаблон:Legendary progenitors Шаблон:Indo European Mythology
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