Английская Википедия:1988 Summer Olympics

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Redirect Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox Olympic games Шаблон:Infobox Korean name Шаблон:1988 Summer Olympics

The 1988 Summer Olympics (Шаблон:Korean), officially known as the Games of the XXIV Olympiad (Шаблон:Korean) and commonly known as Seoul 1988 (Шаблон:Korean), was an international multi-sport event held from 17 September to 2 October 1988 in Seoul, South Korea. 159 nations were represented at the games by a total of 8,391 athletes (6,197 men and 2,194 women). 237 events were held and 27,221 volunteers helped to prepare the Olympics.

The 1988 Seoul Olympics were the second summer Olympic Games held in Asia and the first held in South Korea.[1] As the host country, South Korea ranked fourth overall, winning 12 gold medals and 33 medals in the competition. 11,331 media (4,978 written press and 6,353 broadcasters) showed the Games all over the world.[2] These were the last Olympic Games of the Cold War, as well as for the Soviet Union and East Germany, as both ceased to exist before the next Olympic Games in 1992. The Soviet Union dominated the medal count, winning 55 gold and 132 total medals. The results that got closest to that medal haul in the years since are China's 48 gold medals in 2008 and the USA's 121 total medals in 2016.

Compared to the 1980 Summer Olympics (Moscow) and the 1984 Summer Olympics (Los Angeles), which were divided into two camps by ideology, the 1988 Seoul Olympics was a competition in which the boycotts virtually disappeared, although they were not completely over. North Korea boycotted the 1988 Seoul Olympics, as did five socialist countries including Cuba, an ally of North Korea. Albania, Ethiopia, and Seychelles did not respond to the invitation sent by the IOC.[3] Nicaragua did not participate due to athletic and financial considerations,[4] while the expected participation of Madagascar was withdrawn for financial reasons.[5] Nonetheless, the much larger boycotts seen in the three previous editions were avoided, resulting in the largest number of participating nations during the Cold War era, and thus regarded as the Olympics that laid the groundwork for the end of the Cold War.

For South Korea, the 1988 Olympics was a symbolic event that elevated its international image while also contributing to national pride.[6] Only thirty-five years after the Korean War which devastated the nation, and during a decade of social unrest in South Korea, the Olympics was successfully held and became the culmination of what was deemed the "Miracle on the Han River".[7][8]

Host city selection

Seoul was chosen to host the Summer Games through a vote held on 30 September 1981, finishing ahead of Nagoya, Japan.[2] The awarding to Seoul was internationally considered to be surprising, with Nagoya having been considered a favourite.[1] Below was the vote count that occurred at the 84th IOC Session and 11th Olympic Congress in Baden-Baden, West Germany.[9]

1988 Summer Olympics bidding result[10]
City Country (NOC) Round 1
Seoul Шаблон:Flag 52
Nagoya Шаблон:Flag 27

Seoul had previously hosted many international events, but the most noteworthy ones were the Miss Universe 1980 and the 1986 Asian Games, thus demonstrating that it had the appropriate capability.[11]

Highlights

Файл:Seoul Olympic torch.jpg
Kim Won-tak (athlete), Chong Son-man (teacher) and Son Mi-jong (dance student) during the lighting of the 1988 Summer Olympic cauldron
Файл:Fireworks at the closing ceremonies of the 1988 Summer Games.JPEG
Fireworks at the closing ceremony of the 1988 Summer Olympics
  • Soviet Vladimir Artemov won four gold medals in gymnastics.[12] Daniela Silivaş of Romania won three and equalled compatriot Nadia Comăneci's record of seven perfect 10s in one Olympic Games.[13]
  • After having demolished the world record in the 100-metre dash at the US Olympic trials in Indianapolis, sprinter Florence Griffith Joyner set an Olympic record (10.62) in the 100-metre dash and a still-standing world record (21.34) in the 200-metre dash to capture gold medals in both events. To these medals, she added a gold in the 4×100 relay and a silver in the 4×400.[14]
  • This was the first Olympic Games where women's sailing was its own event. It was won by Americans Allison Jolly and Lynne Jewell.
  • Canadian Ben Johnson won the 100-metre final with a world-record time of 9.79 seconds, but was disqualified after he tested positive for stanozolol. Johnson has since claimed that his positive test was the result of sabotage.[15][16]
  • In the women's artistic gymnastics team all-around competition, the United States women's team was penalized five-tenths of a point from their team score by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) after the compulsory round. East German judge Ellen Berger noticed that Rhonda Faehn, who was the American team alternate and not competing, had been standing on the uneven bars podium for the duration of Kelly Garrison-Steve's compulsory uneven bars routine. Although Faehn was not a coach, Berger assessed the penalty under a rule prohibiting coaches from remaining on the podium while an athlete competes. The deduction caused the United States to fall to fourth place with a combined score of 390.575, three-tenths of a point behind East Germany. This incident remains controversial in the sport of gymnastics, as the United States outperformed the East German team and would have taken the bronze medal in the team competition had they not been penalized.
  • Phoebe Mills won an individual bronze medal on the balance beam, shared with Romania's Gabriela Potorac, making history as the first medal (team or individual) ever won by a US woman in artistic gymnastics at a fully attended games.
  • The USSR won their final team gold medals in artistic gymnastics on both the men's and women's sides with scores of 593.350 and 395.475 respectively. The men's team was led by Vladimir Artemov, while Elena Shushunova led the women's team.
  • Lawrence Lemieux, a Canadian sailor in the Finn class, was in second place and poised to win a silver medal when he abandoned the race to save an injured competitor in mortal peril. He finished in 21st place, but was recognized by the IOC with the Pierre de Coubertin medal honoring his bravery and sacrifice.
  • American diver Greg Louganis won back-to-back titles on both diving events despite striking his head on the springboard during his third-round dive and suffering a concussion.
  • Christa Luding-Rothenburger of East Germany won the silver medal in the women's sprint event in cycling. Combined with the two medals she won in speed skating in the Winter Games in Calgary, she became the first athlete to win medals in two Olympics held in the same year; this feat is no longer possible due to the current scheduling of the Olympic Games.[17]
  • Anthony Nesty of Suriname won his country's first Olympic medal by winning the men's 100-metre butterfly, prevailing over American Matt Biondi by .01 of a second (thwarting Biondi's attempt to match Mark Spitz's record seven golds in one Olympics).[18] Nesty was the first black person to win an individual swimming gold.[19]
  • Swimmer Kristin Otto of East Germany won six gold medals. Other multi-gold medalists in the pool were Matt Biondi (five)[20] and Janet Evans (three).[21]
  • Swedish fencer Kerstin Palm became the first woman to take part in seven Olympics.[2]
  • Mark Todd of New Zealand won his second consecutive individual gold medal in the three-day event in equestrian on Charisma, only the second time in eventing history that a gold medal has been won consecutively.[22]
  • Baseball[23] and Taekwondo[24] were demonstration sports. The opening ceremony featured a mass demonstration of taekwondo with hundreds of adults and children performing moves in unison.
  • This was the last time the United States was represented by an all-amateur basketball team that did not feature NBA players;[25] the team won the bronze medal after losing to the Soviet Union (that was represented by veteran professionals) which went on to win the gold medal.[26]
  • For the first time in history, all the dressage events were won by women.[27]
  • Women's judo was held for the first time, as a demonstration sport.[28]
  • Bowling was held as a demonstration sport, with Kwon Jong Yul of South Korea and Arianne Cerdeña from the Philippines winning the men's and women's gold medals, respectively.
  • Table tennis was introduced at the Olympics, with China and South Korea both winning two titles.[29]
  • Tennis returned to the Olympics after a 64-year absence.[30] Steffi Graf of West Germany added to her four Grand Slam victories in the year by also winning the Olympic title in women's singles,[31] beating Gabriela Sabatini of Argentina in the final.[32] Graf became the first person to win all four Grand Slams and the Olympic gold in a calendar year, known as the golden slam.
  • Two Bulgarian weightlifters were stripped of their gold medals after failing doping tests, and the team withdrew after this event.[33]
  • In boxing, Roy Jones Jr. of the United States dominated his opponents, never losing a single round en route to the final. In the final, he controversially lost a 3–2 decision to South Korean fighter Park Si-Hun despite pummeling Park for three rounds and landing 86 punches to Park's 32.[34][35][36]
  • In another boxing controversy, Riddick Bowe of the United States lost a controversial match in the final to Canadian future world heavyweight champion Lennox Lewis. Bowe had a dominant first round, landing 33 of 94 punches thrown (34%) while Lewis landed 14 of 67 (21%). In the first round the referee from East Germany gave Bowe two cautions for headbutts and deducted a point for a third headbutt, although replay clearly showed there was none. Commentator Ferdie Pacheco disagreed with the deduction, saying they did not hit heads. In the second round, Lewis landed several hard punches. The referee gave Bowe two standing eight counts and waved the fight off after the second one, even though Bowe seemed able to continue. Pacheco disagreed with the stoppage, calling it "very strange".[37]
  • Soviet weightlifter Yury Zakharevich won the men's heavyweight (up to 110 kg class) with a Шаблон:Cvt snatch and Шаблон:Cvt clean and jerk for a Шаблон:Cvt total. Zakhareivich had dislocated his elbow in 1983 attempting a world record and had it rebuilt with synthetic tendons.
  • Indonesia gained its first medal in Olympic history when the women's team won a silver medal in archery.

Ceremonies

Live doves were released during the opening ceremony as a symbol of world peace, but a number of the doves were burned alive or suffered major trauma by the lighting of the Olympic cauldron. As a result of protests following the incident, the last time live doves were released during the opening ceremony was in 1992 in Barcelona, at the start of the ceremony. Balloon doves were released in 1994 Winter Olympics and the 1998 Winter Olympics and paper doves were used at the Atlanta Ceremony in 1996.[38]

These were also the last Summer Olympic Games to hold the opening ceremony during the daytime. The opening ceremony featured a skydiving team descending over the stadium and forming the five-colored Olympic Rings,[39] as well as a mass demonstration of taekwondo. The skydiving team trained at SkyDance SkyDiving and had hoped the opening ceremony appearance would set the stage for skydiving becoming a medal event by 2000.[40]

Domestic historical significance

Файл:View from COEX Tower.jpg
Seoul Olympic Stadium

The idea for South Korea to place a bid for the 1988 Games emerged during the last days of the Park Chung Hee administration in the late 1970s, as hosting the Olympics was a big opportunity to bring international attention to South Korea. But before that, it was necessary to prove the country's capacity, as South Korea was seen as an exotic and risky destination for large events.[41] The project continued to run even after President Park's assassination in 1979. With the successful staging of Miss Universe 1980 and the 1986 Asian Games, Chun Doo-hwan, Park's successor, submitted Korea's bid to the IOC in September 1981, in hopes that the increased international exposure brought by the Olympics would legitimize his authoritarian regime amidst increasing political pressure for democratization and less rigidity in state policies. Further, he hoped it would provide protection from increasing threats from North Korea, and showcase the economic strength that the country was experiencing to the world.[42] Seoul was awarded the bid on 30 September 1981, becoming the 16th nation in the Summer Olympics, as well as the second Asian nation (following Japan in the 1964 Summer Olympics) and the first mainland Asian nation to host the Olympics.

Influenced by the model of 1964 Summer Olympics held in Tokyo, which served as a rite of passage for the Japanese economy and re-integration of Japan in the international community in the post-war era, the South Korean government hoped to use the Olympics as a "coming-out party". The Olympics gave a powerful impetus to the development of South Korea's relations with Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union and with China.[43] In January 1982, South Korea's curfew that had been in place since 1945 was lifted.[44]

In utilizing media events theory, Larson and Park investigated the Seoul Olympics as a form of political communication. They revealed the significance of South Korea's military government throughout the period of the Olympic bid and preparation, followed by the many advantages of the hosting the Games: rapid economic modernization, social mobilization and the legitimization of the military dictatorship.[45]

Homeless camp expansion

Existing camps for "vagrants" (homeless persons) were ramped up before the 1988 Olympics. An Associated Press article states that homeless and alcoholic persons, "but mostly children and the disabled" were arrested and sent to these camps to prepare for the Olympics. In addition, a prosecutor had his investigation into the Brothers Home camp limited at a number of levels of government "in part out of fear of an embarrassing international incident on the eve of the Olympics."[46]

In 1975, the previous president of South Korea had begun a policy of rounding up vagrants. According to government documents obtained by the Associated Press, from 1981 to 1986 the number of people held increased from 8,600 to more than 16,000.[47] Police officers often received promotions based on the number of vagrants they had arrested, and owners of facilities received a subsidy based on the number of people held. There were multiple reports of inmates raped or beaten, and sometimes beaten to death.[46]

4,000 of these "vagrants" were held at the Brothers Home facility.[48] Many of the guards were former inmates who had been "promoted" because of loyalty to the camp's owner. Various money-making operations were conducted such as manufacturing ball-point pens and fishing hooks, as well as clothing for Daewoo. Only a few inmates were paid belatedly for this work.[46]

By accident while on a hunting trip, prosecutor Kim Yong-won heard about and visited a work detail of prisoners in ragged clothes overseen by guards with wooden bats and dogs. In his words, he knew immediately that "a very serious crime" was occurring, and in January 1987, he led a raid on the facility and found beaten and malnourished inmates. He was politically pressured at various levels to reduce the charges against the owner, managers, and guards. In the end, the owner only served two-and-a-half years in prison.[46]

The Brothers Home was a religious facility based on the Christian faith. There were in fact inspections by both city officials and church officials. However, these were scheduled inspections in which healthier inmates were presented in carefully planned and orchestrated circumstances. There were no unannounced inspections.[46]

In the 1990s, construction workers found about 100 human bones on a mountainside outside the location of the former Brothers Home.[46] Victims of the Brothers Home are seeking a government investigation into the crimes committed and accountability.[48]

Boycott

Шаблон:More citations needed section

Файл:1988 Summer Olympics Seoul boycotting countries blue.png
Countries boycotting or absent from the 1988 Games are shaded blue.

In preparation for the 1988 Olympics, the International Olympic Committee worked to prevent another Olympic boycott by the Eastern Bloc as had happened at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. This was made more difficult by the lack of diplomatic relations between South Korea and communist countries. This prompted action by the IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch, who was committed to the participation of these countries. Thus, at the Assembly of National Olympic Committees in Mexico City in November 1984, the "Mexico Declaration" [49] was adopted. The declaration offered support for participation in the 1988 Olympics by all members of the Association of National Olympic Committees. The agreement with the Soviet Union was reached in 1987. After the Los Angeles games, East Germany had already decided to participate again in Seoul. The IOC also decided that it would send invitations to the 1988 Games itself and did not leave this task to the organizing committee as had been done before. Despite these developments, behind the scenes, the IOC did consider relocating the Games and explored the suitability of Munich as an alternative.

Another point of conflict was the involvement of North Korea in hosting the Games, something that had been encouraged by Cuban president Fidel Castro, who called for North Korea to be considered joint host of the Games. As a result, on 8 and 9 January 1986 in Lausanne, Switzerland, the IOC President chaired a meeting of the North and South Korean Olympic Committees. North Korea demanded that eleven of the 23 Olympic sports be carried out on its territory, and also demanded special opening and closing ceremonies. It wanted a joint organizing committee and a united team. The negotiations were continued into another meeting, but were not successful. The IOC did not meet the demands of North Korea and only about half of the desired sporting events were offered to the North. So the focus thereafter was solely on Seoul and South Korea.[50]

The games were boycotted by North Korea and its ally Cuba. Ethiopia, Albania and the Seychelles did not respond to the invitations sent by the IOC.[3] Nicaragua did not participate due to athletic and financial considerations.[4] Madagascar had been expected to participate before withdrawing for financial reasons.[5]

Official theme song

Файл:Seoul 88 olympic torch flame.jpg
The official Olympic Torch used during the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul

Шаблон:Main In 1988, the Seoul Olympic Organizing Committee (SLOOC) produced and distributed an official song of the Seoul Games to publicize the Games to all the IOC member nations, encouraging their participation in the festival and consolidating the harmony and friendship of the entire world citizens through the song. The song "Hand in Hand" was written by Italian composer Giorgio Moroder and American songwriter Tom Whitlock, and performed by singing group Koreana.

Venues

Шаблон:Main

Файл:Jamsil Indoor Swimming Pool.jpg
Jamsil Indoor Swimming Pool
Файл:Autumn Seoul Olympic Park.jpg
Seoul Olympic Park in autumn

Шаблон:Note label Existing facilities modified or refurbished in preparation for the Olympic Games.
Шаблон:Note label New facilities constructed in preparation for the Olympic Games.

Cost

According to The Oxford Olympics Study data is not available to establish the cost of the Seoul 1988 Summer Olympics.[51]

Sports

Шаблон:Cleanup The 1988 Summer Olympics featured 23 different sports encompassing 31 disciplines, and medals were awarded in 237 events. In the list below, the number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses. Шаблон:Div col

Шаблон:Div col end

Файл:Erich Buljung.JPEG
Erich Buljung shows a silver medal he won in the 10m air pistol competition at the 1988 Summer Olympics.

Demonstration

These were the demonstration sports in the games:[2]

Calendar

All times are local KST (UTC+10)

Note: between May 8 and October 9, 1988,all the clocks in the country were advanced by one hour as a test of the possibility of adopting the daylight summer time in the country in the future. This advance also enabled the development of a sports calendar in which the main events were scheduled to be broadcast in major Western markets in television prime time.

 ●  Opening ceremony     Event competitions  ●  Event finals  ●  Closing ceremony
Date September October
17th
Sat		 18th
Sun		 19th
Mon		 20th
Tue		 21st
Wed		 22nd
Thu		 23rd
Fri		 24th
Sat		 25th
Sun		 26th
Mon		 27th
Tue		 28th
Wed		 29th
Thu		 30th
Fri		 1st
Sat		 2nd
Sun
Archery ● ● ● ●
Athletics ●
● ● 		●
● ● 		● ●
● ● ● 		● ● ● ●
● ● ● ● 		● ● ●
● ● 		● ●
● ● 		● ●
● ● 		● ● ●
● ● ●
● ● ● 		●
Basketball ● ●
Boxing ● ● ●
● ● ● 		● ● ●
● ● ●
Canoeing ● ● ●
● ● ● 		● ● ●
● ● ●
Cycling ● ● ● ● ●
● ● 		● ●
Diving ● ● ● ●
Equestrian ● ● ● ● ● ●
Fencing ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Field hockey ● ●
Football (soccer) ●
Gymnastics ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
● ● ● 		● ●
● ● 		●
Handball ● ●
Judo ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Modern pentathlon ● ●
Rowing ● ●
● ●
● ● ● 		● ●
● ●
● ● ●
Sailing ● ● ● ●
● ● ● ●
Shooting ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Swimming ● ●
● ● 		● ●
● ● ● 		● ●
● ● ● 		● ●
● ● ● 		● ● ●
● ● ● 		● ● ●
● ● ●
Synchronized swimming ● ●
Table tennis ● ● ● ●
Tennis ● ● ● ●
Volleyball ● ●
Water polo ●
Weightlifting ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Wrestling ●
● ● 		● ●
● ● 		●
● ● 		●
● ● 		●
● ● 		● ●
● ●
Total gold medals 5 7 9 14 17 12 30 26 9 15 9 11 36 37 9
Ceremonies ● ●
Date 17th
Sat		 18th
Sun		 19th
Mon		 20th
Tue		 21st
Wed		 22nd
Thu		 23rd
Fri		 24th
Sat		 25th
Sun		 26th
Mon		 27th
Tue		 28th
Wed		 29th
Thu		 30th
Fri		 1st
Sat		 2nd
Sun
September October

Шаблон:Notelist

Participating National Olympic Committees

Файл:1988 Summer Olympic games countries.png
Participants (blue nations had their first entrance)
Файл:1988 Summer olympics team numbers.gif
Number of athletes sent by each nation

Athletes from 159 nations competed at the Seoul Games. Aruba, American Samoa, Brunei, Cook Islands, Maldives, Vanuatu, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and South Yemen made their first Olympic appearance at these Games. Guam made their first Summer Olympic appearance at these games having participated in the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary.

In the following list, the number in parentheses indicates the number of athletes from each nation that competed in Seoul:[52]

Participating National Olympic Committees

Шаблон:Div col

Шаблон:Div col end Шаблон:Cnote

  • When the team from the Dominican Republic marched in during the Parade of Nations, the superimposed map erroneously showed the location of Cuba, a nation that did not take part at the Games.[53]

Medal count

Файл:Seoul 88 olympic gold medal.jpg
Gold medal of the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul

Шаблон:Main These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1988 Games. Шаблон:Medals table

Шаблон:Color box Host nation (South Korea)

Mascot

The official mascot for the 1988 Summer Olympic Games was Hodori. It was a stylized tiger designed by Kim Hyun as an amicable Amur tiger, portraying the friendly and hospitable traditions of the Korean people.[54] Hodori's female version was called Hosuni.[55]

The name Шаблон:Lang Hodori was chosen from 2,295 suggestions sent in by the public. It is a compound of Шаблон:Lang ho, the Sino-Korean bound morpheme for "tiger" (appearing also in the usual word Шаблон:Lang horangi for "tiger"), and Шаблон:Lang dori, a diminutive for "boys".[54]

Broadcasting

In the United States, NBC became the telecast provider hereafter for the Summer Games, after a five-Olympics run by American Broadcasting Company from 1968 to 1984.

Doping

Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals Ref.
Ali Dad Шаблон:FlagIOC Wrestling Furosemide
Kerrith Brown Шаблон:FlagIOC Judo Furosemide Шаблон:Bronze3 (71 kg) [56]
Kalman Csengeri Шаблон:FlagIOC Weightlifting Stanozolol
Mitko Grablev Шаблон:FlagIOC Weightlifting Furosemide Шаблон:Gold1 (56 kg)
Angell Guenchev Шаблон:FlagIOC Weightlifting Furosemide Шаблон:Gold1 (67.5 kg)
Ben Johnson Шаблон:FlagIOC Athletics Stanozolol Шаблон:Gold1 (men's 100 m) [57]
Fernando Mariaca Шаблон:FlagIOC Weightlifting Pemoline
Jorge Quesada Шаблон:FlagIOC Modern pentathlon Propanolol
Andor Szanyi Шаблон:FlagIOC Weightlifting Stanozolol Шаблон:Silver2 (100 kg)
Alexander Watson Шаблон:FlagIOC Modern Pentathlon Caffeine

In 2003, Wade Exum, the United States Olympic Committee's director of drug control administration from 1991 to 2000, released documents that showed Carl Lewis had tested positive three times at the 1988 United States Olympic trials for minimum amounts of pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, and phenylpropanolamine, which were banned stimulants. Bronchodilators are also found in cold medication. Due to the rules, his case could have led to disqualification from the Seoul Olympics and suspension from competition for six months. The levels of the combined stimulants registered in the separate tests were 2 ppm, 4 ppm and 6 ppm.[58] Lewis defended himself, claiming that he had accidentally consumed the banned substances. After the supplements that he had taken were analyzed to prove his claims, the USOC accepted his claim of inadvertent use, since a dietary supplement he ingested was found to contain "Ma huang", the Chinese name for Ephedra (ephedrine is known to help weight loss).[58] Fellow Santa Monica Track Club teammates Joe DeLoach and Floyd Heard were also found to have the same banned stimulants in their systems, and were cleared to compete for the same reason.[59][60] The highest level of the stimulants Lewis recorded was 6 ppm, which was regarded as a positive test in 1988 but is now regarded as negative test. The acceptable level has been raised to ten parts per million for ephedrine and twenty-five parts per million for other substances.[58][61] According to the IOC rules at the time, positive tests with levels lower than 10 ppm were cause of further investigation but not immediate ban. Neal Benowitz, a professor of medicine at UC San Francisco who is an expert on ephedrine and other stimulants, agreed that "These [levels] are what you'd see from someone taking cold or allergy medicines and are unlikely to have any effect on performance."[58] Following Exum's revelations the IAAF acknowledged that at the 1988 Olympic Trials the USOC indeed followed the correct procedures in dealing with eight positive findings for ephedrine and ephedrine-related compounds in low concentration. Additionally, in 1988 the federation reviewed the relevant documents with the athletes' names undisclosed and stated that "the medical committee felt satisfied, however, on the basis of the information received that the cases had been properly concluded by the USOC as 'negative cases' in accordance with the rules and regulations in place at the time and no further action was taken".[62][63]

See also

Шаблон:IOC seealso

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

External links

Шаблон:Commons category

Шаблон:S-start Шаблон:S-sports Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft Шаблон:S-end

Шаблон:Olympic Games Шаблон:NOCin1988SummerOlympics Шаблон:EventsAt1988SummerOlympics Шаблон:1988 Summer Olympic venues Шаблон:Sports Emmy Award for Outstanding Live Sports Special Шаблон:TCA Award for Outstanding Achievement in Sports Шаблон:Authority control Шаблон:Portal bar

Партнерские ресурсы
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Разное

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  45. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  46. ↑ 46,0 46,1 46,2 46,3 46,4 46,5 Шаблон:Cite news
  47. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  48. ↑ 48,0 48,1 Шаблон:Cite news
  49. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  50. ↑ "Sport and Politics on the Korean Peninsula – North Korea and the 1988 Seoul Olympics" NKIDP e-Dossier No. 3. Retrieved 23 April 2012
  51. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  52. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  53. ↑ Шаблон:Cite AV media
  54. ↑ 54,0 54,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  55. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  56. ↑ Brown steps down as British Judo Association chairman to become President of UFC partner IMMAF
  57. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  58. ↑ 58,0 58,1 58,2 58,3 Шаблон:Cite news
  59. ↑ Шаблон:Cite magazine
  60. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  61. ↑ Wallechinsky and Loucky, The Complete Book of the Olympics (2012 edition), page 61.
  62. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  63. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
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