Английская Википедия:Ali
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox royalty
Ali ibn Abi Talib (Шаблон:Lang-ar; Шаблон:Circa) was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the fourth Rashidun caliph and the first Shia Imam, who ruled from 656 to 661. Born to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Fatima bint Asad, a young Ali was raised by his elder cousin Muhammad and was among the first to accept his teachings. Ali played a pivotal role in the early years of Islam when Muslims were severely persecuted in Mecca.
After immigration (Шаблон:Transliteration) to Medina in 622, Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage and swore a pact of brotherhood with him. Ali served as Muhammad's secretary and deputy in this period, and was the flag bearer of his army. Numerous sayings of Muhammad praise Ali, the most controversial of which was uttered in 632 at the Ghadir Khumm, "Whoever I am his Шаблон:Transliteration, this Ali is his Шаблон:Transliteration." The interpretation of the polysemous Arabic word Шаблон:Transliteration is disputed: For Shia Muslims, Muhammad thus invested Ali with his religious and political authority, while Sunni Muslims view this as a mere statement of friendship and rapport. When Muhammad died in the same year, a group of Muslims met in the absence of Ali and appointed Abu Bakr (Шаблон:Reign) as their leader. Ali later relinquished his claims to leadership and resigned from public life during the reigns of Abu Bakr and his successor, Umar (Шаблон:Reign). Even though his advice was occasionally sought, the conflicts between Ali and the first two caliphs are epitomized by his refusal to follow their practices. This refusal cost Ali the caliphate to the benefit of Uthman (Шаблон:Reign), who was thus appointed to succeed Umar by the electoral council. Ali was also highly critical of Uthman, who was widely accused of nepotism and corruption. Yet Ali also repeatedly mediated between the caliph and the provincial dissidents angered by his policies.
Following Uthman's assassination in June 656, Ali was elected caliph in Medina. He immediately faced two separate rebellions, both ostensibly to avenge Uthman: The triumvirate of Talha, Zubayr, both companions of Muhammad, and his widow Aisha captured Basra in Iraq but were defeated by Ali in the Battle of the Camel in 656. Elsewhere, Mu'awiya, whom Ali had just removed from the governorship of Syria, fought against Ali the inconclusive Battle of Siffin in 657, which ended in a failed arbitration process that alienated some of Ali's supporters. These formed the Kharijites, who later terrorized the public and were crushed by Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan in 658. Ali was assassinated in 661 by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam, which paved the way for Mu'awiya to seize power and found the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate.
Ali's place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Muslim culture. Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims. For his admirers, he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre-Islamic chivalry. Sunni Muslims regard him as the last of the Rashidun (Шаблон:Lit) caliphs, while Shia Muslims venerate him as their first imam, that is, the rightful religious and political successor to Muhammad. The shrine of Ali in Najaf, Iraq, is a major destination for Shia pilgrimage. The legacy of Ali is collected and studied in numerous books, the most famous of which is Шаблон:Transliteration.
Birth and early life
Ali was born in Mecca to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and his wife Fatima bint Asad around 600 CE.Шаблон:Sfn His date of birth is possibly 13 Rajab,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which is the occasion celebrated annually by Shia Muslims.Шаблон:Sfn Ali may have been the only person born inside Ka'ba,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn the holiest site of Islam, which is located in Mecca. However, this is disputed by Sunni sources, which state Hakim ibn Hizam was also born in the Ka'ba.[1] Furthermore, Sunni scholar Al-Nawawi regards the birth of Ali in the Ka'ba as weak.[2] Ali's father was a leading member of the Banu Hashim, a clan within the Meccan tribe of Quraysh.Шаблон:Sfn Abu Talib also raised his nephew Muhammad after his parents died. Later when Abu Talib fell into poverty, Ali was taken in at the age of about five and raised by Muhammad and his wife Khadija.Шаблон:Sfn
Aged about eleven,Шаблон:Sfn Ali was among the first to accept Muhammad's teachings and profess Islam. Ali did so either after Khadija or after Khadija and Muhammad's successor, Abu Bakr. While the precise order here is debated among Shia and Sunni scholars,Шаблон:Sfn the earliest sources place Ali before Abu Bakr.Шаблон:Sfn Muhammad's call to Islam in Mecca lasted from 610 to 622, during which Ali assiduously supported the small Muslim community, especially the poor.Шаблон:Sfn Some three years after his first revelation,Шаблон:Sfn Muhammad gathered his relatives for a feast, invited them to Islam, and asked for their assistance.Шаблон:Sfn Aged about fourteen,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali was the only relative there who offered his support, after which Muhammad told his guests that Ali was his brother and his successor,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn according to the Sunni historian al-Tabari (Шаблон:Died in). The Shia interpretation of this episode is that Muhammad had already designated Ali as his successor.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Companionship of Muhammad
When tipped off about an assassination plot in 622, Muhammad escaped to Yathrib, now known as Medina, but Ali stayed behind as his decoy.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn That Ali risked his life for Muhammad is said to be the reason for the revelation of the Quranic passage, "But there is also a kind of man who gives his life away to please God."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This emigration marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar (AH). Ali too escaped Mecca after returning the goods entrusted to Muhammad there.Шаблон:Sfn Later in Medina, Muhammad selected Ali as his brother when he paired Muslims for fraternity pacts.Шаблон:Sfn Around 623–625, Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn aged about twenty-two at the time.Шаблон:Sfn Muhammad had earlier turned down marriage proposals for Fatima by some of his companions, notably, Abu Bakr and Umar.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Event of the Шаблон:Transliteration
A Christian envoy from Najran, located in South Arabia, arrived in Medina circa 632 and negotiated a peace treaty with Muhammad.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The envoy also debated with Muhammad the nature of Jesus, human or divine.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Linked to this episode is verse 3:61 of the Quran,Шаблон:Sfn which instructs Muhammad to challenge his opponents to Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lit),Шаблон:Sfn perhaps when their debate had reached a deadlock.Шаблон:Sfn Even though the delegation ultimately withdrew from the challenge,Шаблон:Sfn Muhammad appeared for the occasion of Шаблон:Transliteration, accompanied by Ali, his wife Fatima, and their two sons, Hasan and Husayn.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The inclusion of these four by Muhammad in the Шаблон:Transliteration ritual, as his witnesses and guarantors,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn likely raised their religious rank within the community.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn If the word 'ourselves' in the verse is a reference to Ali and Muhammad, as Shia authors argue, then the former naturally enjoys a similar religious authority in the Quran as the latter.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Political career
In Medina, Ali acted as Muhammad's secretary and deputy.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He was also one of the scribes tasked with committing the Quran to writing.Шаблон:Sfn In 628, Ali wrote down the terms of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, the peace treaty between Muslims and Meccan pagans. In 630, divine orders pushed Muhammad to replace Abu Bakr with Ali for a key Quranic announcement in Mecca,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn according to the canonical Sunni source Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn Ali also helped ensure that the Conquest of Mecca in 630 was bloodless and later destroyed the idols housed in Ka'ba.Шаблон:Sfn In 631, Ali was sent to preach Islam in Yemen,Шаблон:Sfn as a consequence of which the Hamdanids peacefully converted.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali also peacefully resolved a blood feud between Muslims and the Banu Jadhima.Шаблон:Sfn
Military career
Ali accompanied Muhammad in all of his military missions except the Expedition of Tabuk in 630, during which Ali was left behind in charge of Medina.Шаблон:Sfn The hadith of the position is linked to this occasion, "Are you not content, Ali, to stand to me as Aaron stood to Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me?" This statement appears in the canonical Sunni sources Шаблон:Transliteration and Шаблон:Transliteration, among others.Шаблон:Sfn For the Shia, this hadith signifies Ali's usurped right to succeed Muhammad.Шаблон:Sfn In the absence of Muhammad, Ali commanded the expedition to Fadak in 628.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Ali was renowned for his bravery on the battlefield,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and for his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies.Шаблон:Sfn He was the standard-bearer in the Battle of Badr (624) and the Battle of Khaybar (628).Шаблон:Sfn He vigorously defended Muhammad in the Battle of Uhud (625) and the Battle of Hunayn (630),Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and Muslims' victory in the Battle of Khaybar has been attributed to his courage,Шаблон:Sfn where he is said to have torn off the iron gate of the enemy fort.Шаблон:Sfn Ali also defeated the pagan champion Amr ibn Abd Wudd in the Battle of the Trench in 627.Шаблон:Sfn According to al-Tabari,Шаблон:Sfn Muhammad reported hearing a divine voice at Uhud, "[There is] no sword but Zulfiqar [Ali's sword], [there is] no chivalrous youth (Шаблон:Transliteration) but Ali."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali and another companion, Zubayr, apparently oversaw the killing of the Banu Qurayza men for treachery in 626Шаблон:Ndash627,Шаблон:Sfn though the historicity of this account has been doubted.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Ghadir Khumm
On his return trip from the Hajj pilgrimage in 632, Muhammad halted the large caravan of pilgrims at the Ghadir Khumm and addressed them after the congregational prayer.Шаблон:Sfn Taking Ali by the hand, Muhammad asked the crowd if he was not closer (Шаблон:Transliteration) to believers than they were to themselves, which they affirmed.Шаблон:Sfn Muhammad then declared, "He whose Шаблон:Transliteration I am, Ali is his Шаблон:Transliteration."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Transliteration, a canonical Sunni source, adds that Muhammad repeated this statement three or four more times and that Umar congratulated Ali after the sermon, "You have now become the Шаблон:Transliteration of every faithful man and woman."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Muhammad had earlier alerted Muslims about his impending death.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Shia sources describe the event in greater detail, linking the announcement to verses 5:3 and 5:67 of the Quran.Шаблон:Sfn
The authenticity of the Ghadir Khumm is rarely contested,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn as its "among the most extensively acknowledged and substantiated" reports in classical Islamic sources.Шаблон:Sfn However, Шаблон:Transliteration is a polysemous Arabic word and its interpretation in the context of the Ghadir Khumm is split along sectarian lines. Shia sources interpret Шаблон:Transliteration as 'leader', 'master', and 'patron', Шаблон:Sfn while Sunni sources interpret it as love or support for Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Shias, therefore, view the Ghadir Khumm as the investiture of Ali with Muhammad's religious and political authority,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn while Sunnis regard it as a statement about the rapport between the two men,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn or that Ali should execute Muhammad's will.Шаблон:Sfn Shias point to the extraordinary nature of the announcement,Шаблон:Sfn give Quranic and textual evidence,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and argue to eliminate other meanings of Шаблон:Transliteration in the hadith except for authority,Шаблон:Sfn while Sunnis minimize the importance of the Ghadir Khumm by casting it as a simple response to earlier complaints about Ali.Шаблон:Sfn During his caliphate, Ali is known to have asked Muslims to come forward with their testimonies about the Ghadir Khumm,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn presumably to counter challenges to his legitimacy.Шаблон:Sfn
Life under Rashidun Caliphs
Succession to Muhammad
Saqifa
Muhammad died in 632 when Ali was in his early thirties.Шаблон:Sfn As he and other close relatives prepared for the burial,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn a group of the Ansar (Medinan natives, Шаблон:Literal translation) gathered at the Saqifa to discuss the future of Muslims or to retake control of their city, Medina. Abu Bakr and Umar were among the few representatives of the Muhajirun (Meccan converts, Шаблон:Literal translation) at the Saqifa.Шаблон:Sfn The case of Ali was unsuccessfully brought up at the Saqifa in his absence,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and, ultimately, those present there appointed Abu Bakr to leadership after a heated debate that is said to have become violent.Шаблон:Sfn Clan rivalries at the Saqifa played a key role in favor of Abu Bakr,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and the outcome may have been different in a broad council ([[Shura|Шаблон:Transliteration]]) with Ali as a candidate.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In particular, the Quraysh tradition of hereditary succession strongly favored Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn even though his youth weakened his case.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn By contrast, the succession (caliphate) of Abu Bakr is often justified on the basis that he led some of the prayers in Muhammad's final days,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but the veracity and political significance of such reports have been questioned.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Attack on Fatima's house
While the appointment of Abu Bakr was met with little resistance in Medina,Шаблон:Sfn the Banu Hashim and some companions of Muhammad soon gathered in protest at Ali's house.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Among them were Zubayr and Muhammad's uncle Abbas.Шаблон:Sfn These protestors held Ali to be the rightful successor to Muhammad,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn probably in reference to the Ghadir Khumm.Шаблон:Sfn Among others,Шаблон:Sfn al-Tabari reports that Umar then led an armed mob to Ali's residence and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and his supporters did not pledge their allegiance to Abu Bakr.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The scene soon grew violent,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but the mob retreated after Ali's wife, Fatima, pleaded with them.Шаблон:Sfn Abu Bakr later placed a successful boycott on the Banu Hashim,Шаблон:Sfn who eventually abandoned their support for Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Most likely, Ali himself did not pledge his allegiance to Abu Bakr until Fatima died within six months of her father, Muhammad.Шаблон:Sfn In Shia sources, the death (and miscarriage) of the young Fatima are attributed to an attack on her house to subdue Ali by the order of Abu Bakr.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Sunnis categorically reject these reports,Шаблон:Sfn but there is evidence in their early sources that a mob entered Fatima's house by force and arrested Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn an incident that Abu Bakr regretted on his deathbed.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Likely a political move to weaken the Banu Hashim,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Abu Bakr had earlier confiscated from Fatima the rich lands of Fadak, which she considered her inheritance (or a gift) from her father.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The confiscation of Fadak is often justified in Sunni sources with a hadith about prophetic inheritance, the authenticity of which has been doubted partly because it contradicts Quranic injunctions.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Caliphate of Abu Bakr (Шаблон:Reign)
In the absence of popular support, Ali eventually accepted the temporal rule of Abu Bakr, probably for the sake of Muslim unity.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In particular, Ali turned down proposals to forcefully pursue the caliphate.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He nevertheless viewed himself as the most qualified candidate for leadership by virtue of his merits and his kinship with Muhammad.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Evidence suggests that Ali further considered himself as the designated successor of Muhammad.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Unlike Muhammad's lifetime,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali retired from public life during the caliphates of Abu Bakr and his successors, Umar and Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Even though Ali reputedly advised Abu Bakr and Umar on government and religious matters,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn their conflicts with Ali is also well-documented,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but largely ignored in Sunni sources.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn These tensions were epitomized during the proceedings of the electoral council in 644 when Ali refused to be bound by the precedence of the first two caliphs.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In contrast, Shia sources view Ali's pledge to Abu Bakr as a (coerced) act of political expediency (Шаблон:Transliteration).Шаблон:Sfn The conflicts with Ali are probably magnified in Shia sources.Шаблон:Sfn
Caliphate of Umar (Шаблон:Reign)
Before his death in 634, Abu Bakr designated Umar as his successor.Шаблон:Sfn Ali was not consulted about this appointment, which was initially resisted by some senior companions.Шаблон:Sfn Ali himself did not press any claims this time and kept aloof from public affairs during the caliphate of Umar,Шаблон:Sfn who nevertheless consulted Ali in certain matters.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn For instance, Ali is credited with the idea of adopting the migration to Medina ([[Hijrah|Шаблон:Transliteration]]) as the beginning of the Islamic calendar.Шаблон:Sfn Yet Ali's political advice was probably ignored.Шаблон:Sfn For example, Umar devised a state register (Шаблон:Transliteration) to distribute excess state revenues according to Islamic precedence,Шаблон:Sfn but Ali held that those revenues should be equally distributed among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad and Abu Bakr.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali was also absent from the strategic meeting of notables near Damascus.Шаблон:Sfn Ali did not participate in Umar's military expeditions,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn although he does not seem to have publicly objected to them.Шаблон:Sfn Umar likely opposed the combination of prophethood and caliphate in the Banu Hashim,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and he thus prevented Muhammad from dictating his will on his deathbed,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn possibly fearing that he might expressly designate Ali as his successor.Шаблон:Sfn Nevertheless, perhaps realizing the necessity of Ali's cooperation in his collaborative scheme of governance, Umar made some limited overtures to Ali and the Banu Hashim during his caliphate.Шаблон:Sfn For instance, Umar returned Muhammad's estates in Medina to Ali, but kept Fadak and Khayber.Шаблон:Sfn By some accounts, Umar also insisted on marrying Ali's daughter Umm Kulthum, to which Ali reluctantly agreed when the former enlisted public support for his demand.Шаблон:Sfn
Election of Uthman (644)
Before his death in 644,Шаблон:Sfn Umar tasked a small committee with choosing the next caliph among themselves.Шаблон:Sfn Ali and Uthman were the strongest candidates in this committee,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn whose members were all early companions of Muhammad from the Quraysh tribe.Шаблон:Sfn Another member, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, was given the deciding vote either by the committee or by Umar.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn After deliberations, Ibn Awf appointed his brother-in-law Uthman as the next caliph,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn when the latter promised to follow the precedent of the first two caliphs.Шаблон:Sfn By contrast, Ali rejected this condition,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn or gave an evasive answer.Шаблон:Sfn The Ansar were not represented in the committee,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which was evidently biased toward Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Both of these factors worked against Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn who could have not been simply excluded from the proceedings.Шаблон:Sfn
Caliphate of Uthman (Шаблон:Reign)
Uthman was widely accused of nepotism,Шаблон:Sfn corruption,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and injustice.Шаблон:Sfn Ali too criticized Uthman's conduct,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn including his lavish gifts for his kinsmen.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali also protected outspoken companions, such as Abu Dharr and Ammar,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and overall acted as a restraining influence on Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn Some supporters of Ali were part of the opposition movement,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn joined in their efforts by Talha and Zubayr, both senior companions of Muhammad, and by his widow Aisha.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Among such supporters of Ali were Malik al-Ashtar and other religiously learned Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lit).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn These supporters wanted to see Ali as the next caliph but there is no evidence that he coordinated with them.Шаблон:Sfn Ali also rejected the requests to lead the rebels,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn although he probably sympathized with their grievances.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He was therefore considered a natural focus for the opposition,Шаблон:Sfn at least morally.Шаблон:Sfn
Assassination of Uthman (656)
As their grievances mounted, provincial dissidents poured into Medina in 656.Шаблон:Sfn The Egyptian opposition sought the advice of Ali, who urged them to negotiate with Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali similarly asked the Iraqi opposition to refrain from violence, which they heeded.Шаблон:Sfn He also repeatedly mediated between Uthman and the dissidents,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn to address their economical and political grievances.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In particular, Ali negotiated and guaranteed the agreement that ended the first siege.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He then convinced Uthman to publicly repent,Шаблон:Sfn but the caliph soon retracted his statement, possibly pressed by his secretary Marwan ibn al-Hakam.Шаблон:Sfn Egyptian rebels laid siege to Uthman's residence for a second time when they intercepted an official letter ordering their punishment. They demanded the caliph's abdication but he refused and maintained his innocence about the letter,Шаблон:Sfn for which Marwan is often blamed in the early sources.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali also sided with Uthman,Шаблон:Sfn but the caliph apparently accused him about the letter.Шаблон:Sfn This is probably when Ali refused to further intercede for Uthman,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn who was assassinated soon afterward by Egyptian rebels.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali played no role in the deadly attack,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and his son Hasan was injured while guarding Uthman's besieged residence at the request of Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He also convinced the rebels to deliver water to Uthman's house during the siege.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Caliphate
Election (656)
When Uthman was assassinated in 656 by Egyptian rebels,Шаблон:Sfn the potential candidates for caliphate were Ali and Talha. The Umayyads had fled Medina, leaving the provincial rebels and the Ansar in control of the city. Among the Egyptians, Talha enjoyed some support, but the Iraqis and most of the Ansar supported Ali.Шаблон:Sfn The majority of the Muhajirun,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and key tribal figures also favored Ali at this time.Шаблон:Sfn The caliphate was offered by these groups to Ali, who, after some hesitation,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn publicly took the oath of office.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Malik al-Ashtar might have been the first to pledge his allegiance to Ali.Шаблон:Sfn Talha and Zubayr, who both aspired to the caliphate,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn also gave their pledges to Ali, most likely willingly,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but later broke their oaths.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali probably did not force anyone to pledge,Шаблон:Sfn and there is little evidence of any violence, even though many broke with Ali later, claiming that they had pledged under duress.Шаблон:Sfn At the same time, the supporters, who were in majority in Medina, might have intimidated others.Шаблон:Sfn
Legitimacy
Ali thus filled the power vacuum created by the regicide.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His election, irregular and without a council,Шаблон:Sfn faced little public opposition in Medina,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but the rebels' support for him left him exposed to accusations of complicity in Uthman's assassination.Шаблон:Sfn Even though underprivileged groups readily rallied around Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn he had limited support among the powerful Quraysh, some of whom aspired to caliphate.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Within the Quraysh, two camps opposed Ali: the Umayyads, who believed that the caliphate was their right after Uthman, and those who wished to restore the caliphate of Quraysh on the same principles laid by Abu Bakr and Umar. This second group was likely the majority within the Quraysh.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali was indeed vocal about the divine prerogative of Muhammad's kin to leadership,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which would have jeopardized the political ambitions of the rest of the Quraysh.Шаблон:Sfn
Administrative policies
Justice
The caliphate of Ali was characterized by his strict justice.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He implemented radical policies to restore his vision of prophetic governance,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and dismissed nearly all of Uthman's governors,Шаблон:Sfn whom he considered corrupt.Шаблон:Sfn Ali also distributed the treasury funds equally among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad,Шаблон:Sfn and is said to have shown zero tolerance for corruption.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Some of those affected by Ali's egalitarian policies soon revolted against him under the pretext of revenge for Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn Among them was Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria.Шаблон:Sfn Ali has therefore been criticized by some for political naivety and excessive rigorism,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and praised by others for righteousness and lack of political expediency.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His supporters identify similar decisions of Muhammad,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and argue that Islam never allows for compromising on a just cause, citing verse 68:9 of the Quran,Шаблон:Sfn "They wish that thou might compromise and that they might compromise."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Some instead suggest that Ali's decisions were actually justified on a practical level.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn For instance, the removal of unpopular governors was perhaps the only option available to Ali because injustice was the main grievance of the rebels.Шаблон:Sfn
Religious authority
As evident from his public speeches,Шаблон:Sfn Ali viewed himself not only as the temporal leader of the Muslim community but also as its exclusive religious authority.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He thus laid claim to the religious authority to interpret the Quran and Sunna.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Some supporters of Ali indeed held him as their divinely-guided leader who deserved the same type of loyalty that Muhammad did.Шаблон:Sfn They felt an absolute and all-encompassing bond of spiritual loyalty (Шаблон:Transliteration) to Ali that transcended politics.Шаблон:Sfn For instance, many of them publicly offered Ali their unconditional support circa 658.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn They justified their absolute loyalty to Ali on the basis of his merits, precedent in Islam,Шаблон:Sfn his kinship with Muhammad,Шаблон:Sfn and also the announcement by the latter at the Ghadir Khumm.Шаблон:Sfn Many of these supporters also viewed Ali as the rightful successor to Muhammad after his death,Шаблон:Sfn as evidenced in the poetry from that period, for instance.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Fiscal policies
Ali opposed centralized control over provincial revenues.Шаблон:Sfn He equally distributed excess taxes and booty among Muslims,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn following the precedent of Muhammad and Abu Bakr.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In comparison, Umar had distributed the state revenues according to perceived Islamic merit,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and Uthman was widely accused of nepotism and corruption.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The strictly egalitarian policies of Ali earned him the support of underprivileged groups, including the Ansar, the Шаблон:Transliteration, and the late immigrants to Iraq.Шаблон:Sfn By contrast, Talha and Zubayr were both Qurayshite companions of Muhammad who had amassed immense wealth under Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn They both revolted against Ali when he refused to grant them favors.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Some other figures among the Quraysh similarly turned against Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn who even withheld public funds from his relatives,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn whereas his archenemy Mu'awiya readily offered bribes.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali instructed his officials to collect tax payments on a voluntary basis and without harassment, and to prioritize the poor when distributing public funds.Шаблон:Sfn A letter attributed to Ali directs his governor to pay more attention to land development than taxation.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Rules of war
During the Muslim civil war, Ali forbade his soldiers from looting,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and instead paid them from tax revenues.Шаблон:Sfn He also pardoned his enemies in victory.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Both of these practices were later enshrined in Islamic law.Шаблон:Sfn Ali also advised his commander al-Ashtar not to reject any calls to peace, not to violate any agreements,Шаблон:Sfn and ordered him not to commence hostilities.Шаблон:Sfn Ali similarly barred his troops from disturbing civilians,Шаблон:Sfn killing the wounded and those who fled, mutilating the dead, entering homes without permission, looting, and harming women.Шаблон:Sfn He prevented the enslavement of women in victory, even though some protested.Шаблон:Sfn Before the Battle of Siffin with Mu'awiya, Ali did not retaliate and allowed his enemies to access drinking water when he gained the upper hand.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Battle of the Camel
Aisha publicly campaigned against Ali immediately after his accession.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn She was joined in Mecca by her close relatives, Talha and Zubayr,Шаблон:Sfn who thus broke their earlier oaths of allegiance to Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This opposition demanded the punishment of Uthman's assassins,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and accused Ali of complicity in the assassination.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn They also called for the removal of Ali from office and for a Qurayshite council to appoint his successor.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Their primary goal was likely the removal of Ali, rather than vengeance for Uthman,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn against whom the triumvirate had stirred up public opinion.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The opposition failed to gain enough traction in Hejaz,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and instead captured Basra in Iraq,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn killing many there. Ali raised an army from nearby Kufa,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which formed the core of Ali's forces in the coming battles.Шаблон:Sfn The two armies soon camped just outside of Basra,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn both probably numbered around ten thousand men.Шаблон:Sfn After three days of failed negotiations,Шаблон:Sfn the two sides readied for battle.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Account of the battle
The battle took place in December 656.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The rebels commenced hostilities,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and Aisha was present on the battlefield, riding in an armored palanquin atop a red camel, after which the battle is named.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Talha was soon killed by another rebel, Marwan, the secretary of Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Zubayr, an experienced fighter, deserted shortly after the battle had begun,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but was pursued and killed.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His desertion suggests he had serious moral misgivings about their cause.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali won the day,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and Aisha was respectfully escorted back to Hejaz.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali then announced a public pardon,Шаблон:Sfn setting free all war prisoners, even Marwan,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and prohibiting the enslavement of their women. Their seized properties were also returned.Шаблон:Sfn Ali then stationed himself in Kufa,Шаблон:Sfn which thus became his de facto capital.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Battle of Siffin
Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria, was deemed corrupt and unfit by Ali,Шаблон:Sfn who wrote to and removed him from his post.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In turn, Mu'awiya, as Uthman's cousin, launched a propaganda campaign across Syria, blaming Ali for the regicide and calling for revenge.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Mu'awiya also joined forces with Amr ibn al-As,Шаблон:Sfn a military strategist,Шаблон:Sfn who pledged to back the Umayyads against Ali in return for life-long governorship of Egypt.Шаблон:Sfn Yet Mu'awiya also secretly offered to recognize the caliphate of Ali in return for Syria and Egypt,Шаблон:Sfn which Ali rejected.Шаблон:Sfn Mu'awiya then formally declared war, charging Ali with regicide, demanding his removal, and a Syrian council thereafter to elect the next caliph.Шаблон:Sfn Contemporary authors tend to view Mu'awiya's call for revenge as a pretext for power grab.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Account of the battle
In the summer of 657, the armies of Ali and Mu'awiya camped at Siffin, west of the Euphrates River,Шаблон:Sfn numbering perhaps at 100,000 and 130,000, respectively.Шаблон:Sfn Many of Muhammad's companions were present in Ali's army, whereas Mu'awiya could only boast a handful.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The two sides negotiated for a while, to no avail,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn after which the main battle took place from Wednesday, 26 July 657,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn until Friday or Saturday morning.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali probably refrained from initiating hostilities,Шаблон:Sfn and later fought alongside his men on the frontline, whereas Mu'awiya led from his pavilion,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and rejected a proposal to settle the matters in a personal duel with Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Among those killed fighting for Ali was Ammar.Шаблон:Sfn In canonical Sunni sources, a prophetic hadith predicts Ammar's death at the hands of Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lit) who call to hellfire.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Call to arbitration
Fighting stopped when some Syrians raised pages of the Quran on their lances, shouting, "Let the Book of God be the judge between us."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Since Mu'awiya had for long insisted on battle, this call for arbitration suggests that he now feared defeat.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn By contrast, Ali exhorted his men to fight, telling them that raising Qurans was for deception, but to no avail.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Through their representatives, the Шаблон:Transliteration and the Шаблон:Transliteration tribesmen of Kufa,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn the largest bloc in Ali's army,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn both threatened Ali with mutiny if he did not answer the Syrians' call.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Facing strong peace sentiments in his army, Ali accepted the arbitration proposal,Шаблон:Sfn most likely against his own judgment.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Arbitration agreement
Mu'awiya now proposed that representatives from both sides should find a Quranic resolution.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Mu'awiya was represented by his ally Amr,Шаблон:Sfn whereas, despite Ali's opposition, the majority in his camp pressed for the neutral Abu Musa, the erstwhile governor of Kufa.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The arbitration agreement was written and signed on 2 August 657,Шаблон:Sfn stipulating that the two representatives should meet on neutral territory,Шаблон:Sfn adhere to the Quran and Sunna, and restore peace.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Both armies left the battlefield after the agreement.Шаблон:Sfn The arbitration agreement thus divided Ali's camp, as many did not support his negotiations with Mu'awiya, whose claims they considered fraudulent. By contrast, the agreement strengthened Mu'awiya's position, who was now an equal contender for the caliphate.Шаблон:Sfn
Formation of the Kharijites
Some of Ali's men left him in protest to the arbitration agreement.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Many of them eventually rejoined Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn while the rest gathered in the town of al-Nahrawan.Шаблон:Sfn They became known as the Kharijites (Шаблон:Lit), who later took up arms against Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Kharijites, many of whom belonged to the Шаблон:Transliteration,Шаблон:Sfn were likely disillusioned with the arbitration process.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Their slogan was, "No judgment but that of God,"Шаблон:Sfn highlighting their rejection of arbitration (by men) in reference to the Quranic verse 49:9.Шаблон:Sfn Ali called this slogan a word of truth by which the seceders sought falsehood because he viewed the ruler as indispensable in the conduct of religion.Шаблон:Sfn
Arbitration proceedings
The two arbitrators met together in Dumat al-Jandal,Шаблон:Sfn perhaps in February 658.Шаблон:Sfn There they reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu'awiya had the right to seek revenge.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn They could not agree on anything else.Шаблон:Sfn Rather than a judicial ruling, this was a political concession by Abu Musa, who probably hoped that Amr would later reciprocate this gesture.Шаблон:Sfn Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began organizing a second Syria campaign.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Solely an initiative of Mu'awiya,Шаблон:Sfn there was also a second meeting in Udhruh.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The negotiations there also failed,Шаблон:Sfn as the two arbitrators could not agree on the next caliph: Amr supported Mu'awiya,Шаблон:Sfn while Abu Musa nominated his son-in-law Abd Allah ibn Umar,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn who stood down.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn At its closure, Abu Musa publicly deposed both Mu'awiya and Ali and called for a council to appoint his successor per earlier agreements with Amr. When Amr took the stage, however, he deposed Ali and appointed Mu'awiya as his successor.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Kufan delegation reacted furiously to Abu Musa's concessions,Шаблон:Sfn and the common view is that the arbitration failed,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn or was inconclusive.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn It nevertheless strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Battle of Nahrawan
After the arbitration, Mu'awiya received the Syrians' pledge as caliph.Шаблон:Sfn Ali then organized a new, much smaller,Шаблон:Sfn Syria campaign.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn But he postponed the expedition,Шаблон:Sfn and instead marched to Nahrawan with his army,Шаблон:Sfn when he learned that the Kharijites were interrogating and executing civilians.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn They killed many, apparently not even sparing women.Шаблон:Sfn Ali convinced many of the Kharijites to separate from their army, leaving about 1,500Шаблон:Ndash1,800, or 2,800, out of about 4,000 fighters.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The rest of the Kharijites then attacked and were crushed by Ali's army of about 14,000 men.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The battle took place either on 17 July 658,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn or in 657.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali has been criticized by some for killing his erstwhile allies,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn many of whom were outwardly pious Muslims. For others, subduing the Kharijites was necessary, for they were violent and radicalized rebels who posed a danger to Ali's base in Kufa.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Final years
Following the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali could not muster enough support for a second Syria campaign.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Perhaps his soldiers were demoralized, Шаблон:Sfn or perhaps they were recalled by their tribal leaders,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn many of whom had been bribed and swayed by Mu'awiya.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn By contrast, Ali did not grant any financial favors to tribal chiefs as a matter of principle.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn At any rate, the secession of so many of the Шаблон:Transliteration and the coolness of the tribal leaders weakened Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali consequently lost Egypt to Mu'awiya in 658.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Mu'awiya also began dispatching military detachments,Шаблон:Sfn which targeted civilians along the Euphrates river, near Kufa, and most successfully, in the Hejaz and Yemen.Шаблон:Sfn Ali could not mount a timely response to these assaults.Шаблон:Sfn He eventually found sufficient support for a second Syria offensive, set to commence in late winter 661. His success was in part due to the public outrage over Syrian raids.Шаблон:Sfn However, plans for a second campaign were abandoned after the assassination of Ali.Шаблон:Sfn
Assassination and burial
Шаблон:Main Шаблон:Multiple image
Ali was assassinated during the morning prayer on 28 January 661 (19 Ramadan 40 AH) at the Great Mosque of Kufa. The other given dates are 26 and 30 January. He was struck over his head by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam with a poison-coated sword,Шаблон:Sfn in revenge for their defeat in the Battle of Nahrawan.Шаблон:Sfn Ali died from his wounds about two days later, aged sixty-two or sixty-three. By some accounts, he had long known about his fate by premonition or through Muhammad.Шаблон:Sfn Before his death, Ali requested either a meticulous application of Шаблон:Transliteration to Ibn Muljam or his pardon. At any rate, Ibn Muljam was later executed by Hasan, the eldest son of Ali.Шаблон:Sfn Fearing that his body might be exhumed and profaned by his enemies, Ali was buried secretly near Kufa.Шаблон:Sfn His burial site was identified during the caliphate of the Abbasid Harun al-Rashid (Шаблон:Reign) and the town of Najaf developed around it, which has become a major destination for Shia pilgrimage.Шаблон:Sfn The present shrine was built by the Safavid monarch Safi (Шаблон:Reign),Шаблон:Sfn near which lies an immense cemetery for Shias who wished to be buried next to their imam.Шаблон:Sfn Najaf is also home to top religious colleges and prominent Shia scholars.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Succession
When Ali died, his son Hasan was acknowledged as the next caliph in Kufa.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn As Ali's legatee, Hasan was the obvious choice for the Kufans, especially because Ali was vocal about the exclusive right of Muhammad's kin to leadership.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Most surviving companions of Muhammad were in Ali's army, and they also pledged their allegiance to Hasan,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but overall the Kufans' support for Hasan was likely weak.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Hasan later abdicated in August 661 to Mu'awiya when the latter marched on Iraq with a large force.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Mu'awiya thus founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate. Throughout his reign, he persecuted the family and supporters of Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and mandated regular public cursing of Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Descendants of Ali
Шаблон:MainШаблон:See also The first marriage of Ali was to Fatima, who bore him three sons, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhsin.Шаблон:Sfn Muhsin either died in infancy,Шаблон:Sfn or Fatima miscarried her when she was injured in a raid on her house during the succession crisis.Шаблон:Sfn The descendants of Hasan and Husayn are known as the Hasanids and the Husaynids, respectively.Шаблон:Sfn As the progeny of Muhammad, they are honored in Muslim communities by nobility titles such as Шаблон:Transliteration and Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn Ali and Fatima also had two daughters, Zaynab and Umm Kulthum.Шаблон:Sfn After Fatima's death in 632, Ali remarried multiple times and had more children, including Muhammad al-Awsat and Abbas ibn Ali.Шаблон:Sfn In his life, Ali fathered seventeen daughters, and eleven, fourteen, or eighteen sons,Шаблон:Sfn among whom, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya played a historical role.Шаблон:Sfn Descendants of Ali are known as the Alids.Шаблон:Sfn
Under the Umayyads (661Шаблон:Ndash750)
Mu'awiya succeeded Ali in 661 and founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate,Шаблон:Sfn during which Alids were severely persecuted.Шаблон:Sfn After Ali, his followers (Шаблон:Transliteration) recognized his eldest son Hasan as their imam. When he died in 670, likely poisoned at the instigation of Mu'awiya,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn the Shia community followed Hasan's younger brother Husayn, who was killed by Umayyad forces in the Battle of Karbala in 680, alongside many of his relatives.Шаблон:Sfn To revenge the Karbala massacre, soon followed in 685 the Shia uprising of al-Mukhtar, who claimed to represent Ibn al-Hanafiyya.Шаблон:Sfn The main movements that followed this uprising were the now-extinct Kaysanites and the Imamites.Шаблон:Sfn The Kaysanites mostly followed Abu Hashim, the son of Ibn al-Hanafiya. When Abu Hashim died around 716, this group largely aligned itself with the Abbasids, that is, the descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn On the other hand, the Imamites were led by quiescent descendants of Husayn, through his only surviving son, Ali Zayn al-Abidin (Шаблон:Died in). An exception was Ali's son Zayd, who led a failed uprising against the Umayyads around 740.Шаблон:Sfn For his followers, known as the Zaydites, any learned Hasanid or Husaynid who rose against tyranny qualified as imam.Шаблон:Sfn
Under the Abbasids (750Шаблон:Ndash1258)
Alids were also persecuted under the Abbasids, who toppled the Umayyads in 750.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Some of the Alids thus revolted,Шаблон:Sfn while some established regional dynasties in remote areas.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In particular, through imprisonment or surveillance, the Abbasids removed the imams of the Imamites from public life,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and they are thought to be responsible for the imams' deaths.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Mainstream Imamites were the antecedents of the Twelvers,Шаблон:Sfn who believe that their twelfth and final imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was born around 868,Шаблон:Sfn but was hidden from the public in 874 for fear of persecution. He remains in occultation by divine will until his reappearance at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The only historic split among the Imamites happened when their sixth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, died in 765.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Some claimed that his designated successor was his son Isma'il, who had predeceased al-Sadiq. These were the antecedents of the Isma'ilites,Шаблон:Sfn who found political success at the turn of the tenth century,Шаблон:Sfn as the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and the Qarmatians in Bahrain.Шаблон:Sfn
Works
Most of the works attributed to Ali were first delivered as speeches and later committed to writing by others. There are also supplications, such as Du'a Kumayl, which he may have taught others.Шаблон:Sfn
Шаблон:Transliteration
Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lit) is an eleventh-century collection of sermons, letters, and sayings, all attributed to Ali, compiled by Sharif al-Radi (Шаблон:Died in), a prominent Twelver scholar.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Because of its sometimes sensitive content, the authenticity of Шаблон:Transliteration has long been polemically debated. However, by tracking its content in earlier sources, recent academic research has attributed most of Шаблон:Transliteration to Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The book, particularly its letter of instructions addressed at al-Ashtar,Шаблон:Sfn has served as an ideological basis for Islamic governance.Шаблон:Sfn The book also includes detailed discussions about social responsibilities, emphasizing that greater responsibilities result in greater rights.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Transliteration also contains sensitive material, such as sharp criticism of Ali's predecessors in its Shaqshaqiya sermon,Шаблон:Sfn and disapproval of Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr, who had revolted against Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Celebrated as an example of the most eloquent Arabic,Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Transliteration has significantly influenced the Arabic literature and rhetoric.Шаблон:Sfn Numerous commentaries have been written about the book, including the comprehensive work of the Mu'tazilite scholar Ibn Abil-Hadid (Шаблон:Died in).Шаблон:Sfn
Шаблон:Transliteration
Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Literal translation) was compiled by Abd al-Wahid al-Amidi (Шаблон:Died in), who was either a Shafi'i jurist or a Twelver scholar. The book contains thousands of short sayings of Ali on piety and ethics.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn These aphorisms and other works attributed to Ali have considerably influenced the Islamic mysticism.Шаблон:Sfn
Mushaf of Ali
Mushaf of Ali is a recension of the Quran compiled by Ali, who was one of its first scribes.Шаблон:Sfn By some Shia accounts, this codex (Шаблон:Transliteration) of Ali was rejected for official use during the succession crisis.Шаблон:Sfn Some early Shia traditions also suggest differences with the standard Uthmanid codex,Шаблон:Sfn although now the prevalent Shia view is that Ali's recension matches the Uthmanid codex, save for the order of its content.Шаблон:Sfn Ali's codex is said to be in the possession of Muhammad al-Mahdi, who would reveal the codex (and its authoritative commentary by Ali) when he reappears.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Шаблон:Transliteration
Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Literal translation) is a non-extant collection of prophetic sayings gathered by Ali. The book may have concerned matters of lawfulness ([[halal|Шаблон:Transliteration]]) and unlawfulness ([[haram|Шаблон:Transliteration]]), including a detailed penal code. Шаблон:Transliteration is also often linked to Шаблон:Transliteration, which is said to contain the esoteric teachings of Muhammad for his household.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Copies of Шаблон:Transliteration were likely available until the early eighth century, and parts of it have survived in later Shia and Sunni works.Шаблон:Sfn
Other works
The Шаблон:Transliteration is a popular Shia supplication attributed to Ali, transmitted by his companion, Kumayl ibn Ziyad.Шаблон:Sfn Also attributed to Ali is Шаблон:Transliteration on Islamic law, fully quoted in the Shia hadith collection Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn The judicial decisions and executive orders of Ali during his caliphate have also been recorded.Шаблон:Sfn Other extant works attributed to Ali are collected in Шаблон:Transliteration and other Shia sources.Шаблон:Sfn
Contributions to Islamic sciences
The standard recitation of the Quran has been traced back to Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and his written legacy is dotted with Quranic commentaries.Шаблон:Sfn Ibn Abbas, a leading early exegete, credited Ali with his interpretations of the Quran.Шаблон:Sfn Ali also related several hundred prophetic hadiths.Шаблон:Sfn He is further credited with the first systematic evaluations of hadiths, and is often considered a founding figure for hadith sciences.Шаблон:Sfn Ali is also regarded by some as the founder of Islamic theology, and his sayings contain the first rational proofs of the unity of God (Шаблон:Transliteration) in Islam.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In later Islamic philosophy, Ali's sayings and sermons were mined for metaphysical knowledge.Шаблон:Sfn In particular, Шаблон:Transliteration is a vital source for Shia philosophical doctrines, after the Quran and Sunna.Шаблон:Sfn As a Shia imam, statements and practices attributed to Ali are widely studied in Shia Islam, where they are viewed as the continuation of prophetic teachings.Шаблон:Sfn
Names and titles
Ali is known by many honorifics in the Islamic tradition, some of which are especially used by Shias.Шаблон:Sfn His titles include Abu al-Hasan (Шаблон:Lit),Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn al-Murtada (Шаблон:Lit),Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Asad Allah (Шаблон:Lit),Шаблон:Sfn Haydar (Шаблон:Lit, the name initially her mother gave him),Шаблон:Sfn Amir al-Mu'minin (Шаблон:Lit), and Imam al-Muttaqin (Шаблон:Lit).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In particular, Twelvers consider the title of Amir al-Mu'minin to be unique to Ali.Шаблон:Sfn He is also referred to as Abu Turab (Шаблон:Lit),Шаблон:Sfn which might have initially been a pejorative by his enemies.Шаблон:Sfn
Character
Often praised for his piety and courage,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali fought to uphold his beliefs,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but was also magnanimous in victory,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn even risking the ire of some supporters to prevent the enslavement of women.Шаблон:Sfn He also showed his grief, wept for the dead, and reportedly prayed over his enemies.Шаблон:Sfn Yet Ali has also been criticized for his idealism and political inflexibility,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn for his egalitarian policies and strict justice antagonized many.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Or perhaps these qualities were also present in Muhammad,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn whom the Quran addresses as, "They wish that thou [Muhammad] might compromise and that they might compromise."Шаблон:Sfn At any rate, these qualities of Ali, rooted in his religious beliefs, contributed to his image today for his followers as a paragon of Islamic virtues,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn particularly justice.Шаблон:Sfn Ali is also viewed as the model Шаблон:Transliteration for Islamic chivalry (Шаблон:Transliteration).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Historical accounts about Ali are often tendentious.Шаблон:Sfn For instance, in person, Ali is described in some Sunni sources as bald, heavy-built, short-legged, with broad shoulders, hairy body, long white beard, and affected by eye inflammation.Шаблон:Sfn Shia accounts about the appearance of Ali are markedly different. Those perhaps better match his reputation as a capable warrior.Шаблон:Sfn Likewise, in manner, Ali is presented in some Sunni sources as rough, brusque, and unsociable.Шаблон:Sfn By contrast, Shia sources describe him as generous, gentle, and cheerful,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn to the point that the Syrian war propaganda accused him of frivolity.Шаблон:Sfn Shia and Sufi sources are also replete with reports about his acts of kindness, especially to the poor.Шаблон:Sfn The necessary qualities in a commander, described in a letter attributed to Ali, may have well been a portrait of himself: slow to anger, happy to pardon, kind to the weak, and severe with the strong.Шаблон:Sfn His companion, Sa'sa'a ibn Suhan, described him similarly, "He [Ali] was amongst us as one of us, of gentle disposition, intense humility, leading with a light touch, even though we were in awe of him with the kind of awe that a bound prisoner has before one who holds a sword over his head."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Legacy
Шаблон:Main Шаблон:See also Шаблон:Infobox saint
In Islam
Ali's place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Muslim culture.Шаблон:Sfn Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims.Шаблон:Sfn For his admirers, he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre-Islamic chivalry.Шаблон:Sfn
In the Quran
Ali regularly represented Muhammad in missions which are commonly linked to Quranic injunctions.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn For instance, the [[Verse of walaya|verse of Шаблон:Transliteration]] (5:55) is a reference to when Ali gave his ring to a beggar, while praying in the mosque, according to Shia and some Sunni accounts.Шаблон:Sfn If so, then this verse gives Ali the same spiritual authority (Шаблон:Transliteration) as Muhammad.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In Shia sources, the Шаблон:Transliteration (5:67) spurred Muhammad to designate Ali as his successor at the Ghadir Khumm, while the Шаблон:Transliteration (5:3) subsequently announced the perfection of Islam.Шаблон:Sfn The verse of purification (33:33) concerns the status of purity of the Ahl al-Bayt (Шаблон:Lit), which is limited to Ali, Fatima, and their two sons in Shia and some Sunni sources.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Another reference to the Ahl al-Bayt might be the [[Verse of mawadda|verse of Шаблон:Transliteration]] (42:23).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn For Shias, this verse is a Quranic mandate to love and follow the Ahl al-Bayt.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
In hadith literature
Muhammad frequently praise the qualities of Ali. The most controversial such statement, "He whose Шаблон:Transliteration I am, Ali is his Шаблон:Transliteration," was delivered at the Ghadir Khumm. This gave Ali the same spiritual authority (Шаблон:Transliteration) as Muhammad, according to the Shia.Шаблон:Sfn Elsewhere, the hadith of the position likens Muhammad and Ali to Moses and Aaron,Шаблон:Sfn and thus supports the usurped right of Ali to succeed Muhammad in Shia Islam.Шаблон:Sfn Other examples in standard Shia and Sunni collections of hadith include, "There is no youth braver than Ali," "No-one but a believer loves Ali, and no-one but a hypocrite ([[Munafiq|Шаблон:Transliteration]]) hates Ali," "I am from Ali, and Ali is from me, and he is the Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Literal translation) of every believer after me," "The truth revolves around him [Ali] wherever he goes," "I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate ([[Bab (Shia Islam)|Шаблон:Transliteration]])," "Ali is with the Quran and the Quran is with Ali. They will not separate until they return to me at the [paradisal] pool."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
In Sufism
Ali is the common source of mystical and spiritual currents within both Sunni and Shia sects of Islam.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In particular, Ali is the spiritual head of some Sufi movements,Шаблон:Sfn for Sufis believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad his esoteric knowledge and saintly authority,Шаблон:Sfn which guide believers on their journey toward God.Шаблон:Sfn Nearly all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being the Naqshbandis, who reach Muhammad through Abu Bakr.Шаблон:Sfn
In Sunni Islam
In Sunni Islam, Ali is venerated as a close companion of Muhammad,Шаблон:Sfn a foremost authority on the Quran and Islamic law,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and the fountainhead of wisdom in Sunni spirituality.Шаблон:Sfn When the prophet died in 632, Ali had his claims to leadership, perhaps in reference to the Ghadir Khumm,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but he eventually accepted the temporal rule of the first three caliphs in the interest of Muslim unity.Шаблон:Sfn Ali is portrayed in Sunni sources as a trusted advisor of the first three caliphs,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn while their conflicts with Ali are minimized,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn in line with the Sunni tendency to show accord among companions.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn As the fourth and final Rashidun caliph, Ali holds a particularly high status in Sunni Islam, although this doctrinal reverence for Ali is a recent development for which the prominent Sunni traditionist Ibn Hanbal (Шаблон:Died in) is likely to be credited.Шаблон:Sfn His hierarchy of companions places Ali above those companions who fought against him, thus accommodating into Sunni doctrine the opposite sides of a moral conflict that has split the Muslim community ever since. But this Sunni hierarchy also places Ali below his predecessors, namely, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This ordering has required Sunni reinterpretation of those prophetic sayings that explicitly elevate Ali above all companions.Шаблон:Sfn
In Shia Islam
Ali takes center stage in Shia Islam:Шаблон:Sfn The Arabic word shi'a itself is short for 'Шаблон:Transliteration of Ali' (Шаблон:Lit),Шаблон:Sfn his name is incorporated into the daily call to prayer (Шаблон:Transliteration),Шаблон:Sfn and he is regarded as the foremost companion of Muhammad.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The defining doctrine of Shia Islam is that Ali was the rightful successor of Muhammad through divinely-ordained designation,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which is primarily a reference to the Ghadir Khumm.Шаблон:Sfn Ali is thought to have inherited the political and religious authority of Muhammad, even before his ascension to the caliphate in 656.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In particular, Ali's predecessors are regarded as illegitimate rulers and usurpers of his rights.Шаблон:Sfn The all-encompassing bond of loyalty between Shia Muslims and their imams (and Muhammad in his capacity as imam) is known as Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn Ali is also thought to be endowed with the privilege of intercession on the Judgment Day.Шаблон:Sfn Early on, some Shias even attributed divinity to Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but such extreme views were gradually rooted out of Shi'ism.Шаблон:Sfn
In Shia belief, Ali also inherited the esoteric knowledge of Muhammad,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn for instance, in view of the prophetic hadith, "I [Muhammad] am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate."Шаблон:Sfn Ali is thus regarded, after Muhammad, as the interpreter, Шаблон:Transliteration, of the Quran and the sole authoritative source of its (esoteric) teachings.Шаблон:Sfn Unlike Muhammad, however, Ali is not thought to have received divine revelation (Шаблон:Transliteration), though he might have been guided by divine inspiration (Шаблон:Transliteration).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Verse 21:73 of the Quran is sometimes cited here, "We made them imams, guiding by Our command, and We revealed (Шаблон:Transliteration) to them the performance of good deeds, the maintenance of prayers, and the giving of [[Zakat|Шаблон:Transliteration]] (alms), and they used to worship Us."Шаблон:Sfn Shia Muslims also believe in the infallibility of Ali, as with Muhammad, that is, their divine protection from sins.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Here, the verse of purification is sometimes cited.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali's words and deeds are therefore considered a model for the Shia community and a source for their religious injunctions.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
In Alawism
The Alawites venerate Ali, the first of the Twelve Imams, as the physical manifestation of God.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Even, the Alawite testimony of faith (shahada) translates as "there is no God but Ali".Шаблон:Sfn The Alawite trinity envisions God as being composed of three distinct manifestations, Ma'na (meaning), Ism (Name) and Bab (Door); which together constitute an "indivisible trinity". Ma'na symbolises the "source and meaning of all things" in Alawite mythology. According to Alawite doctrines, Ma'na generated the Ism, which in turn built the Bab. These beliefs are closely tied to the Alawite doctrine of reincarnations of the trinity.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The final trinity of reincarnation in the Alawite trinity consists of Ali (Ma'na), Muhammad (Ism) and Salman the Persian (Bab). Alewites depict them as the sky, sun and moon respectively. Alawites deify Ali as the "last and supreme manifestation of God" who built the universe, attribute to him divine superiority, and believe that Ali created Muhammad and gave him the mission to spread Qur'anic teachings on earth.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
In other religions
In the Druze faith, Ali is considered a "minor prophet," like Plato and Socrates.[4] Even though the faith originally developed out of the Isma'ili branch of Shia Islam, the Druze are not Muslims,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and do not accept the five pillars of Islam.Шаблон:Sfn In Yarsanism, a religion founded by the Kurdish mystic Sultan Sahak, Ali is thought to be an incarnation of God,Шаблон:Sfn and superior to Muhammad,Шаблон:Sfn but their image as a Ghulat (Шаблон:Lit) subsect of Shia Islam is incorrect.Шаблон:Sfn
Historiography
Шаблон:See also Much has been written about Ali in Islamic literature, second only to Muhammad.Шаблон:Sfn However, much of this material is colored by a positive or negative bias towards Ali.Шаблон:Sfn The primary sources about Ali are the Quran, hadiths, and other early Islamic works,Шаблон:Sfn the most notable being The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays, attributed to a companion of Ali.Шаблон:Sfn Such works were initially scarce, but this changed with the introduction of affordable paper in the Abbasid period. For instance, at least twenty-one monographs were composed on the Battle of Siffin between 750 and 950, thirteen of which were authored by the early historian Abu Mikhnaf (Шаблон:Died in). Most of these monographs are not extant except through quotations in later collections, such as the tenth-century Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn In addition to numerous works authored by Muslims, the secondary sources about Ali include writings of Arab Christians, Hindus, and also works by Western scholars.Шаблон:Sfn When writing about Ali, early Western scholars often dismissed as fabricated the reports gathered in later periods because their authors often advanced their own Sunni or Shia partisan views. For instance, L. Caetani (d. 1935) often rejected the historical reports attributed to the pro-Ali Ibn Abbas and anti-Ali Aisha. Caetani instead preferred accounts reported without [[isnad|Шаблон:Transliteration]] by early historians like Ibn Ishaq (Шаблон:Died in). By contrast, W. Madelung (Шаблон:Died in) argued that the tendentiousness of a report alone does not imply its fabrication. Madelung instead advocated for the authentication of historical reports on the basis of their compatibility with other events and figures.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Portal
Footnotes
References
Books
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Encyclopedias
Encyclopaedia Iranica
Encyclopaedia of Islam
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Encyclopaedia Islamica
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Others
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Journals and theses
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Further reading
Шаблон:Sister project linksШаблон:S-start Шаблон:S-offШаблон:S-hou Шаблон:S-rel Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft Шаблон:S-rel Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft
Шаблон:S-endШаблон:Rashidun Caliphs Шаблон:Shia Imams Шаблон:Ten companions of Muhammad Шаблон:Ali's companions Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ It was only when Yazdegerd died (A.D. 651) that some mark of Arab authority was added to the coinage (Plate II, 1; Marv, 651-52). Most early drahms have only a short Arabic religious inscription in the margin (such as besm Allāh, “in the name of God”), with the name of Yazdegerd or his predecessor Ḵosrow II, but a few have the name of ʿAbdallāh b. ʿĀmer, conqueror and governor of southern and eastern Iran. The most common name in the first two decades of Arab rule is Ḵosrow II. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-sasanian-coins
- ↑ "Druze in Syria". Harvard Divinity School. Harvard University Press. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
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