Английская Википедия:Ainu cuisine

Материал из Онлайн справочника
Перейти к навигацииПерейти к поиску

Шаблон:Short description

Файл:Ainu ohaw.jpg
Ohaw, traditional Ainu soup

Ainu cuisine is the cuisine of the ethnic Ainu in Japan and Russia. The cuisine differs markedly from that of the majority Yamato people of Japan. Raw meat like sashimi, for example, is rarely served in Ainu cuisine, which instead uses methods such as boiling, roasting and curing to prepare meat. Also unlike Japanese cuisine, traditional Ainu cuisine did not use miso, soy sauce, or sugar, though these seasonings make an appearance in modern Ainu cuisine.[1]Шаблон:Rp The island of Hokkaidō in northern Japan is where most Ainu live today; however, they once inhabited most of the Kuril islands, the southern half of Sakhalin island, and parts of northern Honshū Island.

There are very few Ainu restaurants in the world, though some do exist. Examples of Ainu restaurants include Haru Koro (Harukor) in Shinjuku, Tokyo, Ashiri Kotan Nakanoshima in Sapporo, and Poron'no and Marukibune in Akan, Hokkaidō.

Overview

Traditional Ainu cuisine used meats obtained through fishing and hunting such as salmon and deer, wild plants gathered in the mountains such as Cardiocrinum cordatum bulbs (Шаблон:Lang) and acorns, as well as various grains and potatoes obtained through farming. Another feature is its liberal use of oils as flavoring.[2]Шаблон:Rp[3] Due to the Ainu's reliance on local game and fauna, not all areas used all the same ingredients, instead utilizing what was most available.[1]Шаблон:Rp

In addition to salt, the fats (Шаблон:Lang) from cod, sardines, herring, shark, seal, whale (Шаблон:Lang), sika deer (Шаблон:Lang), and bear (Шаблон:Lang) are used to flavor dishes.[4]Шаблон:Rp Miso and soy sauce have also been used in modern times. Soup stocks may be made using kelp (kombu), animal bone, and dried fish. Seasoning and spices include Шаблон:Lang (Allium ochotense), berries from the Amur corktree (Phellodendron amurense), and wavy bittercress (Cardamine flexuosa).[5]

Ingredients

Файл:C.n.yesoensis--modified.jpg
Шаблон:Lang, sika deer.
Файл:2005 RUSSIA Ozernoy Gulf 0121 small.jpg
Шаблон:Lang, seal. The Ainu of Sakhalin had various uses for its fat.
Файл:Dolly 2.jpg
Шаблон:Lang, Japanese char. Native to Hokkaidō, and a member of the Dolly Varden trout species.
Файл:Allium ochotense, edible wild plants, Hokkaido Japan.jpg
Traditionally, women usually gathered wild plants such as Шаблон:Lang.

Game

The most predominate game animal was the sika deer.[6] Deer were hunted using poisoned arrows as well as by herding them off cliffs and gathering them from where they fell.[2]Шаблон:Rp In the past, deer were so common and easily hunted in Hokkaidō that it was said one could “put the pot on the fire, then go hunting”.[4]Шаблон:Rp Шаблон:Div col

Шаблон:Div col end

Fish and sea creatures

The Ainu fished at sea in dugout canoes using harpoons to hunt a variety of large marine animals and used nets and fishing rods to bring in smaller creatures.[7]Шаблон:Rp Beached whales were particularly prized, as generally it was impossible to bring a whale in using canoes and harpoons. However, there were some instances of whaling in Funka Bay using harpoons coated with wolfsbane poison, aided by the gentle tides.[2]Шаблон:Rp The Ainu also used a number of tools including fishing rods, nets, traps (Шаблон:Lang), and fishing baskets (Шаблон:Lang) to catch freshwater fish.[7]Шаблон:Rp Шаблон:Div col

Шаблон:Div col end

Gathered plants

While men were responsible for hunting and fishing, women were responsible for gathering edible plants, beginning in early spring. Tools used during gathering trips into the mountains included the Шаблон:Lang (a bag woven from the fibers of the Japanese lime tree), the Шаблон:Lang (a small women's knife), Шаблон:Lang (a type of digging stick), and the Шаблон:Lang (a small pick made from deer horn).[2]Шаблон:Rp One of the most important mountain plants gathered in spring was the Siberian onion (Шаблон:Lang), which is very similar to wild leeks found in Canada and the United States in taste, texture, and appearance. Large quantities of Cardiocrinum cordatum bulbs (Шаблон:Lang) were gathered in summer as they were important as a preserved food. Шаблон:Div col Spring

Summer

Fall

Шаблон:Div col end

Crops

Farming was already taking place in Hokkaidō during the Jōmon period, prior to the Satsumon period in which the Ainu culture first emerged. However, agriculture began to decline in the 12th century up until the Ainu period. This is thought to be caused by the increase in demand for dried fish and furs for trade with Honshū, leading to increased importance in hunting and fishing, rather than colder weather.[8] Cultivated crops changed over the years as new crops were introduced, such as potatoes, kabocha, and beans.[9] Шаблон:Div col

Шаблон:Div col end

Primary dishes

Файл:Ainu Set Meal.jpg
An Ainu-style meal with venison and mountain vegetable soup (Шаблон:Lang), fermented salmon liver (Шаблон:Lang) and rice mixed with grains.

Шаблон:Lang

Шаблон:Lang translated from Ainu means “that which has been pounded”. As the name suggests, Шаблон:Lang is meat or fish that has been pounded in a way similar to the Japanese method tataki.

Making Шаблон:Lang[7]Шаблон:Rp

  1. Salmon head, milt, and remains from filleting are placed on a cutting board-like round piece of wood sliced from a tree trunk (Шаблон:Lang). The meat is chopped and beaten with a sharp heavy object, such as a hatchet.
  2. The resulting paste is flavored with minced spring onion, Шаблон:Lang, or long-stamen chive.
  3. Finally, the Шаблон:Lang is seasoned with dried kelp and salt.

Other than salmon, a variety of meats and fish are used to add flavor to Шаблон:Lang such as Japanese dace, bathyraja lindbergi, masu salmon, Japanese fluvial sculpin, deer, bear, tanuki, rabbit, and chipmunk. Шаблон:Lang was well suited to the meat of older animals, as it made the tough meat easier to eat.[7]Шаблон:Rp Шаблон:Lang was primarily made in the winter, when food spoiled more slowly, and was eaten over a number of days. If the Шаблон:Lang was not particularly fresh, it was formed into balls and added to soup.[7]Шаблон:Rp

Шаблон:Lang

Шаблон:Lang is soup made from boiling fish or meats with various vegetables. It may have the consistency of soup, or be more like a Japanese nabemono (hot pot) that contains a high ratio of ingredients to broth. As a hunter-gatherer society, the Ainu did not have a staple food as such, but Шаблон:Lang was a central dish in their food culture. It is thought to be the roots of Hokkaidō regional dishes such as Ishikari nabe and sanpei soup. There are no specific requirements of ingredients to use for Шаблон:Lang, but was generally made as described below.[7]Шаблон:Rp

  1. A stock is created by heating animal bone or small dried fish in water.
  2. Roughly chopped meat or fish is added to the stock and cooked. Dried meat and fish require longer cooking times. The scum that results from cooking the meats is not removed, as it was thought to have medicinal properties.[7]Шаблон:Rp
  3. Root vegetables or those which required longer cooking times are added, followed by high fiber mountain vegetables, and finally leafy vegetables. The soup is allowed to cook further until all ingredients are soft.
  4. The soup is flavored with animal or fish fats, a small amount of salt, and topped with ground dried kelp or dried Шаблон:Lang.

Different varieties of Шаблон:Lang are named by their main ingredient such as Шаблон:Lang (fish soup), Шаблон:Lang (bear soup), Шаблон:Lang (meat soup), and Шаблон:Lang (vegetable soup). Anemone flaccida was particularly suited for use in soups and was therefore called Шаблон:Lang, which literally translates as “soup grass”.

Шаблон:Lang

Файл:Cipor rataskep チポㇿラタㇱケㇷ゚.jpg
Cipor rataskep “potato and salmon roe”

Translated literally, Шаблон:Lang means “mixed food”. Wild vegetables and beans are stewed until soft and the liquid has evaporated, at which point the mixture is mashed and seasoned with bear or fish oils and a small amount of salt.[7]Шаблон:Rp Шаблон:Lang was made as an everyday food, as well as for offerings at ceremonies, as it was considered a sacred food. There are unlimited varieties using different ingredients, below are a few examples.[7]Шаблон:Rp

Шаблон:Lang

Dried symplocarpus renifolius (Шаблон:Lang) is rehydrated in hot water, then boiled over low heat for hours until the water evaporates. It is cut into easy-to-eat pieces and seasoned with animal fat and salt.

Шаблон:Lang

Beans are boiled until soft, at which point Siberian onion (Шаблон:Lang) stalks are added and cooked further, then seasoned with animal fat and salt.

Шаблон:Lang

Made from angelica (Шаблон:Lang) gathered in early summer. Beans are boiled until soft, then angelica is added and further boiled. Finally, it is seasoned with animal and fish fats.

Шаблон:Lang

Beans are boiled until soft. Dried strips of pumpkin (Шаблон:Lang) are rehydrated in water then boiled along with the beans. Once the pumpkin begins to break apart, the Шаблон:Lang is seasoned with fish fats and salt and topped with berries from the Amur corktree (Шаблон:Lang).

Шаблон:Lang

Also called Шаблон:Lang. Potatoes (Шаблон:Lang) are boiled with skin on. Salmon roe (Шаблон:Lang) is placed in a separate pot and cooked over low heat until it starts to break down. The skin is removed from the cooked potatoes and they are sliced thickly before placing into the pot with the salmon roe. Salt is added and everything is mixed well.

Шаблон:Lang

The hull is removed from acorns (Шаблон:Lang) which are then boiled and drained multiple times with the seed coat on to remove the bitter taste. They are then placed in water with beans and boiled together. The resulting broth is discarded. The water is replaced and the mixture is boiled further until soft, at which point corn flour is added. It is cooked to the desired consistency. Rice flour is added, the mixture is kneaded, and salt and animal fats are added for seasoning.

Шаблон:Lang

A thin porridge made from boiling Japanese millet or rice. Generally, the grains are boiled alone, but occasionally gathered vegetables are added. Unlike other porridges in agricultural societies, Шаблон:Lang is not a staple food. Rather, Ainu would fill up on fatty soups and grilled meats then drink it like tea as a palate cleanser.[7]Шаблон:Rp For that reason, Шаблон:Lang was made in a small dedicated pot so as to avoid mixing oils in from other dishes. Care was also taken to avoid mixing flavors when serving by using a separate ladle specifically for serving Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang), rather than the usual ladle for serving soup (Шаблон:Lang).[2]Шаблон:Rp As the porridge used very little grains to make, a month's supply for one person was approximately 1.8 liters. 108 liters would provide plenty for a family of five for a year.[10]Шаблон:Rp

The following are examples of Шаблон:Lang varieties.[7]Шаблон:Rp

Шаблон:Lang

Шаблон:Lang which contains Шаблон:Lang, the fermented remains from the process of making Cardiocrinum cordatum (Шаблон:Lang) starch. The hard dried Шаблон:Lang is first ground with mortar and pestle, then rehydrated in water. The sediment is removed from the water then formed into dumplings approximately three centimeters in diameter, and cooked in the Шаблон:Lang. Шаблон:Lang which contains the Cardiocrinum cordatum bulbs themselves is also called Шаблон:Lang.

Шаблон:Lang

The starch from Cardiocrinum cordatum bulbs is made into dumplings (Шаблон:Lang) and placed in the Шаблон:Lang.

Шаблон:Lang

Шаблон:Lang which contains Elsholtzia ciliata (Шаблон:Lang), a mountain plant. This type of Шаблон:Lang was favored for its particular aroma.

Шаблон:Lang

The lees (Шаблон:Lang) left from the fermentation process of making rice wine (Шаблон:Lang) is placed in Шаблон:Lang.

Шаблон:Lang

Шаблон:Lang which contains bark of the bird cherry tree (Шаблон:Lang).

Шаблон:Lang

Salmon roe (Шаблон:Lang) is boiled along with the grain porridge. Raw salmon roe was only eaten in the fall as a delicacy. During other seasons, salted and dried roe (Шаблон:Lang) was used.
Файл:Japan Hokkaido Ainu traditional house ”cise”3 2023.jpg
Lacquerware containers inside a traditional Ainu home (Шаблон:Lang). These were used to present Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang (a type of alcohol) to the gods at festivals.

Шаблон:Lang

A type of dumplings. The name Шаблон:Lang is derived from the Japanese Шаблон:Lang which refers to dumplings or a paste made from grinding raw grains.[2]Шаблон:Rp[3]Шаблон:Rp Traditionally, Шаблон:Lang were considered a luxury due to the time and effort necessary to produce the flour by grinding the grains with mortar and pestle. It was therefore not a usual everyday food, but one made as offerings for sacred days such as the Bear Festival (Шаблон:Lang) and Ancestors’ Festival (Шаблон:Lang).[7]Шаблон:Rp

Usual ingredients were proso millet (Шаблон:Lang), foxtail millet (Шаблон:Lang), and rice (Шаблон:Lang), though Шаблон:Lang made with proso millet were considered the correct form. Over the years, other ingredients were added such as pumpkin (Шаблон:Lang), and potato (Шаблон:Lang). Similar to the Japanese kusamochi, the Ainu also made Шаблон:Lang which mixed in Japanese mugwort (Шаблон:Lang). Their flavor was enjoyed as reminiscent of spring.[2]Шаблон:Rp

Making Шаблон:Lang[7]Шаблон:Rp

  1. Polished grains are left to soak overnight, then drained.
  2. The grains are placed in a large mortar and multiple people sing while pounding the grain with large pestles (Шаблон:Lang).
  3. The resulting flour is kneaded with hot water and formed into round flat dumplings approximately 7 or 8 centimeters in diameter and 1 centimeter thick.
  4. The dumplings are boiled in a large pot, taking care not to allow them to burn on the bottom of the pot.

Шаблон:Lang that were meant to be offerings were placed as is in ceremonial lacquerware boxes (Шаблон:Lang), wooden bowls (Шаблон:Lang), on small trays (Шаблон:Lang), or skewered with cornus controversa sticks and presented to the gods.[7] When meant to be eaten by people, the Шаблон:Lang were served with partially crushed salmon roe or a sauce made from mixing oils with dried and crushed kelp.[7]Шаблон:Rp

Шаблон:Lang has a long history. Dumplings made from foxtail millet have been found in archeological Satsumon remains discovered in Atsuma.[8] Traditional Ainu cuisine did not use steamed rice to make dumplings, as the Japanese did with mochi. The Ainu first came in contact with Japanese style mochi after the Edo period when more ethnic Japanese moved to live in the same areas as the Ainu under the land contract system.[10]Шаблон:Rp

Preserved Foods

Dried meat and fish

Strips of dried salmon meat.
Saketoba, a famous local delicacy from Hokkaidō, said to have developed from Ainu preserved foods.

The Ainu word for dried meat is Шаблон:Lang while dried fish is called Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, or Шаблон:Lang.

Salmon was fished in quantities greater than what could be eaten immediately, especially in fall, and processed into preserved food so it could last up to six months. The first step in the process was to remove the head and internal organs of the fish, which was then dried on a rack outside before being taken inside and smoked in the hearth. Trout (Шаблон:Lang) and Japanese char (Шаблон:Lang) caught in summer were dried over a fire to prevent flies damaging the fish. These dried fish were eaten as is by pulling off the meat, or by rehydrating in water and eating as ingredients in soup or as a final cooked item itself. Salmon that was dried after the fish had laid eggs lost much of its flavor, so it was often stewed with added fish fats to improve the taste.[7]Шаблон:Rp

Milt (Шаблон:Lang) and salmon roe (Шаблон:Lang) obtained when slicing open the fish were also dried and preserved then later used in Шаблон:Lang or to make stock for Шаблон:Lang.[7]Шаблон:Rp

While it was common to eat everything of a bear raw while it was still fresh, including its meat and its internal organs, the Ainu would also preserve some of the meat for consumption during the off season. Meat from deer (Шаблон:Lang) and brown bears (Шаблон:Lang) was cut into narrow strips and simmered in a large pot. Once the juices were removed, the meat was hung over the fire inside to dry and smoke. This Шаблон:Lang would be eaten as is, or boiled again to create a soup.[7]Шаблон:Rp

Cardiocrinum cordatum starch

The starch obtained from Cardiocrinum cordatum bulbs (Шаблон:Lang) held a more important position in the Ainu diet than grains.

Файл:Cardiocrinum cordatum (bud).jpg
Cardiocrinum cordatum plant.

The Ainu word for the fourth month of the lunar calendar is Шаблон:Lang, which translates to “soon to be time to dig up Шаблон:Lang month”, while the fifth month is Шаблон:Lang, or “digging up Шаблон:Lang month”.[4]Шаблон:Rp This was the time when Ainu women would take their sacks (Шаблон:Lang) and digging sticks (Шаблон:Lang) and head into the mountains to gather the bulbs. The gathered bulbs were processed into starch using the following method.[7]Шаблон:Rp

  1. Remove leaves and roots from the bulb, peel the scales off one by one, and rinse in water.
  2. Place the scales in a large bucket. Grind until a sticky paste is formed using the head of a hatchet as a pestle. Pour large quantities of water into the bucket and let sit for about two days.
  3. Fine fibers and skins will float to the surface of the water forming a scum after a few days have passed and the starch will settle to the bottom. The fibrous scum is removed and set aside for use in on turep. The starch collected on the bottom of the bucket is divided into two types of starch: the semi-liquid secondary starch and the powdered primary starch.

These two types of starch were dried and preserved, but before that, they were also used to make fresh foods. The primary starch was mixed with water and poured into the hollow of plant stems from the Japanese knotweed (Шаблон:Lang) or Parasenecio hastatus (Шаблон:Lang) and placed into the ashes of a fire to cook into a thin noodle-like shape. The secondary starch was formed into round dumplings, wrapped in the leaves of the Japanese butterbur (Шаблон:Lang) or magnolia (Шаблон:Lang), then placed in the ashes of a fire to bake. They were then eaten with salmon roe or animal fats.

The secondary starch was the one which was used on a daily basis once it had been dried for preservation. It was often formed into dumplings and added to Шаблон:Lang. The primary starch was rarely eaten, instead being reserved for gifts or used as medicine.[7]Шаблон:Rp

It was considered taboo to speak of alcohol or love affairs while working on any part of the starch making process. It was said such discussions would agitate the starch and it would fail to settle properly.[7]Шаблон:Rp

Шаблон:Lang

Файл:"onturep"Ainu traditional food. fermented lily root.jpg
On turep

Шаблон:Lang translates as “fermented Шаблон:Lang”. It is a preserved food fermented from the fiber and skin byproduct of the Шаблон:Lang starch extraction process. It was made using the following method.[7]Шаблон:Rp

  1. A sieve (Шаблон:Lang) is used to gather the fiber and skins that float in or on the water after the Шаблон:Lang bulbs have been crushed and soaked in water.
  2. The water is thoroughly wrung from the fiber, then it is wrapped in leaves from the Japanese butterbur (Шаблон:Lang) or Parasenecio hastatus (Шаблон:Lang) and left to ferment for three to ten days. This fermenting process is called “Шаблон:Lang”.
  3. The fermented product is ground thoroughly with a mortar and pestle. Once pounded, it is kneaded, formed into donut-like shapes, and dried.
  4. A cord is passed through the center and the Шаблон:Lang is stored hung from a rack above the hearth.

The Шаблон:Lang was eaten by smashing and rehydrating it to form into dumplings and placed in Шаблон:Lang.

Шаблон:Lang

Файл:Munini-imo Traditional Ainu potato preserved food.jpg
Pocche-imo dumpling

Шаблон:Lang is a preserved potato food also known as Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang. The process involved uses the extreme cold of Hokkaidō in a fashion similar to the production of chuño in South America.

Once potatoes were harvested in the fall, the poorly shaped and small potatoes were left outside. The winter's cold would soon come and freeze the potatoes, which would thaw again in spring. This process of freezing and thawing would break down the structure of the potatoes, turning them soft. Once in that state, the potatoes were soaked in water and thawed completely. The starch that settled to the bottom of the water was collected, formed into spheres, and arranged in a warm place to ferment. This resulted in a fine textured potato flour. The flour was formed into cakes and baked in the ashes of the fire, then bear fat or Шаблон:Lang (salmon roe) was added and together placed in Шаблон:Lang to eat.[11] In modern times with the influence of ethnic Japanese culture, it became more common to flavor Шаблон:Lang with artificial flavorings such as saccharin then deep fry them. The fried product is then eaten with nori or a mixture of sugar and soy sauce.[7]Шаблон:Rp

Commodities

Файл:Iomante2.JPG
A group of men offering alcohol to the gods during an iomante ceremony that took place in 1930. The alcohol in the bowls (itanki) placed on top of the serving trays (otcike) or tea bowl stands (takaysara) is delivered to the heavens through the ikupasuy (the spatula-shaped utensil over the bowls). On the right, there is a lacquerware container (sintoko) used in the preparation of the alcohol.

Alcohol

Words for alcohol in the Ainu language include sake, tonoto, and askur. The word sake is a loanword from Japanese, and tonoto is also a word developed under Japanese influence as it originally referred to food or beverages given by an influential Japanese person, who was called a ton.[10]Шаблон:Rp Ainu alcohol is an undistilled alcohol made from Japanese millet that is similar in appearance and flavor to homebrewed sake.

All alcohol was produced by the women. Virtuous, respected katkemat (ladies/wives) from nearby were considered suitable for leading the task. Conversely, young women, particularly those during menokotasum (menstruation, literally translated as “women sickness”) were considered impure and did not assist.[7]Шаблон:Rp

The ingredients considered best for making alcohol were Japanese millet (piyapa) or proso millet (menkul). First, the grains were heated in a large pot with water until a porridge formed. Once cool to the touch, malt was mixed in. The Ainu either acquired malted grain from trade with the Japanese or they produced their own by boiling Japanese millet, acorns, and Cardiocrinum cordatum then sprinkling powdered bark from the Cercidiphyllum tree on the finished product. Furthermore, the Ainu word for malt, kamtaci, is the same as the old Japanese word for malted rice, kamutachi.[4]Шаблон:Rp

The alcohol was stored in a lacquered vessel (sintoko) and left to set in hot embers as a warding against evil. Using a portion of Apehuci-kamuy, the goddess of fire, like this would protect the alcohol from evil spirits, and was a prayer for the success of the alcohol making process.[7]Шаблон:Rp As an additional warding against evil spirits, a hatchet (tasiro) or an Ainu blade (emus) was placed atop the sintoko as it was left to set for ten days near the kamuy puyar, the window furthest inside the cise, which was considered sacred. Once the alcohol had fermented enough, the spent coals were returned to the hearth and the mash was strained through a sieve (icari) to remove the lees (sirari) and finish the alcohol.[7]Шаблон:Rp It was stirred using a sake ladle (sake-pisakku), ladled into a spouted bowl (etosup), then poured into bowls (itanki).[7]Шаблон:Rp When offering alcohol to the spirits, an ikupasuy, a ceremonial stick, was dipped into a bowl of sake set on a takaysara, a bowl stand. The alcohol on the ikupasuy was then spread onto the inau. It was believed that by going through the ikupasuy, one drop of alcohol in the human world would become an entire barrel of alcohol in the spirit world. The Ainu said that alcohol was something that everyone enjoyed, along with the spirits. Drinking alone was not an option.[10]Шаблон:Rp

The Ainu of the Hidaka region, such as those near Shizunai, had a legend that tsunami spirits hated lees, so they spread the lees around their homes to ward off tsunamis.[5]Шаблон:Rp

Drinks

Tea

Файл:Magnolia hypoleuca 5.JPG
A seed of the Japanese bigleaf magnolia, steeped to make a drink.

The teas drunk by Ainu were not made with the evergreen Camellia sinensis, but from the seeds and bark of trees, or medicinal herbs native to the cool climate of Hokkaidō.[2]Шаблон:Rp

The Ainu would brew various plant materials to make tea such as Japanese bigleaf magnolia (pusni) twigs and seeds, kobushi magnolia (omawkusni) twigs and seeds, Lindera umbellata twigs (sumnuhas), bird cherry (kikinni) bark, Ledum palustre leaves (haspo), Vietnamese balm stems and leaves (ento), Libanotis coreana roots (upew), Heracleum lanatum (pittok) roots, and Angelica genuflexa (munusi) roots.[2]Шаблон:Rp[4]Шаблон:RpCinnamomum camphora (ciprasu) which grows along the coast was used in a similar way. In the Sakhalin region, drinks were made of boiled Ledum palustre (nuxca) stems and leaves, Rose rugosa (otaruxni), and Rubus matsumuranus (kinakaoxni) stems and leaves.[12]

Japanese tea imported from Honshu has become widespread in modern times.

Файл:Betula platyphylla var. japonica 01.jpg
Trunk of a white birch. The sap is consumed as a beverage, while the oily bark is stripped and braided in order to make torches.

Tree Sap

There are some trees native to Hokkaidō that contain a sweet sap. The Ainu used the sap of these trees (niwakka, literally translated as “tree water”) as a drink and flavoring for foods.

Large amounts of sap run from the trunk of the white birch (kapattatni) if it is damaged in the summer. This sap is called tatni wakka and was used as water for cooking when there was none available in the area. A drink was also made by adding chopped Symplocarpus nipponicus to the sap along with flavoring.[4]Шаблон:Rp The Sakhalin Ainu would make alcohol by placing set white birch sap into blackcurrant juice and leaving it to ferment.

The painted maple (topeni, meaning “milk tree”) is related to the sugar maple of North America. A sweet sap flows from the trunk if it is damaged. The trunks would be scored during the winter to make “sap icicles” that were eaten like popsicles. The sap was also boiled down to create a sweetener. This was then boiled with beans or water chestnuts to make a high-quality rataskep.[2]Шаблон:Rp Sap fell out of use along with the influx of sugar during the Meiji Period, but it experienced a temporary resurgence during the shortages of World War II.

Utensils and eating habits

Файл:WLA brooklynmuseum Ainu Parapasuy Spoons.jpg
Ainu spoons, parapasuy
Файл:PSM V33 D519 Ainu at home.jpg
A sketch of an Ainu meal scene by Isabella Bird.

“Meal” in Ainu is “Шаблон:Lang”. Traditionally, two meals were eaten per day, breakfast (Шаблон:Lang) and dinner (Шаблон:Lang), and a third meal, lunch (Шаблон:Lang), was added during the Taisho period. A night meal (Шаблон:Lang) was sometimes eaten during night fishing or other late activities.[2]Шаблон:Rp

Food was transferred from the cooking pot using a ladle (Шаблон:Lang) into a lacquerware bowl (Шаблон:Lang) for eating. These bowls were obtained through trade with the ethnic Japanese and were large enough to hold 400 ml worth of food. Chunks of meat or fish that were too large to fit in the bowl were placed on mats woven from reeds.[2]Шаблон:Rp Items such as fish roasted on a spit or Шаблон:Lang were eaten by hand, but otherwise, most foods were eaten with chopsticks (Шаблон:Lang) or spoons (Шаблон:Lang). Шаблон:Lang translated literally means “wide chopstick”. Both spoons and chopsticks were carved from wood.[2]Шаблон:Rp

When guests were over for food, the head woman of the house would offer food and say “Шаблон:Lang” (please eat). The guest would express their gratitude, and, if it were a valuable meal such as bear meat, they would raise the food to their forehead in thanks before beginning. However, the family would not say anything before eating if there were no guests. Once finished, it was customary to say “Шаблон:Lang” to express their gratitude for the food.[2]Шаблон:Rp

Similar to the ethnic Japanese, it was considered polite to eat all food that was provided. Because of this, it was considered polite to use one's finger to wipe the remaining sauce from inside the bowl and lick it. This custom is the reason for the Ainu name for the pointer finger, “Шаблон:Lang”, literally meaning “bowl-licking finger”.[2]Шаблон:Rp[8]

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Bibliography

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

External links

Шаблон:Portal Шаблон:Commons category

Шаблон:Cuisines

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ 1,0 1,1 Шаблон:Cite book
  2. ↑ 2,00 2,01 2,02 2,03 2,04 2,05 2,06 2,07 2,08 2,09 2,10 2,11 2,12 2,13 2,14 Шаблон:Cite book
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 Шаблон:Cite book
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 Шаблон:Cite book
  5. ↑ 5,0 5,1 Шаблон:Cite book
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  7. ↑ 7,00 7,01 7,02 7,03 7,04 7,05 7,06 7,07 7,08 7,09 7,10 7,11 7,12 7,13 7,14 7,15 7,16 7,17 7,18 7,19 7,20 7,21 7,22 7,23 7,24 7,25 7,26 Шаблон:Cite book
  8. ↑ 8,0 8,1 8,2 Шаблон:Cite book
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  10. ↑ 10,0 10,1 10,2 10,3 Шаблон:Cite book
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:Ainu_cuisine&oldid=12989753