Английская Википедия:Al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi

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Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Mufaḍḍal ibn ʿUmar al-Juʿfī (Шаблон:Lang-ar), died before 799, was an early Shi'i leader and the purported author of a number of religious and philosophical writings. A contemporary of the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq (Шаблон:Circa–765) and Musa al-Kazim (745–799),[1] he belonged to those circles in Kufa whom later Twelver Shi'i authors would call Шаблон:Transliteration ('exaggerators') for their 'exaggerated' veneration of the Imams.[2]

As a money-changer, al-Mufaddal wielded considerable financial and political power. He was likely also responsible for managing the financial affairs of the Imams in Medina.[3] For a time he was a follower of the famous Шаблон:Transliteration leader Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6), who had claimed that the Imams were divine.[4] Early ImamiШаблон:Efn heresiographers and Nusayri sources regard al-Mufaddal as a staunch supporter of Abu al-Khattab's ideas who later spawned his own Шаблон:Transliteration movement (the Шаблон:Transliteration). However, Twelver Shi'i sources instead report that after Ja'far al-Sadiq's repudiated Abu al-Khattab in 748, al-Mufaddal broke with Abu al-Khattab and became a trusted companion of Ja'far's son Musa al-Kazim.[5]

A number of writings—collectively known as the Mufaddal Tradition—have been attributed to al-Mufaddal, most of which are still extant.[6] They were likely falsely attributed to al-Mufaddal by later 9th–11th-century authors. As one of the closest confidants of Ja'far al-Sadiq, al-Mufaddal was an attractive figure for authors of various Shi'i persuasions: by attributing their own ideas to him they could invest these ideas with the authority of the Imam.[7] The writings attributed to al-Mufaddal are very different in nature and scope, but Ja'far al-Sadiq is the main speaker in most of them.[8]

A major part of the extant writings attributed to al-Mufaddal originated among the Шаблон:Transliteration, an early branch of Shi'i Islam.[2]Шаблон:Efn A recurring theme in these texts is the myth of the world's creation through the fall from grace of pre-existent "shadows" or human souls, whom God punished for their disobedience by concealing himself from them and by casting them down into the seven heavens.[9] The Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Seven and the Shadows, 8th to 11th centuries)[10] develops the theme of seven primordial Adams who rule over the seven heavens and initiate the seven historical world cycles.[11] The Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Path, written Шаблон:Circa–941) describes an initiatory "path" leading believers back through the seven heavens towards God.[12] Those who grow in religious devotion and knowledge climb upwards on the chain of being, but others are reborn into human bodies, while unbelievers travel downwards and reincarnate into animal, vegetable, or mineral bodies.[13]Шаблон:Efn Those who reach the seventh heaven and attain the rank of Шаблон:Transliteration ("Gate")Шаблон:Efn enjoy a beatific vision of God and share the divine power to manifest themselves in the world of matter.[14]

Among the extant non-Шаблон:Transliteration texts attributed to al-Mufaddal, most of which were preserved in the Twelver Shi'i tradition, two treatises stand out for their philosophical content. These are the Шаблон:Transliteration (al-Mufaddal's Шаблон:Transliteration) and the Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit), both of which feature Ja'far al-Sadiq presenting al-Mufaddal with a proof for the existence of God.[12] The teleological argument used in the Шаблон:Transliteration is inspired by Syriac Christian literature (especially commentaries on the Hexameron), and ultimately goes back to Hellenistic models such as pseudo-Aristotle's Шаблон:Lang (3rd/2nd century BCE) and Stoic theology as recorded in Cicero's (106–43 BCE) Шаблон:Lang.[15] The dialectical style of the Шаблон:Transliteration is more typical of early Muslim speculative theology (Шаблон:Transliteration),[16] and the work may originally have been authored by the 8th-century scribe Muhammad ibn Layth.[17] Both works may be regarded as part of an attempt to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal as a reliable transmitter of hadiths in the Twelver Shi'i tradition.[18]

Life

Al-Mufaddal was a non-Arab Шаблон:Transliteration ("client") of the Ju'fa, a tribe belonging to the South-Arabian Madhhij confederation.[12] Apart from the fact that he was a money-changer based in Kufa (Iraq), very little is known about his life. He probably managed the financial affairs of the Shi'ite Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq (Шаблон:Circa–765) and Musa al-Kazim (745–799), who resided in Medina (Arabia). Using his professional network, he actively raised funds for the Imams in Medina, thus also playing an important role as an intermediary between the Imams and the Shi'ite community.[3] His date of death is unknown, but he died before Musa al-Kazim, who died in 799.[19]Шаблон:Efn

At some point during his life, al-Mufaddal's relations with Ja'far al-Sadiq soured because of his adherence to the teachings of the Kufan Шаблон:Transliteration leader Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6).[12] Abu al-Khattab had been a designated spokesman of Ja'far, but in Шаблон:Circa he was excommunicated by the Imam for his 'extremist' or 'exaggerated' (Шаблон:Transliteration) ideas, particularly for having declared Ja'far to be divine.[4] However, al-Mufaddal later recanted and cut of all contact with the Шаблон:Transliteration (the followers of Abu al-Khattab), leading to a reconciliation with Ja'far.[12]

This episode was understood in widely different ways by later Shi'i authors. On the one hand, early Imami (i.e., proto-Twelver Shi'i)Шаблон:Efn heresiographers report the existence of a Шаблон:Transliteration sect named after him, the Шаблон:Transliteration, who would have declared Ja'far to be God and al-Mufaddal his prophet or Imam. It is not certain whether the Шаблон:Transliteration really ever existed, and if they did, whether they really held the doctrines attributed to them by the heresiographers.[12] Nevertheless, al-Mufaddal was also highly regarded by the members of other Шаблон:Transliteration sects such as the Шаблон:Transliteration,Шаблон:Efn and several of the writings attributed to him contain Шаблон:Transliteration ideas.[12] He was even accused in some hadith reports of having tried to contaminate Ja'far's eldest son Isma'il with the ideas of Abu al-Khattab.[12] In addition, most works attributed to al-Mufaddal were preserved by the Nusayris,[19] a Шаблон:Transliteration sect that survives to this day and that sometimes regarded al-Mufaddal as a Шаблон:Transliteration (an official deputy of the Imam and a "gateway" to his secret knowledge).[20]Шаблон:Efn

On the other hand, later Twelver Shi'i sources often insist that al-Mufaddal never gave in to heresy,[4] and they often emphasize that it was al-Mufaddal who was appointed by Ja'far to lead the Шаблон:Transliteration back to the right path.[21] Some of the works attributed to al-Mufaddal, like the Шаблон:Transliteration and the Шаблон:Transliteration, explicitly refute those who would deny the exclusive oneness (Шаблон:Transliteration) of God. These works may have been written in order to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal within the Twelver tradition and to prove his reliability as a hadith transmitter.[18] But even among Twelver scholars there was dissension. For example, while al-Shaykh al-Mufid (Шаблон:Circa–1022) praised al-Mufaddal as a learned person and a trustworthy companion of the Imams, al-Najashi (Шаблон:Circa) and Ibn al-Ghada'iri (Шаблон:Fl. half of the 11th century)[22] denounced him as an unbelieving heretic.[23]

Шаблон:Transliteration works

Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Seven and the Shadows)

Файл:Kitab al-Haft al-sharif (al-Mufaddal) - photograph of manuscript as shown in ed. Mustafa Ghalib 1964 (cropped).png
The last paragraph of the Шаблон:Transliteration, from a manuscript of unknown provenance:[24]Шаблон:Pb"Thus is finished the concealed book called the Book of the Seven, which was a gift of grace from our lord Ja'far al-Sadiq, peace be upon us from him. It is called the Noble Book of the Seven because it reports about the beginning of creation and its origin, about its ending and conclusion, and about the translocation of souls from state to state in accordance with divine guidance and limitation. Peace, the end."

Content

The Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Seven and the Shadows), also known as Шаблон:Transliteration (Noble Book of the Seven) or simply as Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Seven),Шаблон:Efn 8th–11th centuries,[25] is perhaps the most important work attributed to al-Mufaddal.[26] It sets out in great detail the Шаблон:Transliteration myth of the pre-existent "shadows" (Arabic: Шаблон:Transliteration) whose fall from grace led to the creation of the material world. This theme of pre-existent shadows seems to have been typical of the 8th-century Kufan Шаблон:Transliteration: also appearing in other early Шаблон:Transliteration works such as the [[Umm al-kitab (Shi'i book)|Шаблон:Transliteration]], it may ultimately go back to Abd Allah ibn Harb (Шаблон:Died-in).[27]

Great emphasis is placed throughout the work on the need to keep the knowledge received from Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is referred to as Шаблон:Transliteration ("our lord"), from falling into the wrong hands. This secret knowledge is entrusted by Ja'far to al-Mufaddal, but is reserved only for true believers (Шаблон:Transliteration).[28] It involves notions such as the transmigration of souls (Шаблон:Transliteration or metempsychosis) and the idea that seven Adams exist in the seven heavens, each one of them presiding over one of the seven historical world cycles.[11] This latter idea may reflect an influence from Isma'ilism,[28] where the appearance of each new prophet (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, Muhammad ibn Isma'il) is likewise thought to initiate a new world cycle.[29]

A central element of the Шаблон:Transliteration is the creation myth involving pre-existent "shadows", which also occurs in many other Шаблон:Transliteration works with slightly different details.[30] According to this myth, the first created beings were human souls who initially dwelt in the presence of God in the form of shadows. When the shadows disobeyed God, he created a veil (Шаблон:Transliteration) in which he concealed himself as a punishment.Шаблон:Efn Then God created the seven heavens as a dwelling place for the disobedient souls, according to their sin. In each of the heavens God also created bodies from his own light for the souls who arrived there, and from the souls' disobedience he created the Devil. Finally, from the offspring of the Devil God created the bodies of animals and various other sublunary entities (Шаблон:Transliteration).[31]

Composition and legacy

The Шаблон:Transliteration consists of at least eleven different textual layers which were added over time, each of them containing slightly different versions of Шаблон:Transliteration concepts and ideas.[10] The earliest layers were written in 8th/9th-century Kufa, perhaps partly by al-Mufaddal himself, or by his close associates Yunus ibn Zabyan and Muhammad ibn Sinan (died 835).[32] A possible indication for this is the fact that Muhammad ibn Sinan also wrote two works dealing with the theme of pre-existent shadows: the Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Shadows) and the Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Lights and the Veils).[33] Shi'i bibliographical sources also list several other 8th/9th-century Kufan authors who wrote a Шаблон:Transliteration or Book of the Shadows.[34] In total, at least three works closely related to al-Mufaddal's Шаблон:Transliteration are extant, all likely dating to the 8th or 9th century:[35]

  1. Muhammad ibn Sinan's Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Lights and the Veils)
  2. an anonymous work called the Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Apparitions and the Shadows)Шаблон:Efn
  3. another anonymous work also called the Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Shadows).Шаблон:Efn

Though originating in the milieus of the early Kufan Шаблон:Transliteration, the Шаблон:Transliteration was considerably expanded by members of a later Шаблон:Transliteration sect called the Nusayris, who were active in 10th-century Syria.[36] The Nusayris were probably also responsible for the work's final 11th-century form.[12] However, the Шаблон:Transliteration was not preserved by the Nusayris, but by the Syrian Nizari Isma'ilis.[12] Like the Шаблон:Transliteration, another Шаблон:Transliteration work that was transmitted by the Nizari Isma'ilis of Central Asia, it contains ideas which –despite being largely unrelated to Isma'ili doctrine–[37] influenced various later Isma'ili authors starting from the 10th century.[38]

Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Path)

The Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Path) is another purported dialogue between al-Mufaddal and Ja'far al-Sadiq, likely composed in the period between the Minor and the Major Occultation (874–941).[12]Шаблон:Efn This work deals with the concept of an initiatory "path" (Arabic: Шаблон:Transliteration) leading the adept on a heavenly ascent towards God, with each of the seven heavens corresponding to one of seven degrees of spiritual perfection. It also contains references to typical Шаблон:Transliteration ideas like Шаблон:Transliteration (the manifestation of God in human form), Шаблон:Transliteration (metempsychosis or transmigration of the soul), Шаблон:Transliteration/Шаблон:Transliteration (metamorphosis or reincarnation into non-human forms), and the concept of creation through the fall from grace of pre-existent beings (as in the Шаблон:Transliteration, see above).[39]

The philosophical background of the work is given by the late antique concept of a great chain of being linking all things together in one great cosmic hierarchy. This hierarchical system extends from the upper world of spirit and light (populated by angels and other pure souls) to the lower world of matter and darkness (populated by humans, and below them animals, plants and minerals). Humanity is perceived as taking a middle position in this hierarchy, being located at the top of the world of darkness and at the bottom of the world of light.[40] Those human beings who lack the proper religious knowledge and belief are reborn into other human bodies, which are likened to 'shirts' (Шаблон:Transliteration, sing. Шаблон:Transliteration) that a soul can put on and off again. This is called Шаблон:Transliteration or Шаблон:Transliteration. But grave sinners are reborn instead into animal bodies (Шаблон:Transliteration), and the worst offenders are reborn into the bodies of plants or minerals (Шаблон:Transliteration).[13]Шаблон:Efn On the other hand, those believers who perform good works and advance in knowledge also travel upwards on the ladder, putting on ever more pure and luminous 'shirts' or bodies, ultimately reaching the realm of the divine.[14] This upwards path is represented as consisting of seven stages above that of humanity, each located in one of the seven heavens:[41]

  1. Шаблон:Transliteration: the Tested, first heaven
  2. Шаблон:Transliteration: the Devout, second heaven
  3. Шаблон:Transliteration: the Elect, third heaven
  4. Шаблон:Transliteration: the Noble, fourth heaven
  5. Шаблон:Transliteration: the Chief, fifth heaven
  6. Шаблон:Transliteration: the Unique, sixth heaven
  7. Шаблон:Transliteration: the Gate, seventh heaven

At every degree the initiate receives the chance to gain a new level of 'hidden' or 'occult' (Шаблон:Transliteration) knowledge. If the initiate succeeds at internalizing this knowledge, they may ascend to the next degree. If, however, they lose interest or start to doubt the knowledge already acquired, they may lose their pure and luminous "shirt", receiving instead a heavier and darker one, and descend down the scale of being again. Those who reach the seventh degree (that of Шаблон:Transliteration or "Gate")Шаблон:Efn are granted wondrous powers such as making themselves invisible, or seeing and hearing all things –including a beatific vision of God– without having to look or listen. Most notably, they are able to manifest themselves to ordinary beings in the world of matter (Шаблон:Transliteration), by taking on the form of a human and appearing to anyone at will.[42] This ability is shared between the "Gates" in the seventh heaven and God, who also manifests himself to the world by taking on a human form.[40]

The theme of a heavenly ascent through seven degrees of spiritual perfection is also explored in other Шаблон:Transliteration works, including the anonymous Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of Degrees and Stages), as well as various works attributed to Muhammad ibn Sinan (died 835), Ibn Nusayr (died after 868), and others.[43] In the 9th/10th-century works attributed to the Shi'i alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, the seven degrees corresponding to the seven heavens (themselves related to the seven planets) are replaced with fifthy-five degrees carrying similar names (including Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration). These fifthy-five degrees correspond to the fifthy-five celestial spheres alluded to by Plato in his Timaeus and mentioned by Aristotle in his Metaphysics.[44]

Other Шаблон:Transliteration works

Mu'tazili-influenced works

Two of the treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal, the Шаблон:Transliteration and the Шаблон:Transliteration, differ from other treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal by the absence of any content that is specifically Shi'i in nature. Though both were preserved by the 17th-century Shi'i scholar Muhammad Baqir al-Majlisi (died 1699), the only element connecting them to Shi'ism is their ascription to Ja'far al-Sadiq and al-Mufaddal. Their content appears to be influenced by Mu'tazilism, a rationalistic school of Islamic speculative theology (Шаблон:Transliteration).[12] Often transmitted together in the manuscript tradition,[52] they may be regarded as part of an attempt to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal among Twelver Shi'is, to whom al-Mufaddal was important as a narrator of numerous hadiths from the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq and his son Musa al-Kazim.[18] Both works were also known to other Twelver scholars such as al-Najashi (Шаблон:Circa–1058), Ibn Shahrashub (died 1192), and Ibn Tawus (1193–1266).[53]

Шаблон:Transliteration (al-Mufaddal's Шаблон:Transliteration)

Шаблон:Main The Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lit)Шаблон:Efn sets out to prove the existence of God based on the argument from design (also called the teleological argument). The work consists of a series of lectures about the existence and oneness (Шаблон:Transliteration) of God presented to al-Mufaddal by Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is answering a challenge made to him by the self-declared atheist Ibn Abi al-Awja'.[54] In four "sessions" (Шаблон:Transliteration), Ja'far argues that the cosmic order and harmony which can be detected throughout nature necessitates the existence of a wise and providential creator.[55] The Twelver Shi'i bibliographer al-Najashi (Шаблон:Circa–1058) also refers to the work as the Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lit), a reference to the fact that Ja'far often begins his exhortations with the word Шаблон:Transliteration (think!).[56]

The Шаблон:Transliteration is not an original work. Instead, it is a revised version of a work also attributed to the famous Mu'tazili litterateur al-Jahiz (died 868) under the title Шаблон:Transliteration (Book on the Proofs and Contemplation of Creation and Administration).[57] The attribution of this work to al-Jahiz is probably spurious as well, although the original was likely written in the 9th century.[58] Compared to pseudo-Jahiz's Шаблон:Transliteration, the Шаблон:Transliteration adds an introduction that sets up a frame story involving al-Mufaddal, Ibn Abi al-Awja', and Ja'far al-Sadiq, as well rhymed praises of God at the beginning of each chapter, and a brief concluding passage.[59]

Scholars have espoused various views on the ultimate origins of this work. According to Melhem Chokr, the versions attributed to al-Mufaddal and to al-Jahiz are both based on an unknown earlier work, with the version attributed to al-Mufaddal being more faithful to the original.[60] In Chokr's view, at some point the work must have been translated by a Syriac author into the Arabic from a Greek original, perhaps from an unknown Hermetic work.[61] However, both Hans Daiber and Josef van Ess identify the original work on which pseudo-Jahiz's Шаблон:Transliteration was based as the Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of Thought and Contemplation), written by the 9th-century Nestorian Christian Jibril ibn Nuh ibn Abi Nuh al-Nasrani al-Anbari.[62] However this may be, Jibril ibn Nuh's Шаблон:Transliteration, the Шаблон:Transliteration and pseudo-Jahiz's Шаблон:Transliteration are only the three earliest among many extant versions of the work: adaptations were also made by the Nestorian Christian bishop Elijah of Nisibis (died 1056),[63] by the Sunni mystic al-Ghazali (died 1111),[64] and by the Andalusian Jewish philosopher Bahya ibn Paquda (died first half of 12th century).[65]

The Шаблон:Transliteration/Шаблон:Transliteration contains many parallels with Syriac Christian literature, especially with the commentaries on the Hexameron (the six days of creation as described in Genesis) written by Jacob of Edessa (Шаблон:Circa–708) and Moses bar Kepha (Шаблон:Circa–903), as well as with Job of Edessa's encyclopedic work on natural philosophy called the Book of Treasures (Шаблон:Circa).[66] Its teleological proof of the existence of God—based upon a discussion of the four elements, minerals, plants, animals, meteorology, and the human being—was likely inspired by pseudo-Aristotle's Шаблон:Lang (On the Universe, 3rd/2nd century BCE), a work also used by the Syriac authors mentioned above.[67] In particular, the Шаблон:Transliteration/Шаблон:Transliteration contains the same emphasis on the idea that God, who already in pseudo-Aristotle's Шаблон:Lang is called "one", can only be known through the wisdom permeating his creative works, while his own essence (Шаблон:Transliteration) remains hidden for all.[68]

The idea that contemplating the works of nature leads to a knowledge of God is also found in the Quran.[61] However, in the case of the Шаблон:Transliteration/Шаблон:Transliteration, the idea is set in a philosophical framework that clearly goes back on Hellenistic models. Apart from pseudo-Aristotle's Шаблон:Lang (3rd/2nd century BCE), there are also many parallels with Cicero's (106–43 BCE) Шаблон:Lang, especially with the Stoic views on teleology and divine providence outlined in Cicero's work.[69] Some of the enemies cited in the work are Diagoras (5th century BCE) and Epicurus (341–270 BCE),[70] both reviled since late antiquity for their alleged atheism,[71] as well as Mani (Шаблон:Circa–274 or 277 CE, the founding prophet of Manichaeism), a certain Dūsī, and all those who would deny the providence and purposefulness (Шаблон:Transliteration) of God.[61]

Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit)

The Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit)Шаблон:Efn is another work in which al-Mufaddal asks Ja'far al-Sadiq to present a proof of the existence and oneness of God in response to those who openly profess atheism.[72] In comparison with the Шаблон:Transliteration, the frame story here is less well integrated into the main text, which despite being written in the form of an epistle does not directly address al-Mufaddal's concerns about the appearance of people who would publicly deny the existence of God.[73] In the epistle itself, the author (presumed to be Ja'far al-Sadiq) recounts his meeting with an Indian physician, who contended that the world is eternal and therefore does not need a creator.[74] Taking the myrobalan fruit (perhaps the black myrobalan or Terminalia reticulata, a plant used in Ayurveda)[75] that the Indian physician was grinding as a starting point for contemplation, the author of the epistle succeeds in convincing the physician of the existence of God.[76] The dialectical style of the debate is typical of early Muslim speculative theology (Шаблон:Transliteration).[16] Sciences like astrology and medicine are presented as originating from divine revelation.[56] Melhem Chokr has proposed the 8th-century scribe (Шаблон:Transliteration) and speculative theologian Muhammad ibn Layth as the original author of the Шаблон:Transliteration, based on similarities with other works attributed to Ibn Layth, and on the attribution to him in Ibn al-Nadim's (Шаблон:Circa) Шаблон:Transliteration of a work called Шаблон:Transliteration (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit on Contemplation).[17]

Other works

Some other works attributed to, or transmitted by, al-Mufaddal are still extant:

  • The Шаблон:Transliteration (Testament of al-Mufaddal)Шаблон:Efn is a short text purporting to be al-Mufaddal's testament to the Shi'is of Kufa. The testament itself only contains a rather generic exhortation to piety and proper religious conduct, but it is followed by a paragraph in which Ja'far al-Sadiq reproaches the Kufan Shi'is for their hostility towards al-Mufaddal, exonerating his disciple from all blame.[77] The text may very well be authentic, though it may also have been attributed to al-Mufaddal by later authors seeking to rehabilitate him.[12]
  • The Шаблон:Transliteration, also called the Шаблон:Transliteration,Шаблон:Efn is a prayer (Шаблон:Transliteration) attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq, supposedly transmitted from Ja'far by al-Mufaddal and later by Muhammad ibn Uthman al-Amri (died 917 or 918), the second deputy of the Hidden Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi during the Minor Occultation (874–941). It is a revised version of an originally Talmudic invocation that was used by Jews to cast off robbers and thieves. It was apparently in use among Muslims during the time of Muhammad ibn Uthman al-Amri, who approved of this practice but claimed to possess a "fuller" version handed down from the Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq. This version is nearly identical to the version preserved in the Talmud, only adding the names of the prophet Muhammad and some of his family members.[78]
  • The Шаблон:Transliteration is treatise attributed to al-Mufaddal on the virtue of rice.[12]
  • Шаблон:Transliteration (Ja'farian Aphorisms) is a collection of moral aphorisms (Шаблон:Transliteration) attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq and transmitted by al-Mufaddal.[79]

There are also some works attributed to, or transmitted by, al-Mufaddal that are mentioned in other sources but are now lost:

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Bibliography

Tertiary sources

Secondary sources

Primary sources

Шаблон:Transliteration

Шаблон:Transliteration

Other

Шаблон:Ghulat

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. Шаблон:Harvnb also mentions the Шаблон:Transliteration Abū Muḥammad.
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb. On the Шаблон:Transliteration more generally, see further Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb. On their cosmology and theology, see Шаблон:Harvnb.
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 Шаблон:Harvnb. The rise of money-changers as central figures who wielded considerable financial and political power coincided with the Imamate of Ja'far al-Sadiq; see Шаблон:Harvnb. On this subject, see further Шаблон:Harvnb.
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 Шаблон:Harvnb.
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. Шаблон:Harvnb discusses the account of the proto-Twelver scholar al-Kashshi (Шаблон:Floruit half of the 10th century), who cites some reports alleging that al-Mufaddal had briefly fallen into heresy during his time with Abu al-Khattab, and that Ja'far had reluctantly repudiated al-Mufaddal as an infidel. However, most Twelver Shi'i sources deny that al-Mufaddal was ever involved in any heresy (see Шаблон:Harvnb).
  6. ↑ For the term 'Mufaddal Tradition', see Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb. A list of works is given by Шаблон:Harvnb and Шаблон:Harvnb (summarized in the sections below).
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. Many of Ja'far al-Sadiq's followers belonged to the Шаблон:Transliteration, which may also partly explain why this Imam looms so large in Шаблон:Transliteration writings such as those attributed to al-Mufaddal; see Шаблон:Harvnb.
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; cf. Шаблон:Harvnb.
  10. ↑ 10,0 10,1 Шаблон:Harvnb. Each of the eleven layers is analyzed in detail by Шаблон:Harvnb. Шаблон:Harvnb still only counted seven layers.
  11. ↑ 11,0 11,1 Шаблон:Harvnb. On Шаблон:Transliteration, see further Шаблон:Harvnb. On the seven Adams and world cycles (Шаблон:Transliteration), see Шаблон:Harvnb. On world cycles in general, see Шаблон:Harvnb.
  12. ↑ 12,00 12,01 12,02 12,03 12,04 12,05 12,06 12,07 12,08 12,09 12,10 12,11 12,12 12,13 12,14 12,15 Шаблон:Harvnb.
  13. ↑ 13,0 13,1 Шаблон:Harvnb.
  14. ↑ 14,0 14,1 Шаблон:Harvnb.
  15. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
  16. ↑ 16,0 16,1 Шаблон:Harvnb.
  17. ↑ 17,0 17,1 Шаблон:Harvnb. On Muhammad ibn al-Layth, see Chokr 1993, première partie, chapitre III, Les accusés de zandaqa sous al-Rašīd (de 170/786 à 193/809), 4 Muḥmmad b. al-Layṯ.
  18. ↑ 18,0 18,1 18,2 Шаблон:Harvnb. Шаблон:Harvnb, in contrast, suggests that they may have been written before al-Mufaddal gained the reputation of being an unreliable Шаблон:Transliteration among some 10th/11th-century Twelver authors. Turner's argument is that false attributions are made to lend authority to a work, and that it would not make sense to attribute a work to someone reputed to be unreliable. Gleave, on the other hand, assumes that attributing 'orthodox' doctrine to someone can enhance that person's reputation for reliability.
  19. ↑ 19,0 19,1 Шаблон:Harvnb.
  20. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. On the concept of Шаблон:Transliteration in Shi'ism, see Шаблон:Harvnb.
  21. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb. The proto-Twelver scholar al-Kashshi (Шаблон:Floruit half of the 10th century) did cite some reports alleging that al-Mufaddal had briefly fallen into heresy during his time with Abu al-Khattab, and that Ja'far had reluctantly repudiated al-Mufaddal as an infidel (see Шаблон:Harvnb).
  22. ↑ On Ibn al-Ghada'iri, see Шаблон:Harvnb.
  23. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. See further Шаблон:Harvnb.
  24. ↑ Photographic reproduction by Шаблон:Harvnb (edited text on p. 198).
  25. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. The various titles are discussed by Asatryan 2017, pp. 18–19.
  26. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
  27. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. On Abd Allah ibn Harb, see Шаблон:Harvnb. Various versions of the myth are summarized by Шаблон:Harvnb. On the theme of pre-existent shadows in general, see also Шаблон:Harvnb.
  28. ↑ 28,0 28,1 Шаблон:Harvnb.
  29. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. In the Isma'ili version of the doctrine of world cycles, Muhammad is the initiator of the current, penultimate cycle, while Ja'far al-Sadiq's grandson Muhammad ibn Isma'il is the concealed and awaited initiator of the last cycle.
  30. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  31. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  32. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. Muhammad ibn Sinan's date is given by Шаблон:Harvnb.
  33. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. Шаблон:Harvnb proposed Muhammad ibn Sinan, who was a disciple of al-Mufaddal, as the author of the entire Шаблон:Transliteration (repeated in Шаблон:Harvnb), but this was rejected by Шаблон:Harvnb.
  34. ↑ These are Abu Salih Muhammad Abu al-Hasan Buzurj (a contemporary of Ja'far al-Sadiq), Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Kathir al-Hashimi (died 802), and Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Isa (a contemporary of Muhammad al-Jawad, died 835, and Ali al-Hadi, died 868); see Шаблон:Harvnb.
  35. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. These three works are compared on pp. 65–71 and tentatively dated to the 8th or 9th century on pp. 72–78.
  36. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  37. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. On the fact that the Шаблон:Transliteration originally also was unrelated to Isma'ilism, see Шаблон:Harvnb.
  38. ↑ Early Isma'ili authors who adapted Шаблон:Transliteration ideas include Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman (died Шаблон:Circa; see Шаблон:Harvnb; the Шаблон:Transliteration influences on Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman's Шаблон:Transliteration are discussed by Шаблон:Harvnb) and Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani (died after 971; see De Smet 2020, pp. 304, 307–308). The influence of these ideas was pervasive in Tayyibi Isma'ilism (see De Smet 2020, pp. 320–321 et passim).
  39. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. On the heavenly ascent through the seven heavens corresponding to seven degrees of spiritual perfection, see Шаблон:Harvnb (summarized below). The Шаблон:Transliteration's version of the myth of creation and fall is discussed in Asatryan 2017, p. 139 and compared with other versions of the myth on pp. 139–145.
  40. ↑ 40,0 40,1 Шаблон:Harvnb.
  41. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  42. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  43. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. On Ibn Nusayr, see Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
  44. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. On the relationship between the works attributed to Jabir and the Шаблон:Transliteration (as well as other Шаблон:Transliteration works), see further Шаблон:Harvnb.
  45. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  46. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; for the various works in which this text was preserved, see also the explanatory footnote above.
  47. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb does not exclude the possibility that the attribution of this text to al-Mufaddal is authentic.
  48. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb. On world cycles (Шаблон:Transliteration, sing. Шаблон:Transliteration), see Шаблон:Harvnb.
  49. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  50. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  51. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  52. ↑ They occur together both in Шаблон:Harvnb and in a Шаблон:Transliteration kept at Princeton University Library (ms. Princeton New Series 1307), the latter of which also contains another work (Шаблон:Transliteration) attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq: see Шаблон:Harvnb. Шаблон:Harvnb refers to a Шаблон:Transliteration, according to Kohlberg perhaps a conflation of both works.
  53. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. On Ibn Tawus's use of these works, see Шаблон:Harvnb.
  54. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb. The setting is given in Шаблон:Harvnb. On Ibn Abī al-ʿAwjāʾ, see further Chokr 1993, deuxième partie, chapitre VII, ‘Abd al-Karīm b. Abī l-‘Awğā’ et son groupe.
  55. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb. Another discussion of the contents of this work but as attributed to al-Jahiz rather than to al-Mufaddal may be found in Шаблон:Harvnb.
  56. ↑ 56,0 56,1 Шаблон:Harvnb.
  57. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb, referring to Шаблон:Harvnb.
  58. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
  59. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. According to Chokr, some of these rhymed praises contain traces of Шаблон:Transliteration doctrine.
  60. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  61. ↑ 61,0 61,1 61,2 Шаблон:Harvnb.
  62. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb, referring to Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb. Daiber and van Ess speak only about pseudo-Jahiz's Шаблон:Transliteration and its later adaptations, ignoring the Шаблон:Transliteration.
  63. ↑ In his Шаблон:Transliteration; see Шаблон:Harvnb.
  64. ↑ In his Шаблон:Transliteration; see Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
  65. ↑ In his Шаблон:Transliteration; see Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
  66. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  67. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  68. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  69. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. On the role of providence in the Шаблон:Transliteration, see also Шаблон:Lang, 13. According to Шаблон:Harvnb, "god's providence is his most prominent characteristic in Stoicism, especially as presented by Balbus in Шаблон:Lang 2."
  70. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; cf. briefly Шаблон:Harvnb.
  71. ↑ On Diagoras' reputation for atheism, see the summary by Шаблон:Harvnb. On Epicurus' reputation for atheism, see Шаблон:Harvnb. On the question of Epicurus' atheism more generally, see the references cited by Шаблон:Harvnb.
  72. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
  73. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  74. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb.
  75. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. According to Wehr's dictionary, the Arabic term Шаблон:Transliteration rather refers to the emblic myrobalan (Phyllanthus emblica).
  76. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
  77. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
  78. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. See also more briefly Шаблон:Harvnb.
  79. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. Edition of the Arabic text in Шаблон:Harvnb.
  80. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
  81. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
  82. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb.
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