Английская Википедия:Ancient Greek verbs

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Ancient Greek grammar Ancient Greek verbs have four moods (indicative, imperative, subjunctive and optative), three voices (active, middle and passive), as well as three persons (first, second and third) and three numbers (singular, dual and plural).

The distinction of the "tenses" in moods other than the indicative is predominantly one of aspect rather than time.

The different persons of a Greek verb are shown by changing the verb-endings; for example Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I free", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "you free", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "he or she frees", etc. There are three persons in the singular ("I", "you (singular)", "he, she, it"), and three in the plural ("we", "you (plural)", "they"). In addition there are endings for the 2nd and 3rd persons dual ("you two", "they both"), but these are only very rarely used.

A distinction is traditionally made between the so-called athematic verbs (also called mi-verbs), with endings affixed directly to the root, and the thematic class of verbs which present a "thematic" vowel Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA before the ending. The endings are classified into primary (those used in the present, future, perfect and future perfect of the indicative, as well as in the subjunctive) and secondary (used in the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect of the indicative, as well as in the optative).

To make the past tenses of the indicative mood, the vowel Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), called an "augment", is prefixed to the verb stem, e.g. aorist Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I freed", imperfect Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I was freeing". This augment is found only in the indicative, not in the other moods or in the infinitive or participle. To make the perfect tense the first consonant is "reduplicated", that is, repeated with the vowel e (Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I have freed", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I have written"), or in some cases an augment is used in lieu of reduplication (e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I have found"). Unlike the augment of past tenses, this reduplication or augment is retained in all the moods of the perfect tense as well as in the perfect infinitive and participle.

The Ancient Greek verbal system preserves nearly all the complexities of Proto-Indo-European (PIE). Ancient Greek also preserves the PIE middle voice and adds a passive voice, with separate forms only in the future and aorist (elsewhere, the middle forms are used).

Voices

The Ancient Greek verb has three voices: active, middle, and passive. The middle and the passive voice are identical in the present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses, but differ in the future and aorist tenses.

Active voice

Active voice verbs are those which end in Шаблон:Lang -ō or Шаблон:Lang -mi in the 1st person singular of the present tense. An active voice verb can be intransitive, transitive or reflexive (but intransitive is most common):

Шаблон:Lang[1]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
He sailed to Athens.
Шаблон:Lang.[2]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
They were guarding the walls.
Шаблон:Lang.[3]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
He killed himself.

Middle voice

Other verbs end in Шаблон:Lang (-omai) or Шаблон:Lang (-mai) in the 1st person singular of the present tense. These can be either passive or non-passive in meaning. When the meaning of such a verb is not passive, it is known as a "middle voice" verb.

Middle voice verbs are usually intransitive, but can also be transitive. Often the middle endings make a transitive verb intransitive:

Sometimes there is a reflexive meaning or an idea of doing something for one's own benefit:[4]

Sometimes there can be a reciprocal meaning:[5]

Quite a number of verbs which are active in the present tense become middle in the future tense, e.g.:[6]

Deponent middle verbs

A number of common verbs ending in Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) have no active-voice counterpart. These are known as "deponent" verbs.

Deponent middle verbs include verbs such as the following. Some have a "weak" aorist:

With "strong" aorist:

Irregular:

Aorist middle

Some middle deponent verbs have a weak aorist tense formed with Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), but frequently they have a strong aorist middle such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I arrived" or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I became".[7] (Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I come" is irregular in that it uses a strong aorist active Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I came" as its aorist tense.)

Passive deponent verbs

All the above, since they have an aorist in the middle voice, are known as middle deponents. There are also deponent passive verbs with aorists in Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), such as the following:[8]

Sentences with deponent verbs

Шаблон:Lang.[9]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
He received the gifts.
Шаблон:Lang.[10]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
When the Athenians came near, the two sides began fighting.
Шаблон:Lang[11]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
He became unable to say any more.

Passive voice

Occasionally a verb ending in Шаблон:Lang (-omai) has a clear passive sense. If so, it is said to be in the passive voice:

Шаблон:Lang.[12]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
The city was being ruled by the Spartans.
Шаблон:Lang.[13]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
It is written in the law. (Шаблон:Literal translation it has been written)

Usually when used passively, Шаблон:Lang (-omai) verbs have an aorist tense containing Шаблон:Lang (-thē-) in the ending:

Шаблон:Lang.[14]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
Those men were deservedly honoured.

Occasionally, an aorist passive can have an ending with -η- (-ē-). This is known as the 2nd aorist or strong aorist passive, and uses a different verb-stem from the present. In the example below, the stem is Шаблон:Lang instead of the present stem Шаблон:Lang:[15]

Шаблон:Lang.[16]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
The majority were killed.

Deponent middle verbs can also be made passive in some tenses. Thus αἱρέομαι (hairéomai) "I choose" has an aorist passive ᾑρέθην (hēiréthēn) "I was chosen":

Шаблон:Lang.[17]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
He was chosen by them as general.

The endings with -θη- (-thē-) and -η- (-ē-) were originally intransitive actives rather than passives[18] and sometimes have an intransitive meaning even in Classical Greek. For example, ἐσώθην (esṓthē) (from Шаблон:Lang sōízō "I save") often means "I got back safely" rather than "I was saved":

Шаблон:Lang.[19]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
The ship did not get back safely to Piraeus.

Thematic and athematic verbs

Ancient Greek verbs can be divided into two groups, the thematic (in which a thematic vowel Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA is added before the ending, e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "we free"), and the athematic (in which the endings are attached directly to the stem, e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "we are".[20] Thematic verbs are much more numerous.

Thematic verbs

Active verbs

Thematic verbs, in the 1st person singular of the present tense active, end in Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl). These are very numerous, for example, Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I say", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I write", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I send", etc. The endings of these tend to be regular:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I say, you say, he/she/it says, (you two say, they both say,) we say, you (Шаблон:Abbr) say, they say

The forms in brackets are the dual number, used for two people, and which exists only in the 2nd and 3rd person; it is rather rare, but still used sometimes by authors such as Aristophanes and Plato:

Шаблон:Grc-transl.
Homer and Hesiod both say the same things.

The present infinitive active of thematic verbs is Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "to say".

Middle verbs

Thematic verbs are also found in the middle voice, with the 1st person singular ending Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I answer", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I become". The endings of the present tense go as follows:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I, you (singular), he/she/it, (you two, the two of them), we, you (plural), they

The middle present infinitive is Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "to answer".

Some middle verbs are attested in the first person dual, albeit rarely:

Шаблон:Lang[22]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
And so we two are going

Many middle-voice verbs, such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I answer", are deponent, that is to say, they have no corresponding active form. Other middle verbs, such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I cease (doing something)" (intransitive), have a corresponding active form: Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I stop (something)" (transitive).

Passive verbs

Passive verbs, in the present, imperfect, and perfect tenses, have exactly the same endings as middle verbs. Examples are Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I am pursued" and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I am ordered (by someone)".

In the aorist tense, however, they differ from middle verbs in that they use the endings Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), for example Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I was pursued", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I was ordered", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I was harmed"; whereas middle verbs tend to have an aorist ending in Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), for example Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I stopped", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I answered", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I became".

Contracted verbs

Шаблон:Main A special class of thematic verbs are the contracted verbs. In the dictionary these are entered as ending Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), for example Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I see", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I do", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I show"; but in most cases when they are found in a text the vowel Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) contracts with the ending to make a single vowel. Thus the present tense of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I see" goes as follows:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I see, you see, he/she/it sees, (you both see, they both see,) we see, you (Шаблон:Abbr) see, they see

While the present tense of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I do" is as follows:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I do, you do, he/she/it does, (you both do, they both do,) we do, you (plural) do, they do

And the present tense of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I show" is as follows:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I show, you show, he/she/it shows, (you both show, they both show,) we show, you (plural) show, they show

The present infinitive active of the three types of contracted verbs is Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "to see", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), "to do", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "to show".

Contracted verbs are also found in the middle and passive voices, e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I arrive" and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I am honoured".

Athematic verbs

Active

Athematic verbs have Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) in the 1st person singular of the present tense, e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I am", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I say", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I give", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I put", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I stand (transitive)". In the middle voice they end in Шаблон:Lang e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I am able". The present tense of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I (will) go" is generally used with future meaning in the classical period.[23]

These verbs present many irregularities in conjugation. For example, the present tense of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I am" goes as follows:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I am, you are, he/she/it is, (you both are, they both are), we are, you (plural) are, they are.

The present tense of the verb Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I (will) go" is as follows:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I will go, you will go, he/she/it will go, (you both will go, they both will go), we will go, you (plural) will go, they will go.

Whereas the present tense of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I give" goes as follows:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I give, you give, he/she/it gives, we give, you (plural) give, they give

The dual of this verb, theoretically Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), is not found.[24]

The active infinitive of athematic verbs ends in Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "to be", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "to go", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "to give".

Middle

Athematic verbs are also found in the middle voice, e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I stand" or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I am able", with endings as follows:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I, you (singular), he/she/it, (you two, the two of them), we, you (plural), they

The infinitive is Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl).

The verb Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl)

The verb Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I know", is irregular. Its endings are those of an athematic perfect tense, and go as follows:[25]

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I know, you know, he/she/it knows, (you both know, they both know), we know, you (plural) know, they know

The infinitive of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) is Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "to know".

Tenses

The tense system

The Ancient Greek verbal system has seven tense-aspect forms, traditionally called "tenses" (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Grc-transl, singular Шаблон:Wikt-lang, Шаблон:Grc-transl). The temporal distinctions only appear in the indicative mood as shown on the table below:[26]

perfective
aspect 		imperfective
aspect 		perfect
aspect
primary
sequence		 future
time 		future future perfect
present
time 		present[27] perfect
secondary
sequence		 past
time 		aorist,
(imperfect)		 imperfect pluperfect

In the subjunctive and imperative moods, however, only three tenses are used,[28] and they distinguish aspect only, not time:

perfective
aspect 		imperfective
aspect 		perfect
aspect
aorist present perfect

The optative mood likewise uses these three tenses, but there is also a future optative, used mainly to report indirectly what would be a future indicative in direct speech.[29]

Ancient Greek has no perfect progressive or past perfect progressive. Thus, the meaning "he has been doing" is typically expressed with the present tense, and "he had been doing (earlier)" is expressed with the imperfect tense:[30]

Шаблон:Lang[31]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
I have been (Шаблон:Literal translation I am) in the business for many years now.
Шаблон:Lang[32]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
The boat arrived in which we had (earlier) been drinking.

Formation of the tenses

For further information on the endings, see Ancient Greek grammar tables.

Principal parts of verbs

Dictionaries of Ancient Greek usually give six principal parts for any verb. For example, for the verb Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I teach, train" the six parts are as follows:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I teach, I will teach, I taught, I have taught, I have been taught, I was taught

The best guide to the true stem of the verb is often in the future or aorist active tense (after removing any added σ sigma markers), because the present system often has progressive markers that distort the stem of the verb.

The principal parts are these:

Endings: Шаблон:Lang
Endings: Шаблон:Lang
Endings: Шаблон:Lang
Endings: Шаблон:Lang
Endings: Шаблон:Lang
Endings: Шаблон:Lang

Other tenses

Other tenses can be formed on the basis of these. For example, the imperfect tense Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I was teaching" is based on the present stem with the addition of the prefix Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) (called an "augment", see below), and the pluperfect Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I had taught" is formed from the perfect stem:

Endings: Шаблон:Lang
Endings: Шаблон:Lang

Future and aorist without sigma

Not all verbs have a future tense made with Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl). Some, particularly those whose stem ends in Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I announce" and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I remain", have a contracted future, with endings like the verb Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl).[33] These same verbs also usually have an aorist without sigma:

Endings: Шаблон:Lang
Endings: Шаблон:Lang

Strong aorist

Some common verbs, instead of the ordinary (weak) aorist tense ending in Шаблон:Lang, have an aorist ending in Шаблон:Lang etc. exactly like the imperfect; this is known as a "strong" aorist or "2nd" aorist. However, it differs from the imperfect in that the stem of the verb is different. Thus the aorist of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I flee" is Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I fled", with stem Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), contrasting with the imperfect Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), with stem Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl). The present system (imperfect and present tenses) of this verb Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) has an added ε epsilon as a progressive marker. The aorist and other tenses reflect the true stem Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl).

Other strong aorists are Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I came", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I took", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I said", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I ate"; and in the middle voice Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I became" and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I arrived".

Root aorist

Many verbs have an aorist without the sigma markers and characteristic endings of the regular aorist. Typically these verbs have present progressive markers added to the stem in the present system, so that the basic stem is used in the aorist and in the other aspects. One example is the verb Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), "I go", which becomes Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl).

Less regular principal parts

However, by no means all Ancient Greek verbs are as regular in their principal parts as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl). For example, the verb Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I take" has the following parts:[34]

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I take, I will take, I took, I have taken, I have been taken, I was taken

As can be seen, the stems used (Шаблон:Lang) (Шаблон:Grc-transl) etc. vary from tense to tense. They all come from the same root, but the stem used in the present tense, Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), has an extra Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) as a progressive tense marker; in the other tenses the vowel in the root varies between Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl); and the final consonant, Шаблон:Lang, changes by assimilation to Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), or by aspiration to Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl).

The verb (Шаблон:Lang) (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I lead" goes:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I lead, I will lead, I led, I have led, I have been led, I was led

Both of the above verbs have a "strong aorist" or "2nd aorist" ending in Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) rather than the usual Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), and the perfect tense has an aspirated consonant Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) before the ending instead of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl).

The tenses of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I give" are as follows:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I give, I will give, I gave, I have given, I have been given (to someone), I was given (to someone)

The aorist of this verb is irregular, since it ends in Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl). However, this Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) is found only in the singular, and disappears in the plural, e.g. 3rd Шаблон:Abbr Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "they gave". The verbs Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I put" and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I send" are similar, with aorists Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) 3rd Шаблон:Abbr Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) 3rd Шаблон:Abbr Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) respectively.

However, Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I stand (something)" does not follow this pattern and has a different aorist:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I stand (something), I will stand (something), I stood (something)/I stood, I have stood/am standing, I stand, I stood/was stood

The present stems of three of these verbs Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) are reduplicated as a progressive marker, meaning that the true stems Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) were doubled up in the present as Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang (originally σίστη-) .

Verbs using more than one stem

Some verbs employ suppletion in their inflection: that is, they use different stems ‒ derived from originally different verbs ‒ for the different tenses (similar to English verbs "am, was, been" and "go, went, gone", or French “aller, je vais, j'irai”). For example, the verb Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I bring, I bear" has the following principal parts using stems derived from three originally different verbs:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I bring, I will bring, I brought, I have brought, I have been brought, I was brought

Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I see" is another verb made from stems from three different roots, namely Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) (the last of these, which was originally pronounced ϝιδ- (wid-), is related to the root of the Latin verb video):

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I see, I will see, I saw, I have seen, I have been seen, I was seen

Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I come" or "I go" is also irregular. This verb has only four principal parts, since there is no passive:

Шаблон:Grc-transl
I come/go, I will come/go, I came/went, I have come/gone

This verb is made more complex by the fact that in Attic Greek (that is, the dialect of most of the major classical authors), the present tense (apart from the indicative mood), imperfect tense, and future are usually replaced by parts of the irregular verb Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I (will) go":[35] The indicative of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) is generally used with future significance in the classical period ("I will go") but the other parts such as the infinitive Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "to go" are not future in meaning.

The past-tense augment

The three past tenses (imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect), in the classical period, are made by adding a prefix Шаблон:Lang (e-), called an "augment", on the beginning of the verb.[36] Thus from Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I write" are made:

This past-tense augment is found only in the indicative mood, not in the subjunctive, infinitive, participle, or other parts of the verb.

When a verb starts with a vowel, the augment usually merges with the vowel to make a long vowel. Thus Шаблон:IPA + Шаблон:IPA > /ē/, Шаблон:IPA + Шаблон:IPA > /ē/ (sometimes Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:IPA + Шаблон:IPA > /ī/, Шаблон:IPA + Шаблон:IPA > /ō/ and so on:[37]

When a verb starts with a prepositional prefix, the augment usually goes after the prefix (although there are some verbs where it goes before the prefix, or even in both places):

In Homer, and occasionally in Herodotus, the augment is sometimes omitted.[41]

Perfect tenses

The perfect tense is formed by repeating the first consonant of the stem with the vowel Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl). This is known as "reduplication":[42]

When the first consonant of the verb is aspirated (Шаблон:Lang) (Шаблон:Grc-transl), the reduplication is made with the equivalent unaspirated consonant (Шаблон:Lang) (Шаблон:Grc-transl):[43]

When the verb starts with a vowel, Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) or with a combination of consonants such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl), instead of reduplication an augment is used:[44]

More complex kinds of reduplication are found in:

Unlike the past-tense augment, this reduplication or perfect-tense augment is found in every part of the perfect tense, including the infinitive and participles.

Meanings of the tenses

The meanings of the tenses are as follows:

The present tense

The present tense (Greek Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "standing within") can be imperfective or perfective, and be translated "I do (now)", "I do (regularly)", "I am doing (now)":[45]

Шаблон:Lang.[46]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
I swear by all the gods!
Шаблон:Lang[47]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
I see the man!
Шаблон:Lang[48]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
You are always saying the same things, Socrates!
Шаблон:Lang[49]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
"O Socrates", he said, "have you woken up, or are you sleeping?"

The present tense is frequently used in historical narrative, especially to describe exciting moments:

Шаблон:Lang[50]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
He hurls himself at him and wounds him.

Imperfect tense

The imperfect tense (Greek Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "for prolonging", from Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "prolong") is used in the indicative mood only. It often indicates a continuing situation in the past, rather than an event. It can be translated as "was doing", "used to do", "would do", etc., referring to either a progressive, habitual, or continual situation:[51]

Шаблон:Lang[52]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
The captain knew where the letter was lying.
Шаблон:Lang[53]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Every night the (two armies) would camp a parasang or more apart from each other.
Шаблон:Lang[54]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
These things carried on like this for long time.

Often "began doing" is a possible translation:[55]

Шаблон:Lang[56]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Throwing together their shields, they began shoving, fighting, killing, and dying.
Шаблон:Lang[57]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
After dinner the baby began crying.
Шаблон:Lang[58]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
And when dawn came, they began crossing the bridge.

As noted above, the imperfect can also mean "had been doing", referring to a situation which existed earlier than the time of the main verb:[59]

Шаблон:Lang[60]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
They sent off the ships which they had been preparing.
Шаблон:Lang[61]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
I brought in a doctor that I had been using for many years.

However, although the imperfect usually describes a situation, it is often used in narrative where English would use a simple past, especially with verbs meaning "send", "go", "say", and "order":[62]

Шаблон:Lang[63]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
They sent off a messenger to Athens.
Шаблон:Lang[64]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Mindaros, seeing the battle from afar, set off to help.
Шаблон:Lang[65]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
I invited him to join me for dinner ... we sat down to dinner ... he went away ... I went to sleep.

The distinction between imperfect and aorist in the above examples can be seen not so much in terms of perfectivity vs. imperfectivity, as in terms of telicity vs. atelicity.[66] The aorist Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) would mean "we finished dinner" and would be a telic verb, implying that the action was carried through to its end, whereas the imperfect Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) would mean "we began eating dinner" and would be atelic, implying that the action was started but not necessarily completed. Similarly the aorist Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) means "I successfully persuaded", whereas the imperfect Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) means "I urged" or "I attempted to persuade":[67][68]

Шаблон:Lang[69]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
They urged them to turn back, but they wouldn't listen.

Another meaning of the imperfect indicative is to refer to unreal (counterfactual) situations in present or past time. To give the meaning "would", the particle Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) is added:[70]

Шаблон:Lang[71]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
They wouldn't be able to do this if they weren't following a temperate diet.

Future tense

The future tense (Greek Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "going to be") describes an event or a state of affairs that will happen in the future. For example, it can be something promised or predicted:

Шаблон:Lang [72]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
I will lead you to the Troad.
Шаблон:Lang [73]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
I will come to see you tomorrow, if God is willing.

It can also be used after Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) for strong commands and prohibitions:[74]

Шаблон:Lang [75]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Make sure that no one finds out about these things.

Aorist tense

Шаблон:Main article The aorist tense (Greek Шаблон:Wikt-lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "unbounded" or "indefinite") describes a finished action in the past.

Шаблон:Lang[76]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
I went down yesterday to Piraeus.

Often in narrative it is found mixed with present and imperfect tenses:[77]

Шаблон:Lang[78]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
She came back (imperfect) and opened (aorist) the door.
Шаблон:Lang[79]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
She kept watch (imperfect) until she found out (aorist) what the cause was.

Often an aorist is equivalent to an English pluperfect tense, for example after Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "when" or in relative clauses in sentences such as the following:[80]

Шаблон:Lang[81]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
When they had dined, he led the army out.
Шаблон:Lang[82]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
He ordered me to give him the letter which I had written.

Another meaning of the aorist indicative is to refer to unreal (counterfactual) events in past time. To give the meaning "would", the particle Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) is added:[83]

Шаблон:Lang[84]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
He would not have done this, if I had not ordered him.

Perfect tense

The perfect tense (Greek Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "lying nearby"), much as the English perfect tense, often describes a recent event of which the present result is important:

Шаблон:Lang[85]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
You have heard and you have seen (the evidence); now make your decision.

It can also, like the English perfect, be used experientially, of something that has often or always happened in the past:

Шаблон:Lang[86]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
You have often heard me speaking.

In some verbs the perfect tense can be translated by a present tense in English, e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I remember", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I am standing"/"I stand", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I possess", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I know":[87]

Шаблон:Lang[88]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
The inscribed stone beside which you are standing orders that you owe 1000 drachmas.

Pluperfect tense

The pluperfect tense (Greek Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "more than completed"), like the Imperfect, is used only in the indicative mood. It refers to a situation that existed due to events that had taken place at an earlier time:[89]

Шаблон:Lang[90]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
They were very annoyed that the Greeks had fled – something which they had never done before.

However, the pluperfect is much less frequently used in Greek than in English, since after conjunctions such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "when", usually the aorist is used:[91]

Шаблон:Lang[92]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
And when they had had dinner (aorist), he began leading out the army.

Future perfect tense

The future perfect tense (Greek Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "going to be completed") is rarely used. In the active voice only two verbs (Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I will be dead" and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I will be standing") have a separate form for the future perfect tense,[93] though a compound ("periphrastic") tense can be made with a perfect participle, e.g Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl)[94] "he is going to have realised"; but even this is extremely rare. It is more common in the passive.[95] It describes a future state that will result from a finished action:

Шаблон:Lang[96]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
No friend will have been left for us.

Moods

There are four moods (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Grc-transl "bendings" or "leanings"):

Indicative

(Greek Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Grc-transl "for defining", from Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Grc-transl "I define").

The indicative is the form of the verb used for ordinary statements of fact:

Шаблон:Lang.[97]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
He killed the man.

To make the negative of the indicative, Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) or, before a vowel, Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) is added before the verb:

Шаблон:Lang.[98]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
He was not able to sleep.

The imperfect and aorist indicative can also sometimes refer to unreal (counterfactual) situations in present or past time ("would be doing", "should be doing", "would have done" etc.).[99] (For further examples see above.)

Шаблон:Lang.[100]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
Why are you keeping quiet? You should not be keeping quiet.

Subjunctive

Шаблон:Main article (Greek Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Grc-transl "for arranging underneath", from Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Grc-transl "I arrange underneath").

The subjunctive generally has the letters Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) in the ending.

It is often used when the meaning is may, for example in purpose clauses, especially those referring to present or future time:[101]

Шаблон:Lang[102]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Speak, so that I may hear (Шаблон:Literal translation so that I may be hearing).

The above example uses the present subjunctive, but the aorist subjunctive is equally correct, with a slightly different shade of meaning:

Шаблон:Lang[103]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Speak, so that I may hear (Шаблон:Literal translation so that I may hear (straightaway)).

Another very common use of the subjunctive is in indefinite subordinate clauses following a conjunction such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "if (it may be that)", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "whenever", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "whoever", Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "until such time as" etc., referring to present or future time.[104] When used with the subjunctive, such conjunctions are always joined with the particle ἄν (an):

Шаблон:Lang[105]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Speak, until it is time to go home.

The subjunctive can also be used of something that it is suggested "should" happen, for example in exhortations, deliberative questions, and negative commands such as the following:[106]

Шаблон:Lang[107]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Come now, let's go.
Шаблон:Lang[108]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Should we speak (aorist) or should we remain silent (present)?
Шаблон:Lang.[109]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
Don't be surprised.

The negative of the subjunctive, as in the above example, is μὴ (mē).

Optative

Шаблон:Main article

(Greek: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Grc-transl "for wishing", from Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Grc-transl "I wish").

The optative mood can generally be recognised because it has the letters οι (oi), αι (ai) or ει (ei) in the ending.

One use of the optative mood is in conditional sentences referring to a hypothetical situation in the future. The particle ἄν (an) is added in the main clause to give the meaning "would":[110]

Шаблон:Lang[111]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
I would gladly take, if he were to give.

However, the optative mood is not used in sentences referring to a hypothetical situation in the present or past; in such sentences the optative is replaced by the imperfect, aorist, or pluperfect indicative, with Шаблон:Lang (an) in the main clause.[112]

The optative mood is also used in reported speech in past time:[113]

Шаблон:Lang[114]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
He said that he wished to make a sacrifice.

Just as the subjunctive is used after a conjunction meaning "whenever", "until such time as" etc. referring to present or future time, so the optative can be used in similar clauses referring to repeated events in past time. However, in this case the particle ἄν (an) is not added to the conjunction:[115]

Шаблон:Lang[116]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
He used to hunt, whenever he wished to take exercise.

The optative can also be used for wishes:[117]

Шаблон:Lang[118]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Which may it not happen!

The optative can also be used in purpose clauses in past time, and after verbs of fearing in past time:[119]

Шаблон:Lang[120]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Someone had summoned him so that he could see the sacrificial entrails.
Шаблон:Lang[121]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
The Greeks were afraid of him in case he might become a tyrant.

However, some authors, such as Herodotus and Thucydides, prefer to use the subjunctive in such clauses.[122]

Imperative

(Greek: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Grc-transl "for commanding", from Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:Grc-transl "I command").

The present imperative is used for general commands:[123]

Шаблон:Lang[124]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
Fear the gods, and honour your parents.

The aorist imperative is used when the speaker wishes something done at once:

Шаблон:Lang.[125]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
Give me a sword as quickly as possible!

It is also possible in Greek to have a 3rd person imperative, as in the following examples:

Шаблон:Lang[126]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Someone take her away home (at once).
Шаблон:Lang.[127]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
The gods be witnesses for us.

The imperative mood can also be used in the perfect tense, as the following example shows:

Шаблон:Lang.[128]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Let a circle have been drawn with centre A, radius AB.

Non-finite verb forms

Infinitives

Шаблон:See (Greek: Шаблон:Lang aparémphatos "not indicated").

Forms of the infinitive (active)

The infinitive is found in all three voices, and in the present, aorist, future, and perfect tenses. The four infinitives of the active voice of the verb λύω (lúō) "I free" are as follows:

Many commonly used verbs, instead of an aorist infinitive in Шаблон:Lang (-sai), have one ending in Шаблон:Lang (-eîn) (with a circumflex accent) instead. This is called the "strong aorist" or "2nd aorist":

Root aorists take a different infinitive:

Contracting verbs have a present infinitive ending in Шаблон:Lang (-ân), Шаблон:Lang (-eîn) or Шаблон:Lang (-oûn):[129]

Verbs ending in -μι (-mi), such as Шаблон:Lang (dídōmi) "I give", have present and aorist infinitives which end in Шаблон:Lang (-nai):[130]

The irregular verb Шаблон:Lang (oîda) "I know" also has an infinitive ending in Шаблон:Lang (-nai):[131]

Uses

The infinitive is often used after verbs with meanings such as "he wanted", "he ordered", "he tried", "it is necessary", "he is able" etc. much as in English:[132]

Шаблон:Lang[133]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
He ordered them to go aside (aorist).

It can also be used for indirect speech after certain verbs such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I say" or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "I think".[134] The subject of the infinitive, if it is different from the subject of the main verb, is put in the accusative case. When the statement is negative, the word Шаблон:Lang (ou) "not" goes in front of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl).

Шаблон:Lang[135]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
"They say there is no other way" (Шаблон:Literal translation "they do not say there to be another way")

In Greek an infinitive is also often used with the neuter definite article in various constructions. In this case it is similar in meaning to the English verbal noun in "-ing":[136]

Шаблон:Lang[137]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
We refrained from weeping.

Participles

Шаблон:See Participles were given the name Шаблон:Lang metokhḗ "sharing" by Greek grammarians, because they share the characteristics of both adjectives and verbs. Like adjectives, they have gender, case, and number and agree with the nouns that they modify, and, like verbs, they have tense and voice.

Forms of the participle

Participles exist for all three voices in the present, aorist, future, and perfect tenses. Typical endings for the Шаблон:Abbr Шаблон:Abbr, Шаблон:Abbr Шаблон:Abbr, and Шаблон:Abbr Шаблон:Abbr are as follows:

Active:

Middle and Passive:

An example of usage

Participles are very frequently used in Greek. For example, in the following sentence from Plato's Phaedo there are six participles:

Шаблон:Lang[138]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
And the boy, after going out and after spending a long time, came back leading the one intending to give the poison, (who was) carrying it already pounded in a cup.

This example is analysed in the paragraphs below.

Different tenses of the participle

An aorist participle, such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "after going out", usually refers to an action which preceded the time of the main verb:

Шаблон:Lang.
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
After going out he came back.

A present participle, such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "leading", is used to refer to an action which is taking place simultaneously with the main verb:

Шаблон:Lang.
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
He came back leading the man.

A perfect participle, such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "pounded", generally refers to the state that something is in as a result of an earlier action, e.g. "fallen", "dead", "broken" etc., rather than to the action itself:

Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Grc-transl
Carrying the poison already pounded in a cup.

A future participle refers to an action which is to take place after the time of the main verb, and is often used to indicate purpose:[139]

Шаблон:Lang[140]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
He sailed to Athens to report (Шаблон:Literal translation going to report) these things.

Agreement

Because it is an adjective as well as a verb, a participle has to agree in case, gender, and number with the noun it refers to.[141] Thus in the first example above:

Circumstantial participle

A participle frequently describes the circumstances in which another action took place. Often it is translated with "-ing", e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "leading" in the example above.

In some sentences it can be translated with a clause beginning "when" or "since":

Шаблон:Lang[142]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
When he saw the battle he went to help.

Another frequent use is in a construction known as the "genitive absolute", when the participle and its subject are placed in the genitive case. This construction is used when the participle refers to someone or something who is not the subject, object, or indirect object of the main verb:[143]

Шаблон:Lang[144]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
The Spartans won, with Agesandridas leading them.

But if the verb is an impersonal one, it is put in the accusative, e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Grc-transl) "it being possible".[145]

Participle with the article

Sometimes a participle is used with the article, in which case it can often be translated with "who":

Шаблон:Lang.
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
The (man who was) going to give the poison.

Supplementary participle

As well as being used in sentences such as the above, the participle can be used following verbs with meanings such as "I know", "I notice", "I happen (to be)", "I hear (that)" and so on. This use is known as the "supplementary" participle.[146]

Шаблон:Lang[147]
Шаблон:Grc-transl
He heard that Cyrus was in Cilicia (Шаблон:Literal translation he heard Cyrus being in Cilicia).
Шаблон:Lang.[148]
Шаблон:Grc-transl.
Alcibiades also happened to be present (Шаблон:Literal translation chanced being present).

See also

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Шаблон:Ancient Greek grammar

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Xenophon, Hellenica 1.1.8
  2. ↑ Xenophon, Hellenica 4.4.14
  3. ↑ Xenophon, Hellenica 7.4.19
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  9. ↑ Xenophon, Hellenica 7.1.38
  10. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 6.6.5
  11. ↑ Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.4.31
  12. ↑ Lysias, 26.2
  13. ↑ Isaeus, 6.63
  14. ↑ Aeschines, 3.118
  15. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  16. ↑ Thucydides, 2.99.5
  17. ↑ Lysias, 12.65
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  19. ↑ Demosthenes, 56.41
  20. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  21. ↑ Plato, Ion 531a
  22. ↑ Sophocles, Philoctetes 1079
  23. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  24. ↑ Perseus PhiloLogic search engine
  25. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  26. ↑ Based on table in Шаблон:Cite book
  27. ↑ For perfective present see Шаблон:Smyth
  28. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  29. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  30. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  31. ↑ Plato, Protagoras 317c
  32. ↑ Antiphon, 5.29
  33. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  34. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  35. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  36. ↑ Шаблон:Smythff
  37. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  38. ↑ Aristophanes
  39. ↑ Xenophon
  40. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  41. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  42. ↑ Шаблон:Smythff
  43. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  44. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  45. ↑ Шаблон:Smythff
  46. ↑ Xenophon, Agesilaus 5.5, Symposium 4.11
  47. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.26
  48. ↑ Plato, Gorgias 490e
  49. ↑ Plato, Protagoras 310b
  50. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.26
  51. ↑ Шаблон:Smythff
  52. ↑ Xenophon, Cyropaedia 2.2.9
  53. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 2.4.10
  54. ↑ Lysias, 1.10
  55. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  56. ↑ Xenophon, Agesilaus 2.12
  57. ↑ Lysias, 1.11
  58. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 2.4.24
  59. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  60. ↑ Thucydides, 2.23.2
  61. ↑ Demosthenes, 47.67
  62. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  63. ↑ Thucydides, 2.6.1
  64. ↑ Xenophon, Hellenica 1.1.4
  65. ↑ Lysias, 1.23
  66. ↑ cf. Шаблон:Smyth
  67. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  68. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
  69. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 7.3.7
  70. ↑ Шаблон:Smythff
  71. ↑ Xenophon, Cyropaedia 1.2.16
  72. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 5.6.23
  73. ↑ Plato, La. 201c
  74. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  75. ↑ Lysias, 1.21
  76. ↑ Plato, Republic 327a
  77. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  78. ↑ Lysias, 1.14
  79. ↑ Lysias, 1.15
  80. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  81. ↑ Xenophon, Cyropaedia 4.2.9
  82. ↑ Xenophon, Cyropaedia 2.2.9
  83. ↑ Шаблон:Smythff
  84. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 6.6.15
  85. ↑ Lysias, 12.100
  86. ↑ Plato, Apology 31c
  87. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  88. ↑ Andocides, 1.116
  89. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  90. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 5.4.18
  91. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth; but cf. Xen. Anabasis 5.4.18
  92. ↑ Xenophon, Cyropaedia 4.2.9
  93. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  94. ↑ Demosthenes, 1.14
  95. ↑ Шаблон:Smythff
  96. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 2.4.5
  97. ↑ Antiphon, 2.1
  98. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 3.1.11
  99. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  100. ↑ Euripides, Hippolytus 295
  101. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  102. ↑ Plato, Lysis 211b
  103. ↑ Plato, Phaedrus 263e
  104. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  105. ↑ Plato, Lysis 211b
  106. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  107. ↑ Aristophanes, Peace 850
  108. ↑ Euripides, Ion 758
  109. ↑ Plato, Phaedrus 238d
  110. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  111. ↑ Xenophon, Cyropaedia3.2.28
  112. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  113. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  114. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 7.2.14
  115. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  116. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.7
  117. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  118. ↑ Demosthenes, 25.30 etc.
  119. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  120. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 2.1.9
  121. ↑ Xenophon, Hellenica 6.4.32
  122. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  123. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  124. ↑ Isocrates, 1.16
  125. ↑ Aristophanes, The Wasps 165
  126. ↑ Plato, Phaedo 60a
  127. ↑ Xenophon, Cyropaedia 4.6.10
  128. ↑ Euclid, Elements 1.1
  129. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  130. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  131. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  132. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  133. ↑ Thucydides, 6.58.1
  134. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  135. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 4.1.21
  136. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  137. ↑ Plato, Phaedo 117e
  138. ↑ Plato, Phaedo 117a
  139. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  140. ↑ Xenophon, Hellenica 1.1.9
  141. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  142. ↑ Xenophon, Hellenica 1.1.4
  143. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  144. ↑ Xenophon, Hellenica 1.1.2
  145. ↑ Шаблон:Smyth
  146. ↑ Шаблон:Smythff
  147. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 1.4.5
  148. ↑ Thucydides, 5.76.3
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