Английская Википедия:American (word)
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use mdy dates Шаблон:Italic title The meaning of the word American in the English language varies according to the historical, geographical, and political context in which it is used. American is derived from America, a term originally denoting all of the Americas (also called the Western Hemisphere). In some expressions, it retains this Pan-American sense, but its usage has evolved over time and, for various historical reasons, the word came to denote people or things specifically from the United States of America.
In modern English, American generally refers to persons or things related to the United States of America; among native English speakers this usage is almost universal, with any other use of the term requiring specification.[1] However, some linguists in the past have argued that "American" should be widened to also include people or things from anywhere in the American continents.[2][3]
The word can be used as either an adjective or a noun (viz. a demonym). In adjectival use, it means "of or relating to the United States"; for example, "Elvis Presley was an American singer" or "the man prefers American English". In its noun form, the word generally means a resident or citizen of the U.S., but is also used for someone whose ethnic identity is simply "American". The noun is rarely used in English to refer to people not connected to the United States when intending a geographical meaning.[1]Шаблон:Not verified in body When used with a grammatical qualifier, the adjective American can mean "of or relating to the Americas", as in Latin American or Indigenous American. Less frequently, the adjective can take this meaning without a qualifier, as in "American Spanish dialects and pronunciation differ by country" or the names of the Organization of American States and the American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN). A third use of the term pertains specifically to the indigenous peoples of the Americas, for instance, "In the 16th century, many Americans died from imported diseases during the European conquest", though this usage is rare, as "indigenous", "First Nations" or "Amerindian" are considered less confusing and generally more appropriate.
Compound constructions which indicate a minority ethnic group, such as "African-Americans" likewise refer exclusively to people in or from the United States of America, as does the prefix "Americo-". For instance, the Americo-Liberians and their language Merico derive their name from the fact that they are descended from African-American settlers, i.e. Blacks who were formerly enslaved in the United States of America.
Other languages
Шаблон:Also French, German, Italian, Japanese,Шаблон:Efn Hebrew, Arabic, and RussianШаблон:Efn speakers may use cognates of American to refer to inhabitants of the Americas or to U.S. nationals. They generally have other terms specific to U.S. nationals, such as the German Шаблон:Lang,[4] French Шаблон:Lang,[5] Japanese Шаблон:Nihongo,[6] and Italian Шаблон:Lang.[7] These specific terms may be less common than the term American.[5]
In French, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, from Шаблон:Lang ("United States of America"), is a rarely used word that distinguishes U.S. things and persons from the adjective Шаблон:Lang, which denotes persons and things from the United States, but may also refer to "the Americas".[5]
Likewise, German's use of Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang[4] observe this cultural distinction, solely denoting U.S. things and people. In normal parlance, the adjective "American" and its direct cognates are usually used if the context renders the nationality of the person clear. This differentiation is prevalent in German-speaking countries, as indicated by the style manual of the Шаблон:Lang (one of the leading German-language newspapers in Switzerland) which dismisses the term Шаблон:Lang as both 'unnecessary' and 'artificial' and recommends replacing it with amerikanisch.[8] The respective guidelines of the foreign ministries of Austria, Germany and Switzerland all prescribe Amerikaner and amerikanisch in reference to the United States for official usage, making no mention of Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang.[9]
Portuguese has Шаблон:Lang, denoting both a person or thing from the Americas and a U.S. national.[10] For referring specifically to a U.S. national and things, some words used are Шаблон:Lang (also spelled Шаблон:Lang, "United States person"), from Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang ("Yankee")—both usages exist in Brazil, but are uncommon in Portugal—but the term most often used, and the only one in Portugal, is Шаблон:Lang, even though it could, as with its Spanish equivalent, apply to Canadians and Mexicans as well.
In Spanish, Шаблон:Lang denotes geographic and cultural origin in the New World, as well as (infrequently) a U.S. citizen;[11][12]Шаблон:Efn the more common term is Шаблон:Lang ("United States person"), which derives from Шаблон:Lang ("United States of America"). The Spanish term Шаблон:Lang ("North American") is frequently used to refer things and persons from the United States, but this term can also denote people and things from Canada and Mexico.[13] Among Spanish-speakers, North America generally does not include Central America or the Caribbean.
Conversely, in Czech, there is no possibility for disambiguation. Američan (m.) and američanka (f.) can refer to persons from the United States or from the continents of the Americas, and there is no specific word capable of distinguishing the two meanings. For this reason, the latter meaning is very rarely used, and word Шаблон:Lang is used almost exclusively to refer to persons from the United States. The usage is exactly parallel to the English word.
In other languages, however, there is no possibility for confusion. For example, the Chinese word for "U.S. national" is Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Zh)[14]Шаблон:Efn is derived from a word for the United States, Шаблон:Transl, where Шаблон:Transl is an abbreviation for Yàměilìjiā ("America") and Шаблон:Transl is "country".[15][16][17] The name for the American continents is Шаблон:Transl, from Шаблон:Transl plus Шаблон:Transl ("continent").[18] Thus, a Шаблон:Transl is an American in the continent sense, and a Шаблон:Transl is an American in the U.S. sense.Шаблон:Efn
Korean and Vietnamese also use unambiguous terms, with Korean having Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang) for the country versus Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang) for the continents,[19] and Vietnamese having Шаблон:Lang for the country versus Шаблон:Lang for the continents.Шаблон:Citation needed Japanese has such terms as well (Шаблон:Transl [[[:Шаблон:Lang]] versus Шаблон:Transl [[[:Шаблон:Lang]]]), but they are found more in newspaper headlines than in speech, where Шаблон:Transl predominates.Шаблон:Efn[20]
In Swahili, Шаблон:Lang means specifically the United States, and Шаблон:Lang is a U.S. national, whereas the international form Шаблон:Lang refers to the continents, and Шаблон:Lang would be an inhabitant thereof.[21][22][23]Шаблон:Efn Likewise, the Esperanto word Шаблон:Lang refers to the continents. For the country there is the term Шаблон:Lang. Thus, a citizen of the United States is an Шаблон:Lang, whereas an Шаблон:Lang is an inhabitant of the Americas.[24][25][26][27]
History
The name America was coined by Martin Waldseemüller from Americus Vespucius, the Latinized version of the name of Amerigo Vespucci (1454–1512), the Italian explorer who mapped South America's east coast and the Caribbean Sea in the early 16th century. Later, Vespucci's published letters were the basis of Waldseemüller's 1507 map, which is the first usage of America. The adjective American subsequently denoted the New World.[29]
In the 16th century, European usage of American denoted the native inhabitants of the New World.[30] The earliest recorded use of this term in English is in Thomas Hacket's 1568 translation of André Thévet's book France Antarctique; Thévet himself had referred to the natives as Ameriques.[30] In the following century, the term was extended to European settlers and their descendants in the Americas. The earliest recorded use of "English-American" dates to 1648, in Thomas Gage's The English-American his travail by sea and land: or, a new survey of the West India's.[30]
In English, American was used especially for people in British America. Samuel Johnson, the leading English lexicographer, wrote in 1775, before the United States declared independence: "That the Americans are able to bear taxation is indubitable."[30] The Declaration of Independence of July 1776 refers to "[the] unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America" adopted by the "Representatives of the united States of America" on July 4, 1776.[31] The official name of the country was reaffirmed on November 15, 1777, when the Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, the first of which says, "The Stile of this Confederacy shall be 'The United States of America'". The Articles further state: Шаблон:Blockquote
Thomas Jefferson, newly elected president in May 1801 wrote, "I am sure the measures I mean to pursue are such as would in their nature be approved by every American who can emerge from preconceived prejudices; as for those who cannot, we must take care of them as of the sick in our hospitals. The medicine of time and fact may cure some of them."[32]
In The Federalist Papers (1787–88), Alexander Hamilton and James Madison used the adjective American with two different meanings: one political and one geographic; "the American republic" in Federalist No. 51 and in Federalist No. 70,[33][34] and, in Federalist No. 24, Hamilton used American to denote the lands beyond the U.S.'s political borders.[35]
Early official U.S. documents show inconsistent usage; the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France used "the United States of North America" in the first sentence, then "the said united States" afterwards; "the United States of America" and "the United States of North America" derive from "the United Colonies of America" and "the United Colonies of North America". The Treaty of Peace and Amity of September 5, 1795, between the United States and the Barbary States contains the usages "the United States of North America", "citizens of the United States", and "American Citizens".[36]Шаблон:Synthesis inline
U.S. President George Washington, in his 1796 Farewell Address, declaimed that "The name of American, which belongs to you in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriotism more than any appellation."[37] Political scientist Virginia L. Arbery notes that, in his Farewell Address:
"...Washington invites his fellow citizens to view themselves now as Americans who, out of their love for the truth of liberty, have replaced their maiden names (Virginians, South Carolinians, New Yorkers, etc.) with that of “American”. Get rid of, he urges, “any appellation derived from local discriminations.” By defining himself as an American rather than as a Virginian, Washington set the national standard for all citizens. "Over and over, Washington said that America must be something set apart. As he put it to Patrick Henry, 'In a word, I want an American character, that the powers of Europe may be convinced we act for ourselves and not for others.'"[38]
As the historian Garry Wills has noted: "This was a theme dear to Washington. He wrote to Timothy Pickering that the nation 'must never forget that we are Americans; the remembrance of which will convince us we ought not to be French or English'."[39] Washington's countrymen subsequently embraced his exhortation with notable enthusiasm.
This semantic divergence among North American anglophones, however, remained largely unknown in the Spanish-American colonies. In 1801, the document titled Letter to American Spaniards—published in French (1799), in Spanish (1801), and in English (1808)—might have influenced Venezuela's Act of Independence and its 1811 constitution.[40]
The Latter-day Saints' Articles of Faith refer to the American continents as where they are to build Zion.[41]
Common short forms and abbreviations are the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., and America; colloquial versions include the U.S. of A. and the States. The term Columbia (from the Columbus surname) was a popular name for the U.S. and for the entire geographic Americas; its usage is present today in the District of Columbia's name. Moreover, the womanly personification of Columbia appears in some official documents, including editions of the U.S. dollar.
Usage at the United Nations
Use of the term American for U.S. nationals is common at the United Nations, and financial markets in the United States are referred to as "American financial markets".[42]
American Samoa, an unincorporated territory of the United States, is a recognized territorial name at the United Nations.[43]
Cultural views
Canada
Modern Canadians typically refer to people from the United States as Americans, though they seldom refer to the United States as America; they use the terms the United States, the U.S., or (informally) the States instead.[44] Because of anti-American sentiment or simply national pride, Canadians never apply the term American to themselves.[45][46][47] Not being an "American" is a part of Canadian identity,[48][49] with many Canadians resenting being referred to as Americans or mistaken for U.S. citizens.[50] This is often due to others' inability, particularly overseas, to distinguish Canadians from Americans, by their accent or other cultural attributes.[44] Some Canadians have protested the use of American as a national demonym.[51] People of U.S. ethnic origin in Canada are categorized as "Other North American origins" by Statistics Canada for purposes of census counts.[52]
Spain and Hispanic America
The use of American as a national demonym for U.S. nationals is challenged, primarily by Latin Americans.[2] Spanish speakers in Spain and Latin America use the term Шаблон:Lang to refer to people and things from the United States (from Шаблон:Lang), while Шаблон:Lang refers to the continents as a whole.[11][53] The term Шаблон:Lang is also accepted in many parts of Latin America to refer to a person or something from the United States;[54] however, this term may be ambiguous in certain parts. Up to and including the 1992 edition, the Шаблон:Lang, published by the Real Academia Española, did not include the United States definition in the entry for Шаблон:Lang; this was added in the 2001 edition.[11]Шаблон:Efn[55] The Real Academia Española advised against using Шаблон:Lang exclusively for U.S. nationals:[13][56] Шаблон:Quote
Portugal and Brazil
Generally, Шаблон:Lang denotes "U.S. citizen" in Portugal.[10] Usage of Шаблон:Lang to exclusively denote people and things of the U.S. is discouraged by the Lisbon Academy of Sciences,Шаблон:Citation needed because the specific word Шаблон:Lang (also Шаблон:Lang) clearly denotes a person from the United States. The term currently used by the Portuguese press is Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Citation needed
In Brazil, the term Шаблон:Lang is used to address both that which pertains to the Americas and that which pertains to the U.S.; the particular meaning is deduced from context. Alternatively, the term Шаблон:Lang ("North American") is also used in more informal contexts, while Шаблон:Lang (of the U.S.) is the preferred form in academia. Use of the three terms is common in schools, government, and media. The term Шаблон:Lang is used exclusively for the whole continent, and the U.S. is called Шаблон:Lang ("United States") or Шаблон:Lang ("United States of America"), often abbreviated Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Citation needed
In other contexts
"American" in the 1994 Associated Press Stylebook was defined as, "An acceptable description for a resident of the United States. It also may be applied to any resident or citizen of nations in North or South America." Elsewhere, the AP Stylebook indicates that "United States" must "be spelled out when used as a noun. Use U.S. (no space) only as an adjective."[57]
The entry for "America" in The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage from 1999 reads: Шаблон:Quote
Media releases from the Pope and Holy See frequently use "America" to refer to the United States, and "American" to denote something or someone from the United States.[58]
International law
Шаблон:Synthesis At least one international law uses U.S. citizen in defining a citizen of the United States rather than American citizen; for example, the English version of the North American Free Trade Agreement includes: Шаблон:Quote
Many international treaties use the terms American and American citizen:
- 1796 – The treaty between the United States and the Dey of the Regency of Algiers on March 7, 1796, protected "American citizens".[59]
- 1806 – The Louisiana Purchase Treaty between France and United States referred to "American citizens".[60]
- 1825 – The treaty between the United States and the Cheyenne tribe refers to "American citizen"s.[61]
- 1848 – The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo between Mexico and the U.S. uses "American Government" to refer to the United States, and "American tribunals" to refer to U.S. courts.[62]
- 1858 – The Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan protected "American citizens" and also used "American" in other contexts.[63]
- 1898 – The Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish–American War, known in Spanish as the Шаблон:Lang ("Spain–United States War") uses "American" in reference to United States troops.[64]
- 1966 – The United States–Thailand Treaty of Amity protects "Americans" and "American corporations".[65]
U.S. commercial regulation
Products that are labeled, advertised, and marketed in the U.S. as "Made in the USA" must be, as set by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), "all or virtually all made in the U.S." The FTC, to prevent deception of customers and unfair competition, considers an unqualified claim of "American Made" to expressly claim exclusive manufacture in the U.S: "The FTC Act gives the Commission the power to bring law enforcement actions against false or misleading claims that a product is of U.S. origin."[66]
Alternatives
Шаблон:Main article There are a number of alternatives to the demonym American as a citizen of the United States that do not simultaneously mean any inhabitant of the Americas. One uncommon alternative is Usonian, which usually describes a certain style of residential architecture designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. Other alternatives have also surfaced, but most have fallen into disuse and obscurity. Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage says: Шаблон:Quote Nevertheless, no alternative to American is common.[1]
See also
- Americas (terminology)
- Hyphenated Americans
- Names of the United States
- Naming of the Americas
- Totum pro parte
Notes
References
Works cited
External links
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 Шаблон:Cite book View at Bartleby
- ↑ 2,0 2,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 5,2 Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Vademecum. Der sprachlich-technische Leitfaden der «Neuen Zürcher Zeitung», 13th edition. Verlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Zürich 2013, p. 102, s. v. US-amerikanisch.
- ↑ Eidgenössisches Departement für auswärtige Angelegenheiten: „Liste der Staatenbezeichnungen“ Шаблон:Webarchive; Bundesministerium für europäische und internationale Angelegenheiten: „Liste der Staatennamen und deren Ableitungen in den vom Bundesministerium für europäische und internationale Angelegenheiten verwendeten Formen“; Auswärtiges Amt: „Verzeichnis der Staatennamen für den amtlichen Gebrauch in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland“
- ↑ 10,0 10,1 Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- ↑ 11,0 11,1 11,2 Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 13,0 13,1 Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:In lang Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ 30,0 30,1 30,2 30,3 Шаблон:Subscription required Шаблон:Cite encyclopediaШаблон:Dead link
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Letter TJ to Theodore Foster, May 1801, in Paul Leicester Ford ed., The Works of Thomas Jefferson (1905) 8:50.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ wikisource:Washington's Farewell Address
- ↑ Arbery, Virginia L. (1999), "Washington's Farewell Address and the Form of the American Regime"; In: Gary L. Gregg II and Matthew Spalding, Patriot Sage: George Washington and the American Political Tradition, pp. 204, 206.
- ↑ Wills, Garry (1984), Cincinnatus: George Washington and the Enlightenment, pp. 92-93.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 44,0 44,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia [Original:] "1. adj. Natural de los Estados Unidos de América."
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia [Original:] "3. adj. Bol., Chile, Col., Cuba, Ec., El Salv., Hond., Nic., Par., Perú, Ur. y Ven. estadounidense."
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia To access, click the magnifying glass in the upper left-hand corner. In the field titled "Lema", type "americano"; for the "Resultados" radio buttons, select "Diccionario"; in the field in the selection field for "Diccionarios", make sure that "1992 Academica Usual" is selected. Then click "Buscar".
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite speech
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
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