Английская Википедия:Adi Shankara

Материал из Онлайн справочника
Перейти к навигацииПерейти к поиску

Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Redirect Шаблон:Pp-semi-indef Шаблон:Good article Шаблон:EngvarB Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox Hindu leader Шаблон:Advaita Шаблон:Hindu philosophy Adi Shankara, also called Adi Shankaracharya (Шаблон:Lang-sa,Шаблон:Refn Шаблон:IPA-sa),Шаблон:Refn was an 8th-centuryШаблон:Refn Indian Vedic scholar and teacher (acharya).Шаблон:Sfn His works present a harmonizing reading of the sastras, with liberating knowledge of the self at its core, synthesizing the Advaita Vedanta teachings of his time.Шаблон:Sfn[web 1]

Due to his later fame, over 300 texts are attributed to him, including commentaries (Bhāṣya), introductory topical expositions (Prakaraṇa grantha) and poetry (Stotra).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn However, most of these are likely to be written by admirers or pretenders or scholars with an eponymous name.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Works known to be written by Shankara himself are the Brahmasutrabhasya,Шаблон:Sfn his commentaries on ten principal Upanishads,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn his commentary on the Bhagavad Gita,Шаблон:Sfn and the Upadeśasāhasrī.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The authenticity of Shankara being the author of Шаблон:IAST has been questioned and mostly rejected by scholarship.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

The central concern of Shankara's writings is the liberating knowledge of the true identity of jivatman (individual self) as Ātman-Brahman,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn taking the Upanishads as an independent means of knowledge, beyond the ritually-oriented Mīmāṃsā-exegesis of the Vedas.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:RefnШаблон:Refn Shankara's Advaita shows influences from Mahayana Buddhism, despite Shankara's critiques;Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and Hindu Vaishnava opponents have even accused Shankara of being a "crypto-Buddhist,"Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn a qualification which is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, highlighting their respective views on Atman, Anatta and Brahman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn

Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but his influence on Hindu intellectual thought has been questioned.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Maṇḍana Miśra,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and there is no mention of him in concurring Hindu, Buddhist or Jain sources until the 11th century.Шаблон:Sfn The popular image Shankara started to take shape in the 14th century, centuries after his death, when Sringeri matha started to receive patronage from the kings of the Vijayanagara EmpireШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and shifted their allegiance from advaitic Agamic Saivism to Brahmanical Advaita orthodoxy.Шаблон:Sfn Hagiographies dating from the 14th-17th centuries deified him as a ruler-renunciate, travelling on a digvijaya (conquest of the four quarters)Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy, defeating his opponents in theological debates.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn These hagiographies portray him as founding four mathas ("monasteries"), and Adi Shankara also came to be regarded as the organiser of the Dashanami monastic order, and the unifier of the Shanmata tradition of worship.

The title of Shankaracharya, used by heads of certain monasteries in India, is derived from his name. Шаблон:TOC limit

Dating

Файл:Kaladi shankarabirthplace.jpg
The birthplace of Adi Shankara at Kalady

Reliable information on Shankara's actual life is scanty.Шаблон:Sfn His existing biographies are not historical accurate documents, but politically motivated hagiographies which were all written several centuries after his time and abound in legends and improbable events.Шаблон:Sfn Several different dates have been proposed for Shankara.Шаблон:Sfn While the Advaita-tradition assigns him to the 5th century BCE, the scholarly-accepted dating places Shankara to be a scholar from the first half of the 8th century CE.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Matha datings

The records of the Sringeri Matha state that Shankara was born in the 14th year of the reign of "Vikramaditya", but it is unclear to which king this name refers.[3] Though some researchers identify the name with Chandragupta II (4th century CE), modern scholarship accepts the Vikramaditya as being from the Chalukya dynasty of Badami, most likely Vikramaditya II (733–746 CE).[3]

Scholarly datings

Other datings

  • 44–12 BCE: the commentator Anandagiri believed he was born at Chidambaram in 44 BCE and died in 12 BCE.Шаблон:Sfn
  • 6th century CE: Telang placed him in this century. Sir R.G. Bhandarkar believed he was born in 680 CE.Шаблон:Sfn
  • 805–897 CE: Venkiteswara not only places Shankara later than most, but also had the opinion that it would not have been possible for him to have achieved all the works apportioned to him, and has him live ninety-two years.Шаблон:Sfn

Works

Шаблон:Further

Adi Shankara is highly esteemed in contemporary Advaita Vedanta, and over 300 texts are attributed to his name, including commentaries (Bhāṣya), original philosophical expositions (Prakaraṇa grantha) and poetry (Stotra).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn However, most of these are not authentic works of Shankara, and are likely to be written by his admirers, or scholars whose name was also Shankaracharya.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Piantelli has published a complete list of works attributed to Adi Sankara, along with issues of authenticity for most.[4]

Authentic works

Shankara is most known for his systematic reviews and commentaries (Bhasyas) on ancient Indian texts. Shankara's masterpiece of commentary is the Brahmasutrabhasya (literally, commentary on Brahma Sutra), a fundamental text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism.Шаблон:Sfn

Most of his commentaries on the ten Mukhya (principal) Upanishads are considered authentic by scholars,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and these are: Bhasya on the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Chandogya Upanishad, the Aitareya Upanishad, the Taittiriya Upanishad, the Kena Upanishad,Шаблон:Refn the Isha Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad, the Mundaka Upanishad, and the Prashna Upanishad.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The authenticity of the commentary on the Mandukya Upanishad and Gaudapadas Madukya-karika has been questioned.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Other authentic works of Shankara include commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita (part of his Prasthana Trayi Bhasya).Шаблон:Sfn His Vivarana (tertiary notes) on the commentary by Vedavyasa on Yogasutras as well as those on Apastamba Dharma-sũtras (Adhyatama-patala-bhasya) are accepted by scholars as authentic works of Shankara.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Among the Stotra (poetic works), the Daksinamurti Stotra, the Bhajagovinda Stotra, the Sivanandalahari, the Carpata-panjarika, the Visnu-satpadi, the Harimide, the Dasa-shloki, and the Krishna-staka are likely to be authentic.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Shankara also authored Upadesasahasri, his most important original philosophical work.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Of other original Prakaranas (प्रकरण, monographs, treatise), seventy-six works are attributed to Shankara. Modern era Indian scholars such as Belvalkar as well as Upadhyaya accept five and thirty-nine works respectively as authentic.Шаблон:Sfn

Shankara's stotras considered authentic include those dedicated to Krishna (Vaishnavism) and one to Shiva (Shaivism) – often considered two different sects within Hinduism. Scholars suggest that these stotra are not sectarian, but essentially Advaitic and reach for a unified universal view of Vedanta.Шаблон:Sfn

Shankara's commentary on the Brahma Sutras is the oldest surviving. However, in that commentary, he mentions older commentaries like those of Dravida, Bhartrprapancha and others which are either lost or yet to be found.[5]

Works of doubtful authenticity or not authentic

Commentaries on Nrisimha-Purvatatapaniya and Shveshvatara Upanishads are attributed to Shankara, but their authenticity is highly doubtful.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn[6] Similarly, commentaries on several early and later Upanishads attributed to Shankara are rejected by scholars[7] to be his works, and are likely works of later scholars; these include: Kaushitaki Upanishad, Maitri Upanishad, Kaivalya Upanishad, Paramahamsa Upanishad, Sakatayana Upanishad, Mandala Brahmana Upanishad, Maha Narayana Upanishad, Gopalatapaniya Upanishad. However, in Brahmasutra-Bhasya, Shankara cites some of these Upanishads as he develops his arguments, but the historical notes left by his companions and disciples, along with major differences in style and the content of the commentaries on later Upanishad have led scholars to conclude that the commentaries on later Upanishads were not Shankara's work.Шаблон:Sfn

The authenticity of Shankara being the author of Шаблон:IAST[8] has been questioned,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn though it is "so closely interwoven into the spiritual heritage of Shankara that any analysis of his perspective which fails to consider [this work] would be incomplete."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn According to Grimes, "modern scholars tend to reject its authenticity as a work by Shankara," while "traditionalists tend to accept it."Шаблон:Sfn Nevertheless, does Grimes argue that "there is still a likelihood that Śaṅkara is the author of the Vivekacūḍāmaṇi," Шаблон:Sfn noting that "it differs in certain respects from his other works in that it addresses itself to a different audience and has a different emphasis and purpose."Шаблон:Sfn

The Aparokshanubhuti and Atma bodha are also attributed to Shankara, as his original philosophical treatises, but this is doubtful. Paul Hacker has also expressed some reservations that the compendium Sarva-darsana-siddhanta Sangraha was completely authored by Shankara, because of difference in style and thematic inconsistencies in parts.[7] Similarly, Gayatri-bhasya is doubtful to be Shankara's work.Шаблон:Sfn Other commentaries that are highly unlikely to be Shankara's work include those on Uttaragita, Siva-gita, Brahma-gita, Lalita-shasranama, Suta-samhita and Sandhya-bhasya. The commentary on the Tantric work Lalita-trisati-bhasya attributed to Shankara is also unauthentic.Шаблон:Sfn

Shankara is widely credited with commentaries on other scriptural works, such as the Vishnu sahasranāma and the Sānatsujātiya,[9] but both these are considered apocryphal by scholars who have expressed doubts.Шаблон:Sfn Hastamalakiya-bhasya is also widely believed in India to be Shankara's work and it is included in Samata-edition of Shankara's works, but some scholars consider it to be the work of Shankara's student.Шаблон:Sfn

Philosophy and practice

Шаблон:Quote box

According to Nakamura, Shankara was not an original thinker, but systematised the works of preceding philosophers.Шаблон:Sfn The central theme of Shankara's writings is the liberating knowledge of the identity of the Self (Ātman) and Brahman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Moksha is attained in this life by recognizing the identity of Atman and Brahman,Шаблон:Sfn as mediated by the Mahavakyas, especially Tat Tvam Asi, "That you are."

Systematizer of Advaita

According to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of the early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara".Шаблон:Sfn Shankara "was the person who synthesized the Advaita-vāda which had previously existed before him".Шаблон:Sfn According to Nakamura, after the growing influence of Buddhism on Vedānta, culminating in the works of Gauḍapāda, Adi Shankara gave a Vedantic character to the Buddhistic elements in these works,Шаблон:Sfn synthesising and rejuvenating the doctrine of Advaita.Шаблон:Sfn

According to Koller, using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara systematized the foundation for Advaita Vedānta in the 8th century, reforming Badarayana's Vedānta tradition.Шаблон:Sfn According to Mayeda, Shankara represents a turning point in the development of Vedānta,Шаблон:Sfn yet he also notices that it is only since Deussens's praise that Shankara "has usually been regarded as the greatest philosopher of India."Шаблон:Sfn Mayeda further notes that Shankara was primarily concerned with moksha, "and not with the establishment of a complete system of philosophy or theology,"Шаблон:Sfn following Potter, who qualifies Shankara as a "speculative philosopher."Шаблон:Sfn Lipner notes that Shankara's "main literary approach was commentarial and hence perforce disjointed rather than procedurally systematic [...] though a systematic philosophy can be derived from Samkara's thought."Шаблон:Sfn

Shankara has been described as influenced by Shaivism and Shaktism, but his works and philosophy suggest greater overlap with Vaishnavism, influence of Yoga school of Hinduism, but most distinctly express his Advaitin convictions with a monistic view of spirituality,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and his commentaries mark a turn from realism to idealism.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Moksha - liberating knowledge of Brahman

The central theme of Shankara's writings is the liberating knowledge of the true identity of jivatman (individual self) as Ātman)-Brahman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn One of Shankara's main concerns was establishing the Upanishads as an independent means of knowledge beyond the ritually-oriented Mīmāṃsā exegesis of the vedas.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:RefnШаблон:Refn

According to Shankara, the one unchanging entity (Brahman) alone is real, while changing entities do not have absolute existence. Shankara's primary objective was to explain how moksha is attained in this life by recognizing the true identity of jivatman as Atman-Brahman,Шаблон:Sfn as mediated by the Mahāvākyas, especially Tat Tvam Asi, "That you are." Correct knowledge of jivatman and Atman-Brahman is the attainment of Brahman, immortality,Шаблон:Sfn and leads to moksha (liberation) from sufferingШаблон:Refn and samsara, the cycle of rebirthШаблон:Sfn This is stated by Shankara as follows: Шаблон:Blockquote

Pramanas - means of knowledge

Shankara recognized the means of knowledge,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn but his thematic focus was upon metaphysics and soteriology, and he took for granted the pramanas,Шаблон:Sfn that is epistemology or "means to gain knowledge, reasoning methods that empower one to gain reliable knowledge".Шаблон:Citation needed According to Sengaku Mayeda, "in no place in his works [...] does he give any systematic account of them,"Шаблон:Sfn taking Atman-Brahman to be self-evident (svapramanaka) and self-established (svatahsiddha), and "an investigation of the means of knowledge is of no use for the attainment of final release."Шаблон:Sfn Mayeda notes that Shankara's arguments are "strikingly realistic and not idealistic," arguing that jnana is based on existing things (vastutantra), and "not upon Vedic injunction (codanatantra) nor upon man (purusatantra).Шаблон:Sfn

According to Michael Comans (aka Vasudevacharya), Shankara considered perception and inference as a primary most reliable epistemic means, and where these means to knowledge help one gain "what is beneficial and to avoid what is harmful", there is no need for or wisdom in referring to the scriptures.Шаблон:Sfn In certain matters related to metaphysics and ethics, says Shankara, the testimony and wisdom in scriptures such as the Vedas and the Upanishads become important.Шаблон:Sfn

Merrell-Wolff states that Shankara accepts Vedas and Upanishads as a source of knowledge as he develops his philosophical theses, yet he never rests his case on the ancient texts, rather proves each thesis, point by point using the pramanas (means of knowledge) of reason and experience.[10][11] Hacker and Phillips note that his insight into rules of reasoning and hierarchical emphasis on epistemic steps is "doubtlessly the suggestion" of Shankara in Brahma-sutra-bhasya, an insight that flowers in the works of his companion and disciple Padmapada.[12]

Logic versus revelation

Stcherbatsky in 1927 criticized Shankara for demanding the use of logic from Madhyamika Buddhists, while himself resorting to revelation as a source of knowledge.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn Sircar in 1933 offered a different perspective and stated, "Sankara recognizes the value of the law of contrariety and self-alienation from the standpoint of idealistic logic; and it has consequently been possible for him to integrate appearance with reality."[13]

Recent scholarship states that Shankara's arguments on revelation are about apta vacana (Sanskrit: आप्तवचन, sayings of the wise, relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[14][15] It is part of his and Advaita Vedanta's epistemological foundation.[14] The Advaita Vedanta tradition considers such testimony epistemically valid, asserting that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.[16] Shankara considered the teachings in the Vedas and Upanishads as apta vacana and a valid source of knowledge.[14] He suggests the importance of teacher-disciple relationship on combining logic and revelation to attain moksha in his text Upadeshasahasri.Шаблон:Sfn Anantanand Rambachan and others state that Shankara did not rely exclusively on Vedic statements, but also used a range of logical methods and reasoning methodology and other pramanas.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Anubhava

Anantanand Rambachan summarizes the widely held view on the role of anubhava in Shankara's epistemology as follows, before critiquing it: Шаблон:Blockquote

Yoga and contemplative exercises

Shankara considered the purity and steadiness of mind achieved in Yoga as an aid to gaining moksha knowledge, but such yogic state of mind cannot in itself give rise to such knowledge.[17] To Shankara, that knowledge of Brahman springs only from inquiry into the teachings of the Upanishads.[18] The method of yoga, encouraged in Shankara's teachings notes Comans, includes withdrawal of mind from sense objects as in Patanjali's system, but it is not complete thought suppression, instead it is a "meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness".[19] Describing Shankara's style of yogic practice, Comans writes:

the type of yoga which Sankara presents here is a method of merging, as it were, the particular (visesa) into the general (samanya). For example, diverse sounds are merged in the sense of hearing, which has greater generality insofar as the sense of hearing is the locus of all sounds. The sense of hearing is merged into the mind, whose nature consists of thinking about things, and the mind is in turn merged into the intellect, which Sankara then says is made into 'mere cognition' (vijnanamatra); that is, all particular cognitions resolve into their universal, which is cognition as such, thought without any particular object. And that in turn is merged into its universal, mere Consciousness (prajnafnaghana), upon which everything previously referred to ultimately depends.[19]

Shankara rejected those yoga system variations that suggest complete thought suppression leads to liberation, as well the view that the Shrutis teach liberation as something apart from the knowledge of the oneness of the Self. Knowledge alone and insights relating to true nature of things, taught Shankara, is what liberates. He placed great emphasis on the study of the Upanisads, emphasizing them as necessary and sufficient means to gain Self-liberating knowledge. Sankara also emphasized the need for and the role of Guru (Acharya, teacher) for such knowledge.[19]

Samanvayat Tatparya Linga

Shankara cautioned against cherrypicking a phrase or verse out of context from Vedic literature, and remarks in the opening chapter of his Brahmasutra-Bhasya that the Anvaya (theme or purport) of any treatise can only be correctly understood if one attends to the Samanvayat Tatparya Linga, that is six characteristics of the text under consideration: (1) the common in Upakrama (introductory statement) and Upasamhara (conclusions); (2) Abhyasa (message repeated); (3) Apurvata (unique proposition or novelty); (4) Phala (fruit or result derived); (5) Arthavada (explained meaning, praised point) and (6) Yukti (verifiable reasoning).[20]Шаблон:Sfn While this methodology has roots in the theoretical works of Nyaya school of Hinduism, Shankara consolidated and applied it with his unique exegetical method called Anvaya-Vyatireka, which states that for proper understanding one must "accept only meanings that are compatible with all characteristics" and "exclude meanings that are incompatible with any".[21][22]

The Mahāvākyas - the identity of Ātman and Brahman

Moksha, liberation from suffering and rebirth and attaining immortality, is attained by disidentification from the body-mind complex and gaining self-knowledge as being in essence Atman, and attaining knowledge of the identity of Ātman and Brahman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to Shankara, the individual Ātman and Brahman seem different at the empirical level of reality, but this difference is only an illusion, and at the highest level of reality they are really identical.Шаблон:Sfn The real self is Sat, "the Existent," that is, Ātman-Brahman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn Whereas the difference between Ātman and non-Ātman is deemed self-evident, knowledge of the identity of Ātman and Brahman is revealed by the shruti, especially the Upanishadic statement tat tvam asi.

Mahāvākyas

According to Shankara, a large number of Upanishadic statements reveal the identity of Ātman and Brahman. In the Advaita Vedānta tradition, four of those statements, the Mahāvākyas, which are taken literal, in contrast to other statements, have a special importance in revealing this identity.[23]Шаблон:Sfn They are:

That you are

The longest chapter of Shankara's Upadesasahasri, chapter 18, "That Art Thou," is devoted to considerations on the insight "I am ever-free, the existent" (sat), and the identity expressed in Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 in the mahavakya (great sentence) "tat tvam asi", "that thou art."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In this statement, according to Shankara, tat refers to Sat,Шаблон:Sfn "the Existent"Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Existence, Being,[24] or Brahman,Шаблон:Sfn the Real, the "Root of the world,"Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn the true essence or root or origin of everything that exists.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn[24] "Tvam" refers to one's real I, pratyagatman or inner Self,Шаблон:Sfn the "direct Witness within everything,"Шаблон:Sfn "free from caste, family, and purifying ceremonies,"Шаблон:Sfn the essence, Atman, which the individual at the core is.[25][26] As Shankara states in the Upadesasahasri: Шаблон:Blockquote

The statement "tat tvam asi" sheds the false notion that Atman is different from Brahman.Шаблон:Sfn According toNakamura, the non-duality of atman and Brahman "is a famous characteristic of Sankara's thought, but it was already taught by Sundarapandya"Шаблон:Sfn (Шаблон:Circa or earlier).Шаблон:Sfn Shankara cites Sundarapandya in his comments to Brahma Sutra verse I.1.4: Шаблон:Blockquote

From this, and a large number of other accordances, Nakamura concludes that Shankar was not an original thinker, but "a synthesizer of existing Advaita and the rejuvenator, as well as a defender, of ancient learning."Шаблон:Sfn

Meditation on the Mahāvākya

In the Upadesasahasri Shankara, Shankara is ambivalent on the need for meditation on the Upanishadic mahavyaka. He states that "right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing,"Шаблон:Sfn and rejects prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana meditation, that is, meditation on the meaning of the sentences, and in Up.II.3 recommends parisamkhyana,Шаблон:Sfn separating Atman from everything that is not Atman, that is, the sense-objects and sense-organs, and the pleasant and unpleasant things and merit and demerit connected with them.Шаблон:Sfn Yet, Shankara then concludes with declaring that only Atman exists, stating that "all the sentences of the Upanishads concerning non-duality of Atman should be fully contemplated, should be contemplated."Шаблон:Sfn As Mayeda states, "how they [prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana versus parisamkhyana] differ from each other in not known."Шаблон:Sfn

Prasamkhyana was advocated by Mandana Misra,Шаблон:Sfn the older contemporary of Shankara who was the most influential Advaitin until the 10th century.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn "According to Mandana, the mahavakyas are incapable, by themselves, of bringing about brahmajnana. The Vedanta-vakyas convey an indirect knowledge which is made direct only by deep meditation (prasamkhyana). The latter is a continuous contemplation of the purport of the mahavakyas.Шаблон:Sfn Vācaspati Miśra, a student of Mandana Misra, agreed with Mandana Misra, and their stance is defended by the Bhamati-school, founded by Vācaspati Miśra.Шаблон:Sfn In contrast, the Vivarana school founded by Prakasatman (Шаблон:Circa–1300)Шаблон:Sfn follows Shankara closely, arguing that the mahavakyas are the direct cause of gaining knowledge.Шаблон:Sfn

Renouncement of ritualism

Shankara, in his text Upadesasahasri, discourages ritual worship such as oblations to Deva (God), because that assumes the Self within is different from the Brahman.Шаблон:RefnШаблон:Refn The "doctrine of difference" is wrong, asserts Shankara, because, "he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another, does not know Brahman".[27]Шаблон:Sfn The false notion that Atman is different from BrahmanШаблон:Sfn is connected with the novice's conviction that (Upadeshasahasri II.1.25) Шаблон:Blockquote

Recognizing oneself as "the Existent-Brahman," which is mediated by scriptural teachings, is contrasted with the notion of "I act," which is mediated by relying on sense-perception and the like.Шаблон:Sfn According to Shankara, the statement "Thou art That" "remove[s] the delusion of a hearer,"Шаблон:Sfn "so through sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own Atman, the witness of all internal organs,"Шаблон:Sfn and not from any actions.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn With this realization, the performance of rituals is prohibited, "since [the use of] rituals and their requisites is contradictory to the realization of the identity [of Atman] with the highest Atman."Шаблон:Sfn

However, Shankara also asserts that Self-knowledge is realized when one's mind is purified by an ethical life that observes Yamas such as Ahimsa (non-injury, non-violence to others in body, mind and thoughts) and Niyamas. Rituals and rites such as yajna (a fire ritual), asserts Shankara, can help draw and prepare the mind for the journey to Self-knowledge.Шаблон:Sfn He emphasizes the need for ethics such as Akrodha and Yamas during Brahmacharya, stating the lack of ethics as causes that prevent students from attaining knowledge.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Īśvara

Shankara, while rejecting empirical reality due to his position of nonduality, still attributes value to the universe as it identifies with Īśvara. He sometimes blurs the distinction between Īśvara and Brahman, using various terms for both. However, he generally separates Īśvara, associated with the universe and its attributes, from the absolute nondual brahman. Drawing from the Upanishads, Shankara sees Īśvara as the universe's material and intelligent cause, emanating it through the power of maya, thereby making the universe sentient and self-aware. In relation to the Mandukya Upanishad, Shankara compares the universe's unmanifest state to Īśvara in a deep dreamless cosmic state.[28]

Influences of Mahayana Buddhism

Шаблон:See also

Shankara's Vedanta shows similarities with Mahayana Buddhism; opponents have even accused Shankara of being a "crypto-Buddhist,"Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn a qualification which is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, given the differences between these two schools. According to Shankara, a major difference between Advaita and Mahayana Buddhism are their views on Atman and Brahman.Шаблон:Sfn According to both Loy and Jayatilleke, more differences can be discerned.[29][30]

Similarities and influences

Despite Shankara's criticism of certain schools of Mahayana Buddhism, Shankara's philosophy shows strong similarities with the Mahayana Buddhist philosophy which he attacks.Шаблон:Sfn According to S.N. Dasgupta, Шаблон:Blockquote

According to Mudgal, Shankara's Advaita and the Buddhist Madhyamaka view of ultimate reality are compatible because they are both transcendental, indescribable, non-dual and only arrived at through a via negativa (neti neti). Mudgal concludes therefore that Шаблон:Blockquote

Some Hindu scholars criticized Advaita for its Maya and non-theistic doctrinal similarities with Buddhism.[31]Шаблон:Sfn Ramanuja, the founder of Vishishtadvaita Vedānta, accused Adi Shankara of being a Prachanna Bauddha, that is, a "crypto-Buddhist",Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and someone who was undermining theistic Bhakti devotionalism.Шаблон:Sfn The non-Advaita scholar Bhaskara of the Bhedabheda Vedānta tradition, similarly around 800 CE, accused Shankara's Advaita as "this despicable broken down Mayavada that has been chanted by the Mahayana Buddhists", and a school that is undermining the ritual duties set in Vedic orthodoxy.Шаблон:Sfn

Differences

The qualification of "crypto-Buddhist" is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, highlighting their respective views on Atman, Anatta and Brahman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn There are differences in the conceptual means of "liberation." Nirvana, a term more often used in Buddhism, is the liberating 'blowing out' of craving, aided by the realization and acceptance that there is no Self (anatman) as the center of perception, craving, and delusion. Moksha, a term more common in Hinduism, is the similar liberating release from craving and ignorance, yet aided by the realization and acceptance that one's inner Self is not a personal 'ego-self', but a Universal Self.[29][32]

Historical and cultural impact

Шаблон:See also

Файл:SankaraSthampaMandapam.jpg
Adi Sankara Keerthi Sthampa Mandapam, Kalady, Kochi

Historical context

Шаблон:Further

Shankara lived in the time of the great "Late classical Hinduism",Шаблон:Sfn which lasted from 650 till 1100 CE.Шаблон:Sfn This era was one of political instability that followed the Gupta dynasty and King Harsha of the 7th century CE.Шаблон:Sfn power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",Шаблон:Sfn as reflected in the Tantric Mandala, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.Шаблон:Sfn

The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism"Шаблон:Sfn was diminished.Шаблон:Sfn Rural and devotional movements arose, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti and Tantra,Шаблон:Sfn though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development".Шаблон:Sfn Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords,Шаблон:Sfn and Buddhism, Jainism, Islam and various traditions within Hinduism were competing for members.[33][34][35] Buddhism in particular had emerged as a powerful influence in India's spiritual traditions in the first 700 years of the 1st millennium CE,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but lost its position after the 8th century, and began to disappear in India.Шаблон:Sfn This was reflected in the change of puja-ceremonies at the courts in the 8th century, where Hindu gods replaced the Buddha as the "supreme, imperial deity".Шаблон:Refn

Influence on Hinduism

Traditional view

Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta. Hagiographies from the 14th-17th century portray him as a victor who travelled all over India to help restore the study of the Vedas[36] According to Frank Whaling, "Hindus of the Advaita persuasion (and others too) have seen in Sankara the one who restored the Hindu dharma against the attacks of the Buddhists (and Jains) and in the process helped to drive Buddhism out of India."[37] His teachings and tradition are central to Smartism and have influenced Sant Mat lineages.[38] Tradition portrays him as the one who reconciled the various sects (Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Saktism) with the introduction of the Шаблон:IAST form of worship, the simultaneous worship of five deities – Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva and Devi, arguing that all deities were but different forms of the one Brahman, the invisible Supreme Being,[39] implying that Advaita Vedanta stood above all other traditions.Шаблон:Sfn

According to Koller, Shankara, and his contemporaries, made a significant contribution in understanding Buddhism and the ancient Vedic traditions, then transforming the extant ideas, particularly reforming the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, making it India's most important "spiritual tradition" for more than a thousand years.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn Benedict Ashley credits Adi Shankara for unifying two seemingly disparate philosophical doctrines in Hinduism, namely Atman and Brahman.[40]

Critical assessment

Scholars have questioned Shankara's early influence in India.Шаблон:Sfn The Buddhist scholar Richard E. King states, Шаблон:Blockquote

Prominence of Maṇḍana Miśra (until 10th century)

According to Clark, "Sankara was relatively unknown during his life-time, and probably for several centuries after, as there is no mention of him in Buddhist or jain sources for centuries; nor is he mentioned by other important philosophers of the ninth and tenth centuries."Шаблон:Sfn According to King and Roodurmun, until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Mandana-Misra, the latter considered to be the major representative of Advaita.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Maṇḍana Miśra, an older contemporary of Shankara,Шаблон:Sfn was a Mimamsa scholar and a follower of Kumarila, but also wrote a seminal text on Advaita that has survived into the modern era, the Brahma-siddhi.Шаблон:Sfn[41] The "theory of error" set forth in the Brahma-siddhi became the normative Advaita Vedanta theory of error,Шаблон:Sfn and for a couple of centuries he was the most influential Vedantin.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn His student Vachaspati Miśra, who is believed to have been an incarnation of Shankara to popularize the Advaita view,Шаблон:Sfn wrote the Bhamati, a commentary on Shankara's Brahma Sutra Bhashya, and the Brahmatattva-samiksa, a commentary on Mandana Mishra's Brahma-siddhi. His thought was mainly inspired by Mandana Miśra, and harmonises Shankara's thought with that of Mandana Miśra.Шаблон:Sfn[web 2] The Bhamati school takes an ontological approach. It sees the Jiva as the source of avidya.[web 2] It sees yogic practice and contemplation as the main factor in the acquirement of liberation, while the study of the Vedas and reflection are additional factors.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The later Advaita Vedanta tradition incorporated Maṇḍana Miśra into the Shankara-fold, by identifying him with Sureśvara (9th century),[42] believing that Maṇḍana Miśra became a disciple of Shankara after a public debate which Shankara won.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

According to Satchidanandendra Sarasvati, "almost all the later Advaitins were influenced by Mandana Misra and Bhaskara."Шаблон:Sfn He argues that most of post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta actually deviates from Shankara, and that only his student Suresvara, who's had little influence, represents Shankara correctly.Шаблон:Sfn In this view, Shankara's influential student Padmapada misunderstood Shankara, while his views were manitained by the Suresvara school.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn

Vaishnavite Vedanta (10th-14th century)

Hajime Nakamura states that prior to Shankara, views similar to his already existed, but did not occupy a dominant position within the Vedanta.Шаблон:Sfn Until the 11th century, Vedanta itself was a peripheral school of thought;Шаблон:Sfn Vedanta became a major influence when it was utilized by various sects of Hinduism to ground their doctrines.Шаблон:Sfn The early Vedanta scholars were from the upper classes of society, well-educated in traditional culture. They formed a social elite, "sharply distinguished from the general practitioners and theologians of Hinduism."Шаблон:Sfn Their teachings were "transmitted among a small number of selected intellectuals".Шаблон:Sfn Works of the early Vedanta schools do not contain references to Vishnu or Shiva.Шаблон:Sfn It was only after Shankara that "the theologians of the various sects of Hinduism utilized Vedanta philosophy to a greater or lesser degree to form the basis of their doctrines,"Шаблон:Sfn whereby "its theoretical influence upon the whole of Indian society became final and definitive."Шаблон:Sfn Examples are Ramanuja (11th c.), who aligned bhakti, "the major force in the religions of Hinduism," with philosophical thought, meanwhile rejecting Shankara's views,[web 3] and the Nath-tradition.Шаблон:Sfn

Vijayanagara Empire and Vidyaranya (14th century)

In medieval times, Advaita Vedanta position as most influential Hindu darsana started to take shape, as Advaitins in the Vijayanagara Empire competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their sect.Шаблон:Sfn It is only during this period that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was established.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Many of Shankara's biographies were created and published in and after the 14th century, such as Vidyaranya's widely cited Śankara-vijaya. Vidyaranya, also known as Madhava, who was the 12th Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from 1380 to 1386[43] and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire,[44] inspired the re-creation of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India. This may have been in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn[44] but his efforts were also targeted at Sri Vaishnava groups, especially Visishtadvaita, which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire.Шаблон:Sfn Furthermore, sects competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their own sectarian system.Шаблон:Sfn Vidyaranya and his brothers, note Paul Hacker and other scholars,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn wrote extensive Advaitic commentaries on the Vedas and Dharma to make "the authoritative literature of the Aryan religion" more accessible.Шаблон:Sfn Vidyaranya was an influential Advaitin, and he created legends to turn Shankara, whose elevated philosophy had no appeal to gain widespread popularity, into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his digvijaya ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In his doxography Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha ("Summary of all views") Vidyaranya presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all darsanas, presenting the other darsanas as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings, which was regarded to be the most inclusive system.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Vaishanava traditions of Dvaita and Visishtadvaita were not classified as Vedanta, and placed just above Buddhism and Jainism, reflecting the threat they posed for Vidyaranya's Advaita allegiance.Шаблон:Sfn Bhedabheda wasn't mentioned at all, "literally written out of the history of Indian philosophy."Шаблон:Sfn Such was the influence of the Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha, that early Indologists also regarded Advaita Vedanta as the most accurate interpretation of the Upanishads.Шаблон:Sfn And Vidyaranya founded a matha, proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support,[44] and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.Шаблон:Sfn

Neo-Vedanta (19-20th century)

Shankara's position was further established in the 19th and 20th-century, when neo-Vedantins and western Orientalists elevated Advaita Vedanta "as the connecting theological thread that united Hinduism into a single religious tradition."Шаблон:Sfn Shankara became "an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture," despite the fact that most Hindus do not adhere to Advaita Vedanta.Шаблон:Sfn

Digvijaya - "The conquests of Shankara"

Sources

Шаблон:Main

There are at least fourteen different known hagiographies of Adi Shankara's life.Шаблон:Sfn These, as well as other hagiographical works on Shankara, were written many centuries to a thousand years after Shankara's death,Шаблон:Sfn in Sanskrit and non-Sanskrit languages, and the hagiographies are filled with legends and fiction, often mutually contradictory.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn

Many of these are called the Śankara Vijaya ('The conquests (digvijaya) of Shankara'), while some are called Guruvijaya, Sankarabhyudaya and Shankaracaryacarita. Of these, the Brhat-Sankara-Vijaya by Citsukha is the oldest hagiography but only available in excerpts, while Sankaradigvijaya by Mādhava (17th c.) and Sankaravijaya by Anandagiri are the most cited.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Other significant hagiographies are the Шаблон:IAST (of Cidvilāsa, c. between the 15th and 17th centuries), and the Шаблон:IAST (of the Kerala region, extant from c. the 17th century).[45][46]}

Scholars note that one of the most cited Shankara hagiographies, Anandagiri's, includes stories and legends about historically different people, but all bearing the same name of Sri Shankaracarya or also referred to as Shankara but likely meaning more ancient scholars with names such as Vidya-sankara, Sankara-misra and Sankara-nanda.Шаблон:Sfn Some hagiographies are probably written by those who sought to create a historical basis for their rituals or theories.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Life

Файл:Adi shankara.jpg
Murti of Shankara at his Samadhi Mandir, behind Kedarnath Temple, in Kedarnath, India
Файл:Adi Sankara at SAT Temple.jpg
Murti of Shankara at the SAT Temple in Santa Cruz, California

According to the oldest hagiographies, Shankara was born in the southern Indian state of Kerala, in a village named Kaladi[47]Шаблон:Sfn sometimes spelled as Kalati or Karati.[48]Шаблон:Refn He was born to Nambudiri Brahmin parents.[49][50] His parents were an aged, childless, couple who led a devout life of service to the poor. They named their child Shankara, meaning "giver of prosperity".[51] His father died while Shankara was very young.Шаблон:Sfn Shankara's Шаблон:IAST, the initiation into student-life, had to be delayed due to the death of his father, and was then performed by his mother.[52]

Shankara's hagiography describe him as someone who was attracted to the life of Sannyasa (hermit) from early childhood. His mother disapproved. A story, found in all hagiographies, describe Shankara at age eight going to a river with his mother, Sivataraka, to bathe, and where he is caught by a crocodile.Шаблон:Sfn Shankara called out to his mother to give him permission to become a Sannyasin or else the crocodile will kill him. The mother agrees, Shankara is freed and leaves his home for education. He reaches a Saivite sanctuary along a river in a north-central state of India, and becomes the disciple of a teacher named Govinda Bhagavatpada.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The stories in various hagiographies diverge in details about the first meeting between Shankara and his Guru, where they met, as well as what happened later.Шаблон:Sfn Several texts suggest Shankara schooling with Govindapada happened along the river Narmada in Omkareshwar, a few place it along river Ganges in Kashi (Varanasi) as well as Badari (Badrinath in the Himalayas).Шаблон:Sfn

The hagiographies vary in their description of where he went, who he met and debated and many other details of his life. Most mention Shankara studying the Vedas, Upanishads and Brahmasutra with Govindapada, and Shankara authoring several key works in his youth, while he was studying with his teacher.Шаблон:Sfn It is with his teacher Govinda, that Shankara studied Gaudapadiya Karika, as Govinda was himself taught by Gaudapada.Шаблон:Sfn Most also mention a meeting with scholars of the Mimamsa school of Hinduism namely Kumarila and Prabhakara, as well as Mandana and various Buddhists, in Shastrartha (an Indian tradition of public philosophical debates attended by large number of people, sometimes with royalty).Шаблон:Sfn Thereafter, the hagiographies about Shankara vary significantly. Different and widely inconsistent accounts of his life include diverse journeys, pilgrimages, public debates, installation of yantras and lingas, as well as the founding of monastic centers in north, east, west and south India.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Digvijaya and disciples

While the details and chronology vary, most hagiographies present Shankara as traveling widely within India, Gujarat to Bengal, and participating in public philosophical debates with different orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, as well as heterodox traditions such as Buddhists, Jains, Arhatas, Saugatas, and Charvakas.Шаблон:Sfn[53]Шаблон:Page needed[54]Шаблон:Page needed The hagiographies credit him with starting several Matha (monasteries), but this is uncertain.Шаблон:Sfn Ten monastic orders in different parts of India are generally attributed to Shankara's travel-inspired Sannyasin schools, each with Advaita notions, of which four have continued in his tradition: Bharati (Sringeri), Sarasvati (Kanchi), Tirtha and Asramin (Dvaraka).Шаблон:Sfn Other monasteries that record Shankara's visit include Giri, Puri, Vana, Aranya, Parvata and Sagara – all names traceable to Ashrama system in Hinduism and Vedic literature.Шаблон:Sfn

Shankara had a number of disciple scholars during his travels, including Padmapadacharya (also called Sanandana, associated with the text Atma-bodha), Sureśvaracharya, Totakacharya, Hastamalakacharya, Chitsukha, Prthividhara, Chidvilasayati, Bodhendra, Brahmendra, Sadananda and others, who authored their own literature on Shankara and Advaita Vedanta.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Death

According to hagiographies, supported by four maths, Adi Shankara died at Kedarnath in the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand, a Hindu pilgrimage site in the Himalayas.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Texts say that he was last seen by his disciples behind the Kedarnath temple, walking in the Himalayas until he was not traced. Some texts locate his death in alternate locations such as Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu) and somewhere in the state of Kerala.Шаблон:Sfn.According to the hagiographies related to the monastery of Kanchi, Adi Sankara died at Kanchi.Шаблон:Sfn

A 108-foot statue of Adi Shankara was unveiled near Omkareshwar Temple in Madhya Pradesh to commemorate his life and work on 21 September 2023.[55] The 12-foot statue was inaugurated by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 5 November 2019, is made of chlorite schist and weighs 35 tonnes.[56]

Mathas and Smarta tradition

Шаблон:See also

Файл:Vidyashankara Temple at Shringeri.jpg
Vidyashankara temple at Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Shringeri

Shankara is regarded as the founder of the Шаблон:IAST of Hindu monasticism, and the Panchayatana puja and [[Shanmata|Шаблон:IAST]] of the Smarta tradition.

Dashanami Sampradaya and mathas

Advaita Vedanta is, at least in the west, primarily known as a philosophical system. But it is also a tradition of renunciation. Philosophy and renunciation are closely related:[web 4] Шаблон:Blockquote

Shankara was a Vaishnavite who came to be presented as an incarnation of Shiva in the 14th century,Шаблон:Sfn[web 4] to facilitate the adoption of his teachings by previously Saiva-oriented mathas in the Vijayanagara Empire. From the 14th century onwards hagiographies were composed, in which he is portrayed as establishing the Daśanāmi Sampradaya,Шаблон:Sfn organizing a section of the Ekadandi monks under an umbrella grouping of ten names.[web 4] Several other Hindu monastic and Ekadandi traditions remained outside the organisation of the Dasanāmis.[57][58]

According to tradition, Adi Sankara organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names under four Шаблон:IAST (Sanskrit: Шаблон:Lang) (monasteries), with the headquarters at Dvārakā in the West, Jagannatha Puri in the East, Sringeri in the South and Badrikashrama in the North.[web 4] Each matha was headed by one of his four main disciples, who each continues the Vedanta Sampradaya.

According to Paul Hacker, the system may have been initiated by Vidyaranya (14th c.), who may have founded a matha, proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself, as part of his campaign to propagate Shankara's Advaita Vedanta.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support,[44] and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.Шаблон:Sfn

Smarta Tradition

Шаблон:Main

Traditionally, Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacherШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and reformer of the Smartism sampradaya, which is one of four major sampradaya of Hinduism.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to Alf Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived smarta tradition: Шаблон:Blockquote

Panchayatana puja (IAST Шаблон:IAST) is a system of puja (worship) in the Smarta tradition.[59] It consists of the worship of five deities set in a quincunx pattern,[60] the five deities being Shiva, Vishnu, Devi, Surya, and an Ishta Devata such as Kartikeya, or Ganesha or any personal god of devotee's preference.[61][62] Sometimes the Ishta Devata is the sixth deity in the mandala.[59] while in the Shanmata system,[63] Skanda, also known as Kartikeya and Murugan, is added. Panchayatana puja is a practice that became popular in medieval India,[59] and has been attributed to Adi Shankara.[64] However, archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth of Adi Shankara.Шаблон:Refn

Films

See also

Шаблон:Portal Шаблон:Div col

Шаблон:Div col end

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Sources

Printed sources

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

Web citations

Шаблон:Reflist

Further reading

External links

Шаблон:Prone to spam Шаблон:Sister project links

Шаблон:S-start Шаблон:S-rel Шаблон:Succession box Шаблон:S-end Шаблон:Indian Philosophy Шаблон:Philosophy of religion

Шаблон:Authority control

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное


Ошибка цитирования Для существующих тегов <ref> группы «web» не найдено соответствующего тега <references group="web"/>

  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  2. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Dalal2010p376 не указан текст
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 K.A. Nilakantha Sastry, A History of South India, 4th ed., Oxford University Press, Madras, 1976.
  4. ↑ M Piantelly, Sankara e la Renascita del Brahmanesimo, Indian Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 3 (Apr. 1977), pp. 429–435
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  7. ↑ 7,0 7,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
  8. ↑ Adi Shankaracharya, Vivekacūḍāmaṇi S Madhavananda (Translator), Advaita Ashrama (1921)
  9. ↑ Johannes Buitenen (1978). The Mahābhārata (vol. 3). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Шаблон:ISBN
  10. ↑ Franklin Merrell-Wolff (1995), Transformations in Consciousness: The Metaphysics and Epistemology, State University of New York Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pp. 242–260
  11. ↑ Will Durant (1976), Our Oriental Heritage: The Story of Civilization, Simon & Schuster, Шаблон:ISBN, Chapter XIX, Section VI
  12. ↑ Stephen Phillips (2000) in Roy W. Perrett (Editor), Epistemology: Indian Philosophy, Volume 1, Routledge, Шаблон:ISBN, pp. 224–228 with notes 8, 13 and 63
  13. ↑ Mahendranath Sircar (1933), Reality in Indian Thought, The Philosophical Review, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 249–271
  14. ↑ 14,0 14,1 14,2 Arvind Sharma (2008), The Philosophy of Religion and Advaita Vedanta, Penn State Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pp. 70–71
  15. ↑ Aptavacana Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne University, Germany
  16. ↑ M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, Шаблон:ISBN, pp. 42–44
  17. ↑ Anantanand Rambachan (1994) The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas. University of Hawaii Press, pp. 124–125.
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb: "Shankara directly identifies this awakened atman with Brahman and the higher knowledge. And Brahman, reminds the Advaitist, is known only from the Upanishadic sayings".
  19. ↑ 19,0 19,1 19,2 Michael Comans (1993), The question of the importance of Samādhi in modern and classical Advaita Vedānta, Philosophy East & West. Vol. 43, Issue 1, pp. 19–38
  20. ↑ George Thibaut (Translator), Brahma Sutras: With Commentary of Shankara, Reprinted as Шаблон:ISBN, pp. 31–33 verse 1.1.4
  21. ↑ Mayeda & Tanizawa (1991), Studies on Indian Philosophy in Japan, 1963–1987, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 529–535
  22. ↑ Michael Comans (1996), Śankara and the Prasankhyanavada, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 49–71
  23. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  24. ↑ 24,0 24,1 Shankara, Chandogya Upanishad Bhasya - Chapter 6 (Tat Tvam Asi)
  25. ↑ Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad 6.1-6.16, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 92–109 with footnotes
  26. ↑ Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 136–137
  27. ↑ Sanskrit:Upadesha sahasri
    English Translation: S Jagadananda (Translator, 1949), Upadeshasahasri, Vedanta Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pp. 16–17; Шаблон:Oclc
  28. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
  29. ↑ 29,0 29,1 David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?, International Philosophical Quarterly, 23(1), pp. 65–74
  30. ↑ KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, Шаблон:ISBN, pp. 246–249, from note 385 onwards
  31. ↑ Julius Lipner (1986), The Face of Truth: A Study of Meaning and Metaphysics in the Vedantic Theology of Rāmānuja, State University of New York Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pp. 120–123
  32. ↑ Thomas McFaul (2006), The Future of Peace and Justice in the Global Village: The Role of the World Religions in the Twenty-first Century, Praeger, Шаблон:ISBN, p. 39
  33. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  34. ↑ TMP Mahadevan (1968), Shankaracharya, National Book Trust, pp. 283–285, Шаблон:Oclc
  35. ↑ Frank Whaling (1979), Śankara and Buddhism, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 1–42
  36. ↑ Per Durst-Andersen and Elsebeth F. Lange (2010), Mentality and Thought: North, South, East and West, CBS Press, Шаблон:ISBN, p. 68
  37. ↑ Frank Whaling (1979), Sankara and Buddhism, Journal of Indian Philosophy Vol. 7, No. 1 (MARCH 1979), pp. 1-42: "Hindus of the Advaita persuasion (and others too) have seen in Sankara the one who restored the Hindu dharma against the attacks of the Buddhists (and Jains) and in the process helped to drive Buddhism out of India."
  38. ↑ Шаблон:Cite conference
  39. ↑ Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, Шаблон:ISBN, p. 40
  40. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  41. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  42. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb: "There is little firm historical information about Suresvara; tradition holds Suresvara is same as Mandana Misra".
  43. ↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mādhava Āchārya". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  44. ↑ 44,0 44,1 44,2 44,3 Cynthia Talbot (2001), Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra, Oxford University Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pp. 185–187, 199–201
  45. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  46. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  47. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  48. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  49. ↑ Joël André-Michel Dubois (2014). The Hidden Lives of Brahman: Sankara's Vedanta Through His Upanisad Commentaries, in Light of Contemporary Practice. SUNY Press.
  50. ↑ Roshen Dalal (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin Books India.
  51. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  52. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  53. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  54. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  55. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  56. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  57. ↑ Karigoudar Ishwaran, Ascetic Culture
  58. ↑ Wendy Sinclair-Brull, Female Ascetics
  59. ↑ 59,0 59,1 59,2 Шаблон:Cite book
  60. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  61. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  62. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  63. ↑ Various Papers: Śaṅkarācārya, Conference on Sankara and Shanmata (1969), Madras, Шаблон:Oclc, Reprinted by HathiTrust Digital Library
  64. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  65. ↑ 65,0 65,1 65,2 Шаблон:Cite book
  66. ↑ Шаблон:IMDb title
  67. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  68. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:Adi_Shankara&oldid=12950336