Английская Википедия:1834 Philadelphia race riot
Шаблон:Good article Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use American English Шаблон:Use mdy dates Шаблон:Infobox civil conflict
The 1834 Philadelphia race riot, also known as the Flying Horses riot,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn was an instance of communal violence in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. The riot, in which a mob of several hundred white people attacked African Americans living in the area, began on the evening of August 12 and lasted for several days, dying down by August 14.
The riot took place during a time when many cities in the northern United States were experiencing incidents of mass civil disorder, usually in the form of riots that targeted specific religious, national, or racial groups, such as an 1831 race riot in Providence, Rhode Island, and the 1834 Ursuline Convent riots near Boston. In Philadelphia, this period coincided with a significant growth in population, particularly among African Americans and Irish immigrants. While there had been a strong community of working class black freedmen in Philadelphia since the early 1800s, tensions began to build through the 1830s, with restrictions on African Americans' participation in civic life and incidents of racial violence, such as in an 1829 incident where members of a black church were attacked. In early August 1834, there were several instances of violence against African Americans in the city, including an attack on the son of well-known black businessman James Forten by a white mob.
On August 12, 1834, a mob of several hundred white men, primarily Irish, attacked the Flying Horses tavern, a well-known local on South Street that served both black and white people in the area, named for a popular carousel on site. The mob overpowered the black people there, destroyed the carousel and building, and proceeded down South Street and into Moyamensing, where they proceeded to destroy black-owned buildings and attack black people. Philadelphia Mayor John Swift assembled a posse of several hundred citizens to restore order, and 18 people were arrested, but rioting commenced again the following night, resulting in the destruction of the African Presbyterian Church and the beating to death of an African American man. The next night was the last major night of rioting and saw the destruction of another church, though some minor instances of violence continued for the next few nights. In general, rioters targeted the houses of more wealthy African Americans and social spaces, such as churches and a Masonic Hall. In total, between August 12 and 16, 60 people were arrested for rioting. In the end, 44 buildings had been destroyed, including 30 houses, and 2 people were dead.
A citizen's committee organized to investigate the causes of the riot reported that the primary cause was a sense of anxiety among white citizens who believed that black people were out-competing them for jobs. This conclusion has been discussed by historians, who also attribute the riot to fears over interracial mixing and resentments held against more affluent African Americans by poor whites. Over the next several years, Philadelphia experienced a wave of race riots, including one the following year and the 1838 destruction of Pennsylvania Hall. Discussing this time period, local author Charles Godfrey Leland wrote, "Whoever shall write a history of Philadelphia from the Thirties to the era of the Fifties will record a popular period of turbulence and outrages so extensive as to now appear almost incredible". By 1854, in part due to the riots, the county and city of Philadelphia were consolidated and a new police agency was created.
Background
Riots in the United States
During the 1830s, many large cities in the northern United States, such as Boston, New York City, and Philadelphia, experienced several major riots, with causes including election disputes, labor issues, and racial tensions.Шаблон:Sfn According to historian David Hackett Fischer, the rise in the number of incidents in civil unrest corresponded to a long period of economic decline that the nation was experiencing in the early 1800s, with riots breaking out in major urban areas that pitted different ethnic, religious, and social groups against each other, such as Protestants against Catholics and native-born Americans against immigrants.Шаблон:Sfn
Starting in the 1820s, race riots, where white Americans targeted African Americans, became common occurrences in many of these cities.Шаблон:Sfn These events, which saw white Americans target their city's African American population, were highly violent and destructive, with an 1831 incident in Providence, Rhode Island, resulting in the destruction of an African American neighborhood,Шаблон:Sfn while an 1834 riot in New York City saw a church, school, and several dozen houses destroyed.Шаблон:Sfn Symbols of upward economic mobility among the African American community, such as church buildings and temperance halls, were often targeted as a way of maintaining a racial hierarchy of white supremacy.Шаблон:Sfn
While race riots were common in many cities, Cincinnati and Philadelphia experienced the most,Шаблон:Sfn experiencing at least one per year between the two between 1834 and 1836 and again from 1838 to 1842.Шаблон:Sfn
Philadelphia in the early 1800s
By the early 1800s, slavery in Philadelphia had been largely eliminated, with only 10 black people in the city recorded as slaves in the 1810 United States census.Шаблон:Sfn Additionally, the city had a large community of black freedmen and was a strong center for the abolitionist movement,Шаблон:Sfn with historian Manisha Sinha calling the city "the antislavery capital of the country".Шаблон:Sfn From the late 1700s to the early 1800s, buoyed by a strong economy, the city's African American community saw economic growth, improved living conditions and access to jobs and education, and strong civic engagement with the rest of the city.Шаблон:Sfn However, by the early 1800s, this trend began to reverse.Шаблон:Sfn In 1804, a group of young black men marched through the Philadelphia neighborhood of Southwark, threatening many of the white residents there and openly calling for rebellion.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The following year, during Independence Day celebrations at Independence Hall, a mob of white people chased out black participants, putting an end to the annual integrated celebrations that had been ongoing since 1776.Шаблон:Sfn By the late 1820s, black people were also banned from the city's Christmas celebrations.Шаблон:Sfn In 1829,Шаблон:Sfn a riot broke out wherein members of a black church were attacked.Шаблон:Sfn That same year, the Pennsylvania General Assembly openly advocated for the American Colonization Society's goal of relocating freed black people in the United States to Africa, and following Nat Turner's slave rebellion in 1831, the legislature banned freedmen from entering the state and repealed fugitive slave legislation that protected escaped slaves from being sold back into slavery in the southern United States.Шаблон:Sfn
Despite these changes, the African American population in the area continued to grow alongside the overall population,Шаблон:Sfn From 1820 to 1830, the number of black people living around Philadelphia grew to about 15,000, making it the largest African American community in the northern United States.Шаблон:Sfn Working class municipalities around Philadelphia's Center City, such as Southwark, Moyamensing, Northern Liberties, and Spring Garden, grew as residences to both African Americans and white people, primarily composed of Irish immigrants.Шаблон:Sfn By the 1830s, there were 29 separate jurisdictions in Philadelphia County, which were patrolled by constables who had a difficult time keeping the peace amidst the growth.Шаблон:Sfn In many of these places, black and white people both frequented the same shops and social places, such as taverns, which led to some incidents of violence.Шаблон:Sfn In some cases, white residents rented their places of lodging from black landowners, which led to further resentment among poor whites.Шаблон:Sfn Highlighting the resentment against African Americans during this time, historian Barbara Lewis notes that in June 1834, just two months prior to the outbreak of the race riot, performer George Washington Dixon had debuted a minstrel show featuring blackface actors playing Zip Coon, a racist caricature of an African American man, at the Arch Street Theatre to much fanfare.Шаблон:Sfn
Events prior to the riot
On the night of August 8, 1834, a group of African Americans attacked members of the Fairmount Engine Company, a volunteer fire company, and stole some of their equipment.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn At the time, fire companies had a reputation for acts of violence due to political and gang-related activities that they were often involved in, and as a result, according to historian John Runcie, "Some sort of reaction was almost guaranteed".Шаблон:Sfn
The following night, a group of several dozen white youths attacked the son of James Forten,Шаблон:Sfn though he managed to escape with his life.Шаблон:Sfn Forten was a prominent African American businessman in Philadelphia and owned several properties, many of which were rented to lower class white people.Шаблон:Sfn According to onlookers, this group, which consisted of about 50 or 60 people wearing blue jackets and straw hats, discussed plans to meet the following Monday, August 11, with the gang's leader overheard saying, "We will then attack the niggers".Шаблон:Sfn
That evening, a group of white youths engaged in a physical altercation with some African Americans at a tavern on South Street, near Seventh Street.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The tavern was a well-known institution in the area and housed a carousel called the Flying Horses, which was frequented by both black and white residents of the area.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to multiple accounts, the fighting started due to a dispute over seats on the ride and resulted in the mob of white youths being driven out of the establishment.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Speaking about the event in a 2016 book, Sinha stated that the subsequent riot had "[begun] as a fight between black and white firefighters at a carnival".Шаблон:Sfn
Riot
The following night, Tuesday, August 12, a mob of several hundred white people, primarily composed of working class and Irish immigrants,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn gathered at the Flying Horses and began rioting.Шаблон:Sfn The mob, which grew to about 400 or 500 people, destroyed the carousel and the building and beat any African American on sight.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Following this, the mob proceeded down South Street and into Moyamensing, an impoverished, mostly African American municipality, where they continued their rioting,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn destroying many black-owned buildings in the process.Шаблон:Sfn Constables were called in from Philadelphia to help put down the disturbance,Шаблон:Sfn and Philadelphia Mayor John Swift assembled a posse of about 300 citizens to help restore order.Шаблон:Sfn During this first night of rioting, 18 individuals were arrested.Шаблон:Sfn
Despite the attempts by authorities in Philadelphia to end the civil unrest, rioting resumed the next night, August 13.Шаблон:Sfn The rioters were organized, and prior to that night's activities, many of them met in an empty lot to discuss their plans.Шаблон:Sfn The primary targets for the night were the African Presbyterian Church on Seventh Street and the Diving Bell, a popular grog shop.Шаблон:Sfn After both of these buildings were destroyed, the mob turned its attention to primarily residential buildings, breaking windows, destroying furniture, and chasing black people into the streets, where they were beaten.Шаблон:Sfn White people who lived in houses in the area had been told before the rioting began to light candles in their windows, and these houses were passed over during the violence.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In general, the rioters targeted the houses of affluent African Americans, social spaces such as churches and a Masonic Hall, and places where black and white people tended to intermingle.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In total, over 20 houses were destroyed.Шаблон:Sfn According to a correspondent who was at the scene, the rioters threw a corpse out of a coffin and tossed a dead baby onto the ground.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The mob was eventually dispersed by law enforcement officials and a posse of several hundred citizens.Шаблон:Sfn By the time the mob was dispersed, one African American man had been killed and many had been seriously injured.Шаблон:Sfn
By August 14, Mayor Swift and Sheriff Benjamin Duncan had assembled a group of 300 constables, a troop of mounted militiamen, and had a company of the Washington Grays on reserve.Шаблон:Sfn Despite these precautions, more acts of rioting still occurred that night,Шаблон:Sfn with rioters again gathering beforehand to discuss plans.Шаблон:Sfn At the same location that they had met the previous night, they amassed equipment and traveled about Шаблон:Convert to the Wharton Street Church in Southwark,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which they proceeded to destroy.Шаблон:Sfn Additionally, rioters used codewords such as "Big Gun", "Gunner", and "Punch" to warn others of advancing law enforcement officers.Шаблон:Sfn Following August 14, the nightly rioting began to die down, though some sporadic incidents continued for several days.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In total, 60 people were arrested for rioting in Philadelphia between August 11 and August 16.Шаблон:Sfn
Aftermath
While there had been earlier instances of violence against African Americans in Philadelphia, the incident marked the first major race riot in the city's history.Шаблон:Refn In total, two people died as a result of the several nights of rioting,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn with one person having been beaten to death and another drowning while trying to escape the mob.Шаблон:Sfn Many African Americans attempted to flee the city during the rioting by crossing the Delaware River and entering nearby New Jersey,Шаблон:Sfn while abolitionist Robert Purvis purchased a house in nearby Bristol Township, Bucks County, in part to avoid future incidents of violence.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In property damage, 44 buildings had been destroyed,Шаблон:Sfn including over 30 houses and two churches.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Estimates for the damage done during the riot range from $4,000 to $6,000, equivalent to between $Шаблон:Inflation and $Шаблон:Inflation in Шаблон:Inflation/year.Шаблон:Refn Many of Philadelphia's newspapers, such as The Pennsylvania Inquirer and the Gazette of the United States, extensively reported on the riot,Шаблон:Sfn and the event garnered national attention, with the Maryland Gazette dedicating significant editorial space to covering the violence.Шаблон:Sfn
Causes of the riot
After the riot, Mayor Swift created a citizen's committee to investigate the causes and results of the incident, with anti-slavery activist James Mott and journalist John Binns serving as members.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
The main cause for the riot established by the committee centered on economic fears held by many poor white people regarding free black people.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Among riot sympathizers, there was an attitude that black people were preferred for employment over their white counterparts,Шаблон:Sfn which they attributed as the cause for a high rate of unemployment among white working class people in the city.Шаблон:Sfn The committee seemed sympathetic to this line of thinking in their report, stating, "many whites, who are willing and able to work, are left without employment, while colored people are provided with work, and enabled comfortably to maintain their families; and thus many white laborers, anxious for employment, are kept idle and indigent".Шаблон:Sfn
Several historians also noted the role that fears of miscegenation and interracial mingling among the city's white population played in the riot.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Regarding the destruction of the Flying Horses tavern, historian Susan J. Stanfield notes in a 2022 book that, "Integrated public spaces, particularly those that were entertainment venues, created anxiety about race and gender mixing that often led to violence".Шаблон:Sfn Additionally, historian Emma Jones Lapsansky, in a 1980 article in the journal American Quarterly, notes that a later race riot in Philadelphia in 1849 was also spurred by fears of "race mixing".Шаблон:Sfn
Lapsansky also notes some issues with attributing the main cause of the riot to competition in the labor market, saying, "recent analysis has shown that many anti-black rioters were not in direct economic competition with black workers, that the occupations for which they were trained were ones in which blacks did not participate".Шаблон:Sfn Instead, Lapsansky writes that the rioters targeting the homes of more affluent African Americans represented resentments that many working class white people held against members of the upper class,Шаблон:Sfn stating, "Though it was not black competition, but rather new technology and new work routines that actually caused skilled whites' job displacement, "upper-class" blacks were an acceptable target for frustration, whereas upper-class whites were not".Шаблон:Sfn
In a 1972 article in the journal Pennsylvania History, historian John Runcie also adds that the riot may have been exacerbated by the weather at the time, as Philadelphia was experiencing a large heat wave that may have made individuals more agitated and prone to violence.Шаблон:Sfn
Later history
The Philadelphia riot was one of many incidents of civil unrest in the country in 1834,Шаблон:Sfn and in fact occurred just one day after another well-known event, the Ursuline Convent riots near Boston.Шаблон:Sfn
Several cities experienced race riots in the immediate aftermath of the Philadelphia event, including Rochester in New York, Bloomfield and Trenton in New Jersey, and Columbia, Lancaster, and Southwark in Pennsylvania.Шаблон:Sfn In the years following, race riots remained a common happening in Philadelphia, with many occurring over the next several years.Шаблон:Refn According to historian Gladys L. Knight, this wave of violence began in 1829 and did not subside until the 1850s.Шаблон:Sfn Some of the more infamous riots to occur during this time period included another race riot in 1835,Шаблон:Sfn the 1838 destruction of Pennsylvania Hall,Шаблон:Sfn the Lombard Street riot of 1842,Шаблон:Sfn nativist riots in 1844,Шаблон:Sfn and the California House riot in 1849.Шаблон:Sfn
In his memoirs, contemporary Philadelphian author Charles Godfrey Leland wrote, "Whoever shall write a history of Philadelphia from the Thirties to the era of the Fifties will record a popular period of turbulence and outrages so extensive as to now appear almost incredible".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn These constant acts of serial violence served as the inspiration for novelist George Lippard's 1844 book The Quaker City.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
In 1838, with the passage of a new constitution, the government of Pennsylvania rescinded suffrage for African Americans.Шаблон:Sfn Voting rights were not restored to black Pennsylvanians until 1870, after the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.Шаблон:Sfn In 1854, with the Act of Consolidation, the city and county of Philadelphia were consolidated, merging the 29 independent municipalities into one municipal authority.Шаблон:Sfn This was done in large part due to the constant outbreaks of violence that occurred in the county, which critics stated was due to inadequate law enforcement coverage given the fragmented nature of the county's municipalities.Шаблон:Sfn Shortly after the consolidation, a new police department was formed.Шаблон:Sfn
See also
- History of African Americans in Philadelphia
- List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States
- List of riots in Philadelphia
Notes
References
Sources
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Further reading
Шаблон:Riots in the United States (1607–1865) Шаблон:Coord
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