Английская Википедия:1678 Kediri campaign
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox military conflict In a campaign that took place from August to December 1678 in Kediri (in modern-day East Java, Indonesia) during the Trunajaya rebellion, the forces of the Mataram Sultanate, led by Amangkurat II, and the Dutch East India Company (VOC), led by Anthonio Hurdt, marched inland into eastern Java against Trunajaya's forces. After a series of marches beset by logistical difficulties and harassment by Trunajaya's forces, the Mataram–VOC army crossed the Brantas River on the night of 16–17 November. They then marched on Trunajaya's capital and stronghold at Kediri and took it by direct assault on 25 November. Kediri was plundered by the Dutch and Javanese victors, and the Mataram treasury—captured by Trunajaya after his victory at Plered—was completely lost in the looting. Trunajaya himself fled Kediri and continued his greatly weakened rebellion until his capture at the end of 1679.
During the march to Kediri, the Mataram–VOC army purposefully split itself into three columns which took different, indirect routes to Kediri, as suggested by Amangkurat. This enabled the army to meet more factions and to win over those with wavering allegiance, swelling its forces. The army marched through areas previously unexplored by the Dutch. The Dutch account was recorded in a journal by Hurdt's secretary Johan Jurgen Briel. Accounts of the campaign also appear in the Javanese chronicles, known as Шаблон:Transl.
Background
When Amangkurat I took the throne of Mataram in 1646, the Mataram Sultanate had expanded its control to most of central and eastern Java, as well as to Madura and to a few overseas vassals in southern Sumatra and Borneo—parts of today's Indonesia.Шаблон:Sfn In 1674, the Madurese prince Trunajaya allied with a group of Makassarese fighters started a rebellion against Amangkurat.Шаблон:Sfn The rebellion was initially successful: the rebels took Surabaya, the principal city of eastern Java, in late 1675,Шаблон:Sfn defeated the royal army at Gegodog in 1676,Шаблон:Sfn and captured most of the Javanese north coast by January 1677.Шаблон:Sfn Facing the imminent collapse of his authority, Amangkurat sought help from the Dutch East India Company (known as the "VOC", short for its Dutch name Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie) which had by then established its trading and military presence in Batavia.Шаблон:Sfn What happened in Mataram was of a great importance to the VOC, because Batavia could not survive without food imports from central and eastern Java.Шаблон:Sfn The VOC also depended on timber from the Javanese north coast in order to build and repair ships for its trading fleet, and for new construction in the city.Шаблон:Sfn The VOC and Mataram agreed to a contract of alliance in February 1677, which was ratified by Amangkurat in March.Шаблон:Sfn
In May 1677, the VOC dispatched a large fleet to Surabaya, where Trunajaya held his court, and drove him out of the city.Шаблон:Sfn He retreated inland to establish a new rebel capital in Kediri, the capital city of the ancient Kediri Kingdom.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn However, one month later, Trunajaya's forces overran the Mataram court in Plered. The royal capital was sacked, the entire treasury was taken by the rebels, and King Amangkurat I—who was gravely ill—died during his retreat, throwing the Mataram government into disarray.Шаблон:Sfn He was succeeded by his son, Amangkurat II, who had fled with his father.Шаблон:Sfn Lacking an army, a treasury, and a working government,Шаблон:Sfn Amangkurat II went to Jepara, the headquarters of a VOC fleet under Admiral Cornelis Speelman, and in October signed a treaty renewing their alliance.Шаблон:Sfn In exchange for helping Mataram against his enemies, Amangkurat promised to pay the VOC 310,000 Spanish reals and about Шаблон:Convert of rice. This covered payments for all previous VOC campaigns on Mataram's behalf up to October.Шаблон:Sfn In further agreements, he agreed to cede districts east of Batavia, as well as Semarang, Salatiga and its surrounding districts, and awarded the company a monopoly on the imports of textiles and opium into Mataram, as well as on the purchase of sugar from the Sultanate.Шаблон:Sfn
With the agreement concluded, Speelman and Amangkurat were eager to march quickly against the rebels, but this was delayed by the cautious policy of the VOC Governor-General Joan Maetsuycker, internal strife in the Mataram court, and some courtiers' opposition to the Dutch involvement.Шаблон:Sfn In November and December, there were only limited operations by Mataram forces with VOC support on the north coast, which were partial successes.Шаблон:Sfn In January 1678, Maetsuycker died and was succeeded by Rijklof van Goens, causing a shift in VOC policy, and by mid-1678 various challengers of Amangkurat or the VOC-Mataram alliance had died, paving the way for a more aggressive campaign.Шаблон:Sfn Speelman became director-general replacing the promoted van Goens.Шаблон:Sfn He left for Batavia and the VOC appointed Anthonio Hurdt, a former governor of Ambon, to replace him as commander, granting him the title "Superintendent, Admiral, Campaign- and War-Commander."Шаблон:Sfn Despite his long administrative service in Eastern Indonesia, at this time Hurdt had no experience in Java or in military campaigns, and was only selected due to a lack of more suitable candidates. The VOC was also joined by the forces of Arung Palakka, the Bugis warrior who had been the VOC's ally in the Makassar War (1666–69).Шаблон:Sfn
Forces involved
When the campaign began, the Mataram forces numbered 3,000 armed men and 1,000 porters.Шаблон:Sfn As the march progressed, new troops were levied along the way, and some lords declared their allegiance to the Mataram King, enlarging the royal army to 13,000 men.Шаблон:Sfn However, desertion reduced this army again, and during the assault on Kediri, the Mataram forces had only about 1,000 armed men.Шаблон:Sfn The initial 3,000 men were armed with pikes, but some of the later levies had firearms.Шаблон:Sfn
Before the start of the campaign, the VOC had 900 soldiers on Java's north coast, deployed as garrisons in various towns.Шаблон:Sfn An additional expeditionary force of 1,400 arrived at the start of the campaign.Шаблон:Sfn As the army marched, it was joined by the garrisons in the cities it passed.Шаблон:Sfn Indonesians of various ethnicities made up the majority of the VOC forces; European soldiers, marines and officers made up a minority.Шаблон:Sfn Desertion and disease caused the forces to dwindle—at the time of the assault on Kediri, the VOC had 1,750 menШаблон:Sfn and only 1,200 joined the assault.Шаблон:Sfn The VOC-Mataram forces had artillery, but due to the limited ammunition, it was saved for the final assault.Шаблон:Sfn
The size of Trunajaya's forces is uncertain.Шаблон:Sfn VOC-Mataram reports put the number at 1,000, but later, Trunajaya's uncle Pangeran Sampang said that Trunajaya's followers numbered 14,500 just before the assault on Kediri.Шаблон:Sfn This force included hundreds of cavalry with chain mail armour.Шаблон:Sfn Trunajaya also built fortifications along the Brantas, particularly on the eastern side of the river where Kediri stood.Шаблон:Sfn Trunajaya's artillery generally outgunned the loyalists', and at some point the camps of Hurdt and Amangkurat were hit by his cannon.Шаблон:Sfn According to the historian of Indonesia M. C. Ricklefs, "it must have been emphasized that there appears to have been no significant technological difference" between the land forces of Trunajaya, those of the Javanese in general, and those of the VOC.Шаблон:Sfn The people of Java had manufactured gunpowder, muskets and cannon since at least the 1620s and probably long before,Шаблон:Sfn and they were also quick to adopt newer European military technologies.Шаблон:Sfn The VOC had an advantage in terms of discipline, strategy, and tactics, but not technology.Шаблон:Sfn
Campaign
Planning
Hurdt wanted to attack Trunajaya's stronghold Kediri from Surabaya in coastal East Java, which would be the shortest route.Шаблон:Sfn In contrast, Amangkurat II proposed that the troops be divided into columns and march along multiple lengthy overland routes.Шаблон:Sfn He wanted the VOC-Mataram forces to march slowly through more areas in order to impress factions that were wavering over which side to take.Шаблон:Sfn This argument convinced Hurdt, and they decided to split the army into three different columns travelling via different overland routes from coastal Central Java to Kediri in inland East Java.Шаблон:Sfn In addition, a VOC merchant, Willem Bastinck, was to go to Surabaya to seek out Karaeng Galesong—a former Trunajaya ally, whose allegiance was wavering, and whose help and followers Mataram and the VOC hoped to enlist.Шаблон:Sfn
March to Kediri
The VOC and Mataram forces marched in three columns using different routes from coastal central Java to Kediri. Captain François Tack led what was to be the westernmost column and he left Jepara on 21 August for Semarang where the column started its overland march.Шаблон:Sfn To the east, a column led by Captains Abraham Daniel van Renesse and Frederik Hendrik Mulder left Rembang on 26 August.Шаблон:Sfn Meanwhile, the central column, which was to be the main force, was mobilized in Jepara led by Hurdt and Amangkurat. The central column sent advance detachments southward on 27 August and 2 September, while Hurdt and Amangkurat departed on 5 September.Шаблон:Sfn
The western column was reinforced by the garrison of Semarang and marched southward to the Pajang district, where it fought the followers of Trunajaya's ally Raden Kajoran.Шаблон:Sfn After an initial march, the central column re-assembled in Godong on the Serang River and stayed there for six days.Шаблон:Sfn Their artillery and supplies were brought there by river, but now had to join the southward march overland through enemy territory. The central and western columns then met in the Semanggi (now Solo) River valley and marched together from there, led by Hurdt and Amangkurat.Шаблон:Sfn Meanwhile, the eastern column passed Pati, was joined by the VOC troops there, and marched along a different route towards Kediri.Шаблон:Sfn
Throughout the march, the loyalist forces faced problems such as desertions, lack of discipline, illness, food shortages, and poor navigation.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The march included several river crossings, which were made difficult by the lack of bridges, rivers swollen by heavy rain, as well as bogged down wagons and cannon.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn It was particularly difficult for the VOC forces, who marched through areas previously unexplored by them and were unfamiliar with the conditions of the Javanese interior.Шаблон:Sfn Hurdt wanted to stay in the Semanggi River valley, and to continue the campaign in the following year. Amangkurat preferred to keep marching, and his opinion prevailed.Шаблон:Sfn As the loyalist forces marched eastwards, the rebel forces avoided major battles. Instead, they fought skirmishes which continuously harassed the loyalists' foragers and stragglers.Шаблон:Sfn The loyalists scoured the countryside to collect food, causing panic among its inhabitants.Шаблон:Sfn
During the march, Amangkurat tried to gain the loyalty of the lords in the territories he passed through.Шаблон:Sfn Many were previously loyal to Kajoran, who sided with Trunajaya, or were wavering between the two sides.Шаблон:Sfn The presence of the King and his forces, as well as the possible booty to be gained in the campaign, motivated many of them to declare allegiance to Amangkurat and join his forces.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn At some point, the Javanese forces in the column reached 13,000.Шаблон:Sfn
Crossing of the Brantas
The Hurdt-Amangkurat army arrived at Singkal (today part of Nganjuk), on the west bank of the Brantas River north of Kediri, on 13 October. Kediri stood on the east bank of this river, and finding a way to cross it proved a major challenge for the loyalists. The Brantas was swollen by monsoon rains, and the army did not have the boats necessary to cross it. Rain, desertion and lack of supplies continued to plague them. Amangkurat's forces dropped to about 1,000, while the VOC had 1,750 soldiers left, 659 of them Europeans. Many of the soldiers had dysentery.Шаблон:Sfn
Meanwhile, Trunajaya's forces harassed the loyalist army. They had fortified posts along the river, especially on the east bank.Шаблон:Sfn These were equipped with cannon of various sizes up to twelve-pounders.Шаблон:Sfn Trunajaya's artillery continuously pounded the loyalists, even reaching Hurdt and Amangkurat's lodgings, as well as the army's field hospital.Шаблон:Sfn The loyalist army also had cannon, but it did not return fire, saving its limited ammunition for the eventual attack on Kediri.Шаблон:Sfn In addition, Trunajaya's cavalry engaged in skirmishes with the loyalists, causing casualties and undermining their morale.Шаблон:Sfn On 21 October, a night attack led by Raden Suradipa burned the VOC's Malay troops' quarters.Шаблон:Sfn The attack was eventually repelled and Suradipa, one of Trunajaya's brothers, was fatally wounded.Шаблон:Sfn On the night of 2–3 November, Trunajaya's skirmishers intimidated the VOC's sentries with the music of gamelan and mocking voices.Шаблон:Sfn
On 3 November, Hurdt and Amangkurat were joined by an additional column led by Willem Bastinck from Surabaya, accompanied by 800 ox-carts carrying supplies.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This convoy was sent with help from the Duke of Tumapel, the VOC's Javanese ally, and Karaeng Galesong, a former ally of Trunajaya whose allegiance was wavering.Шаблон:Sfn On 6 November, rebel forces raided these carts, burnt around ten of them, and killed several people.Шаблон:Sfn The VOC later moved these supplies inside a palisade fortification built in the aftermath of Suradipa's attack.Шаблон:Sfn
With the arrival of fresh supplies, Hurdt and Amangkurat were emboldened to find ways to cross the river.Шаблон:Sfn Forces led by Dutch commander Isaac de Saint Martin drove Trunajaya's forces from Manukan, on the west bank further south from Singkal.Шаблон:Sfn They tried to cross the river there, but were unsuccessful due to heavy opposing fire and the depth of the water.Шаблон:Sfn They made another attempt on the night of 6–7 November, but their boats were sunk and it too failed.Шаблон:Sfn Hurdt was frustrated by the lack of progress, and gave Amangkurat an ultimatum that the VOC would withdraw unless the King supplied pontoons for the crossing, and matches for its soldiers' matchlocks.Шаблон:Sfn
The river's depth dropped during the night of 16–17 November.Шаблон:Sfn The Javanese chronicle (Шаблон:Transl) attributed this to Amangkurat's supernatural powers, and said that this happened as Amangkurat personally rode across the river leading his troops.Шаблон:Sfn The army's foot soldiers crossed in boats at Curing, just south of Singkal.Шаблон:Sfn Those on horseback did not need boats. Шаблон:Sfn The river was about Шаблон:Convert wide at the crossing.Шаблон:Sfn Trunajaya's forces bombarded them with artillery as they crossed, before being driven out, leaving eleven cannon behind.Шаблон:Sfn
Capture of Kediri
With a bridgehead successfully established at Curing, the loyalist army marched southward towards Kediri. At this point the VOC troops numbered 1,200, and Amangkurat's troops about 1,000. They were split into two columns under the respective commands of Hurdt and de Saint Martin. Amangkurat himself returned to the relative safety of Singkal. Trunajaya's forces tried unsuccessfully to stop this advance. On 25 November, the army attacked Kediri itself. The city was about Шаблон:Convert in circumference, defended by 43 artillery batteries and by walls up to Шаблон:Convert high and Шаблон:Convert thick.Шаблон:Sfn According to Ricklefs, Kediri's fortifications "seem not to have been inferior to contemporary European fortresses".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Hurdt's column entered the city from the east, while de Saint Martin entered from the northwest.Шаблон:Sfn As was common in Javanese siege warfare of the time, the assault was accompanied by cannon fire, as well as loud yelling and the playing of drums and gongs to weaken the defender's morale.Шаблон:Sfn De Saint Martin arrived first in the alun-alun (city square) of Kediri, near Trunajaya's residence. The defenders put up a fierce resistance. Four VOC companies, under the command of Tack, engaged in "courtyard-by-courtyard" fighting to conquer Trunajaya's residential compound in the city centre. VOC troops made use of hand grenades which proved very useful in city fighting.Шаблон:Sfn
The loyalist troops were victorious. Trunajaya fled southwards into the countryside, and his side suffered heavy losses.Шаблон:Sfn The VOC suffered light casualties of 7 dead and 27 wounded.Шаблон:Sfn Among Mataram troops, two senior noblemen died in the fighting; the first was Tumenggung Mangkuyuda, and sources disagree on the second, variously naming Tumenggung Melayu, Demang Mangunjaya or Tumenggung Mataram.Шаблон:Sfn The victorious army then plundered Trunajaya's abandoned court.Шаблон:Sfn The Mataram treasury, brought to Kediri by the rebels after their sack of the Mataram capital in 1677, was among the targets of the looting.Шаблон:Sfn Amangkurat and the VOC had hoped to recover this treasury and use it to pay for the VOC's assistance in the war, but it was completely looted by the soldiers instead.Шаблон:Sfn The VOC found, and executed, ten Europeans who had deserted to Trunajaya's side.Шаблон:Sfn The victors also found abducted Mataram women, horses, and holy regalia (pusaka).Шаблон:Sfn The captured regalia included a special cannon, named "Nyai Setomi" and called Шаблон:Transl ("blessed cannon") and Шаблон:Transl ("Mataram's heirloom"), which was considered an important heirloom of the Mataram's royal dynasty.Шаблон:Sfn Several pro-Trunajaya nobles, including the Duke of Sampang, surrendered to Amangkurat.Шаблон:Sfn
The Golden Crown
The victors also found a golden crown among the booty.Шаблон:Sfn It was reputed to be from the fifteenth-century Majapahit empire, during which there were reports of the use of a golden crown.Шаблон:Sfn The crown was handed to Tack, who insisted on the payment of 1,000 rijkdaalders before giving it to Amangkurat.Шаблон:Sfn This behaviour seemed to offend the King and might have contributed to Tack's death at the Mataram court in 1686.Шаблон:Sfn On 27 November, Hurdt presented the crown to the King, who proceeded to wear it.Шаблон:Sfn In an act of cultural misunderstanding, the VOC fired musket and cannon salutes, thinking the event was a coronation in the European sense.Шаблон:Sfn In reality, crowns did not have ceremonial importance in Javanese royal protocol.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This episode attracted much attention among later historians.Шаблон:Sfn Dutch historian H. J. de Graaf opined that the King would later consider this event as a symbol of the European's condescension and that they were instrumental to the King's legitimacy.Шаблон:Sfn
Withdrawal
With Trunajaya expelled, and the looting finished, the loyalist army left Kediri for Surabaya, the principal city and port of East Java.Шаблон:Sfn Kediri's fortifications were dismantled and a governor was installed to rule the city.Шаблон:Sfn A river convoy left on 15 December, which included Hurdt, Tack, van Renesse, 288 VOC sick and wounded, field cannon and their ammunition.Шаблон:Sfn The rest, including Amangkurat and de Saint Martin, left overland on 18 December.Шаблон:Sfn Heavy currents and the rainy season made this journey difficult.Шаблон:Sfn The river convoy arrived in Surabaya on 17 December having lost some boats and men.Шаблон:Sfn The overland march was even more difficult.Шаблон:Sfn The roads were flooded and impassable. Many died from sheer exhaustion, "hungry, tired and spent like beasts along the road and indeed in the water", according to the VOC's journal written by Hurdt's secretary.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The army reached Perning on 24 December, upriver from Surabaya, and was cut off by floods.Шаблон:Sfn Some managed to reach Surabaya by boat, and the rest arrived on 5 January having travelled overland.Шаблон:Sfn
Amangkurat and his retinue established the royal court in Surabaya, a city with which he was familiar.Шаблон:Sfn He was descended from the former dynasty of Surabaya through his mother, and was once a viceroy of East Java during his father's reign.Шаблон:Sfn Subsequently, Hurdt and other VOC officers left for Batavia.Шаблон:Sfn Christiaan Poleman took over the command of the VOC forces in East Java.Шаблон:Sfn
Aftermath
The Dutch-Mataram victory at Kediri weakened Trunajaya's rebellion but the war was not over. Trunajaya and his retinue were still at large in the highlands of Malang around east Java; he was not captured until December 1679. His ally Kajoran established a new base in Mlambang, Central Java, and engaged in successful operations there up to his death in September 1679.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Amangkurat's brother Pangeran Puger still held Mataram's court at Plered where he maintained a rival claim to the throne until 1681.Шаблон:Sfn By the early 1680s, all rebel leaders had died, surrendered, or been defeated, and the war came to an end.Шаблон:Sfn
With this campaign, the VOC was now fully associated with Amangkurat.Шаблон:Sfn However, the King could not pay the VOC as promised because his treasury, which he hoped to recover in Kediri, was looted by the VOC's and his own soldiers.Шаблон:Sfn The VOC also perceived incompetence in the King and a lack of loyalty in his people. Nevertheless, the VOC continued to fight on his side until the end of the war.Шаблон:Sfn
Legacy
Dutch commander Hurdt's secretary, Johan Jurgen Briel, wrote a diary of the campaign, which became an important historical source.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In 1971, the diary was edited by the historian H. J. de Graaf and published in the Шаблон:Ill.Шаблон:Sfn The campaign also appears in Javanese chronicles (Шаблон:Transl), including the Babad Kraton written by Raden Tumenggung Jayengrat in Yogyakarta during 1777–78.Шаблон:Sfn
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
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- Trunajaya rebellion
- History of East Java
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