Английская Википедия:Ancient Roman units of measurement

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Файл:Modio de Ponte Puñide (M.A.N. 1930-16-1) 01.jpg
Bronze modius measure (4th century AD) with inscription acknowledging Imperial regulation of weights and measures

The ancient Roman units of measurement were primarily founded on the Hellenic system, which in turn was influenced by the Egyptian and the Mesopotamian systems.Шаблон:Citation needed The Roman units were comparatively consistent and well documented.

Length

The basic unit of Roman linear measurement was the pes (plural: pedes) or Roman foot. Investigation of its relation to the English foot goes back at least to 1647, when John Greaves published his Discourse on the Romane foot. Greaves visited Rome in 1639, and measured, among other things, the foot measure on the tomb of Titus Statilius Aper, that on the statue of Cossutius formerly in the gardens of Angelo Colocci, the congius of Vespasian previously measured by Villalpandus, a number of brass measuring-rods found in the ruins of Rome, the paving-stones of the Pantheon and many other ancient Roman buildings, and the distance between the milestones on the Appian Way. He concluded that the Cossutian foot was the "true" Roman foot, and reported these values compared to the iron standard of the English foot in the Guildhall in London[1]

Values of the ancient Roman foot determined by Greaves in 1639
Source Reported value
in English feet
Metric
equivalent
Foot on the statue of Cossutius 0.967  Шаблон:Cvt
Foot on the monument of Statilius 0.972  Шаблон:Cvt
Foot of Villalpandus, derived from Congius of Vespasian 0.986  Шаблон:Cvt

William Smith (1851) gives a value of 0.9708 English feet, or about 295.9 mm.[2] An accepted modern value is 296 mm.[3] That foot is also called the pes monetalis to distinguish it from the pes Drusianus (about 333 or 335 mm) sometimes used in some provinces, particularly Germania Inferior.[4][5]

The Roman foot was sub-divided either like the Greek pous into 16 digiti or fingers; or into 12 unciae or inches. Frontinus writes in the 1st century AD that the digitus was used in Campania and most parts of Italy.[6] The principal Roman units of length were:

Ancient Roman units of length
Roman unit English
name
Equal
to
Metric
equivalent
Imperial
equivalent
Notes
digitus finger Шаблон:Frac pes 18.5 mm  0.728 in 
0.0607 ft 
uncia
pollex
inch
thumb
Шаблон:Frac pes 24.6 mm  0.971 in 
0.0809 ft 
palmus (minor) palm Шаблон:Frac pes 74 mm  0.243 ft 
palmus maior palm length (Шаблон:Abbr"greater palm") Шаблон:Frac pes 222 mm  0.728 ft  in late times
pes (plural: pedes) (Roman) foot 1 pes 296 mm  0.971 ft  sometimes distinguished as the pes monetalisШаблон:Efn
palmipes foot and a palm Шаблон:Frac pedes 370 mm  1.214 ft 
cubitum cubit Шаблон:Frac pedes 444 mm  1.456 ft 
gradus
pes sestertius
step Шаблон:Frac pedes 0.74 m  2.427 ft 
passus pace 5 pedes 1.48 m  4.854 ft 
decempeda
pertica
perch 10 pedes 2.96 m  9.708 ft 
Шаблон:Vanchor (length) 120 pedes 35.5 m  116.496 ft  24 passus or 12 decembeda
stadium stade 625 pedes 185 m  607.14 ft  600 Greek feet
or 125 passus
or Шаблон:Frac mille[7]
mille passus
mille passuum
(Roman) mile 5,000 pedes 1.48 km  4,854 ft 
0.919 mi 
1000 passus or 8 stadia
leuga
leuca
(Gallic) league 7,500 pedes 2.22 km  7,281 ft 
1.379 mi 
Except where noted, based on Smith (1851).[2]
English and metric equivalents are approximate, converted at 1 pes = 0.9708 English feet and 296 mm respectively.

Other units include the schoenus (from the Greek for "rush rope") used for the distances in Isidore of Charax's Parthian Stations (where it had a value around Шаблон:Convert)[8][9] and in the name of the Nubian land of Triacontaschoenus between the First and Second Cataracts on the Nile (where it had a value closer to Шаблон:Convert).[10][11]

Area

The ordinary units of measurement of area were:

Ancient Roman units of area
Roman unit English
name
Equal
to
Metric
equivalent
Imperial
equivalent
Description
pes quadratus square foot 1 pes qu. 0.0876 mШаблон:Sup  0.943 sq ft 
scrupulum or decempeda quadrata 100 pedes qu. 8.76 mШаблон:Sup  94.3 sq ft  the square of the standard 10-foot measuring rod
actus simplex 480 pedes qu. 42.1 mШаблон:Sup  453 sq ft  4 × 120 pedes[12]
uncia 2,400 pedes qu. 210 mШаблон:Sup  2,260 sq ft 
clima 3,600 pedes qu. 315 mШаблон:Sup  3,390 sq ft  60 × 60 pedes[12]
actus quadratus or acnua 14,400 pedes qu. 1,262 mШаблон:Sup  13,600 sq ft  also called arpennis in Gaul[12]
jugerum 28,800 pedes qu. 2,523 mШаблон:Sup  27,200 sq ft 
0.623 acres 
heredium 2 jugera 5,047 mШаблон:Sup  54,300 sq ft 
1.248 acres 
centuria 200 jugera 50.5 ha  125 acres  formerly 100 jugera[12]
saltus 800 jugera 201.9 ha  499 acres 
modius 16 ha  40 acres  Medieval Latin, plural modii[13]
Except where noted, based on Smith (1851).[2] Metric equivalents are approximate, converted at 1 pes = 296 mm.

Other units of area described by Columella in his De Re Rustica include the porca of 180 × 30 Roman feet (about Шаблон:Convert) used in Hispania Baetica and the Gallic candetum or cadetum of 100 feetШаблон:Clarify in the city or 150 in the country. Columella also gives uncial divisions of the jugerum, tabulated by the anonymous translator of the 1745 Millar edition as follows:

Uncial divisions of the jugerum
Roman
unit
Roman
square feet
Fraction
of jugerum
Metric
equivalent
Imperial
equivalent
Description
dimidium scrupulum 50 Шаблон:Frac 4.38 mШаблон:Sup  47.1 sq ft 
scrupulum 100 Шаблон:Frac 8.76 mШаблон:Sup  94.3 sq ft 
duo scrupula 200 Шаблон:Frac 17.5 mШаблон:Sup  188 sq ft 
sextula 400 Шаблон:Frac 35.0 mШаблон:Sup  377 sq ft 
sicilicus 600 Шаблон:Frac 52.6 mШаблон:Sup  566 sq ft 
semiuncia 1,200 Шаблон:Frac 105 mШаблон:Sup  1,130 sq ft 
uncia 2,400 Шаблон:Frac 210 mШаблон:Sup  2,260 sq ft 
sextans 4,800 Шаблон:Frac 421 mШаблон:Sup  4,530 sq ft 
quadrans 7,200 Шаблон:Frac 631 mШаблон:Sup  6,790 sq ft 
triens 9,600 Шаблон:Frac 841 mШаблон:Sup  9,050 sq ft 
quincunx 12,000 Шаблон:Frac 1,051 mШаблон:Sup  11,310 sq ft 
semis 14,400 Шаблон:Frac 1,262 mШаблон:Sup  15,380 sq ft  = actus quadratus[2]
septunx 16,800 Шаблон:Frac 1,472 mШаблон:Sup  15,840 sq ft 
bes 19,200 Шаблон:Frac 1,682 mШаблон:Sup  18,100 sq ft 
dodrans 21,600 Шаблон:Frac 1,893 mШаблон:Sup  20,380 sq ft 
dextans 24,000 Шаблон:Frac 2,103 mШаблон:Sup  22,640 sq ft 
deunx 26,400 Шаблон:Frac 2,313 mШаблон:Sup  24,900 sq ft 
jugerum 28,800 1 2,523 mШаблон:Sup  27,160 sq ft 
Except where noted, based on Millar (1745).[12] Metric equivalents are approximate, converted at 1 pes = 296 mm.

Volume

Both liquid and dry volume measurements were based on the sextarius. The sextarius was defined as Шаблон:Frac of a cubic foot, known as an amphora quadrantal. Using the value Шаблон:Convert for the Roman foot, an amphora quadrantal can be computed at approximately Шаблон:Convert, so a sextarius (by the same method) would theoretically measure Шаблон:Convert, which is about 95% of an imperial pint (568.26125 ml).

Archaeologically, however, the evidence is not as precise. No two surviving vessels measure an identical volume, and scholarly opinion on the actual volume ranges between Шаблон:Convert[14] and Шаблон:Convert.[15]

The core volume units are:

Liquid measure

Ancient Roman liquid measures
Roman unit Equal to Metric Imperial US fluid
ligula Шаблон:Frac congius 11.4 mL 0.401 fl oz 0.385 fl oz
cyathus Шаблон:Frac congius 45 mL 1.58 fl oz 1.52 fl oz
acetabulum Шаблон:Frac congius 68 mL 2.39 fl oz 2.30 fl oz
quartarius Шаблон:Frac congius 136 mL 4.79 fl oz 4.61 fl oz
Шаблон:Linktext or cotyla Шаблон:Frac congius 273 mL 9.61 fl oz 9.23 fl oz
sextarius Шаблон:Frac congius 546 mL 19.22 fl oz
0.961 pt
18.47 fl oz
1.153 pt
congius 1 congius 3.27 L 5.75 pt
0.719 gal
3.46 qt
0.864 gal
urna 4 congii 13.1 L 2.88 gal 3.46 gal
amphora quadrantal 8 congii 26.2 L 5.76 gal 6.92 gal
culeus 160 congii 524 L 115.3 gal 138.4 gal
Except where noted, based on Smith (1851).[2]
Modern equivalents are approximate.

Dry measure

Ancient Roman dry measures
Roman unit Equal to Metric Imperial US dry
ligula Шаблон:Frac congius 11.4 ml 0.401 fl oz 0.0207 pt
cyathus Шаблон:Frac congius 45 ml 1.58 fl oz 0.082 pt
acetabulum Шаблон:Frac congius 68 ml 2.39 fl oz 0.124 pt
quartarius Шаблон:Frac congius 136 ml 4.79 fl oz 0.247 pt
hemina or cotyla Шаблон:Frac congius 273 ml 9.61 fl oz 0.496 pt
sextarius Шаблон:Frac congius 546 ml 19.22 fl oz
0.961 pt
0.991 pt
semimodius Шаблон:Frac congii 4.36 L 0.96 gal 0.99 gal
modius Шаблон:Frac congii 8.73 L 1.92 gal 1.98 gal
modius castrensis 4 congii 12.93 L[16] 2.84 gal 2.94 gal
Except where noted, based on Smith (1851).[2]
Modern equivalents are approximate.

Weight

Файл:Roman steelyard weight (probably) (FindID 227547).jpg
A Roman steelyard weight of one dodrans, i.e. Шаблон:Frac libra

The units of weight or mass were mostly based on factors of 12. Several of the unit names were also the names of coins during the Roman Republic and had the same fractional value of a larger base unit: libra for weight and as for coin. Modern estimates of the libra range from Шаблон:Convert with 5076 grains or Шаблон:Convert an accepted figure.[3][15][17] The as was reduced from 12 ounces to 2 after the First Punic War, to 1 during the Second Punic War, and to half an ounce by the 131 BC Lex Papiria.[18][19]

The divisions of the libra were:

Uncial divisions of the libra
Roman unit English
name
Equal
to
Metric
equivalent
Imperial
equivalent
Description
uncia Roman ounce Шаблон:Frac libra 27.4 g  0.967 oz  Шаблон:Abbr "a twelfth"[20]
sescuncia or sescunx Шаблон:Frac libra 41.1 g  1.45 oz  Шаблон:Abbr "one and one-half twelfths"
sextans Шаблон:Frac libra 54.8 g  1.93 oz  Шаблон:Abbr "a sixth"
quadrans
teruncius
Шаблон:Frac libra 82.2 g  2.90 oz  Шаблон:Abbr "a fourth"
Шаблон:Abbr "triple twelfth"
triens Шаблон:Frac libra 109.6 g  3.87 oz  Шаблон:Abbr "a third"
quincunx Шаблон:Frac libra 137.0 g  4.83 oz  Шаблон:Abbr "five-twelfths"[21]
semis or semissis Шаблон:Frac libra 164.5 g  5.80 oz  Шаблон:Abbr "a half"
septunx Шаблон:Frac libra 191.9 g  6.77 oz  Шаблон:Abbr "seven-twelfths"
bes or bessis Шаблон:Frac libra 219.3 g  7.74 oz  Шаблон:Abbr "two [parts] of an as"
dodrans Шаблон:Frac libra 246.7 g  8.70 oz  Шаблон:Abbr "less a fourth"
dextans Шаблон:Frac libra 274.1 g  9.67 oz  Шаблон:Abbr "less a sixth"
deunx Шаблон:Frac libra 301.5 g  10.64 oz  Шаблон:Abbr "less a twelfth"
libra Roman pound
libra[22]
328.9 g  11.60 oz 
0.725 lb 
Шаблон:Abbr "balance"[22]
Except where noted, based on Smith (1851).[2] Metric equivalents are approximate, converted at 1 libra = 328.9 g .

The subdivisions of the uncia were:

Subdivisions of the uncia
Roman unit English
name
Equal
to
Metric
equivalent
Imperial
equivalent
Description
siliqua carat Шаблон:Frac uncia 0.19 g  2.9 gr 
0.0067 oz 
Шаблон:Abbr "carob seed"
The Greek Шаблон:Lang (kerátion)
obolus obolus[23] Шаблон:Frac uncia 0.57 g  8.8 gr 
0.020 oz 
Шаблон:Abbr "obol", from the Greek word for "metal spit"[23]
scrupulum scruple[24] Шаблон:Frac uncia 1.14 g  17.6 gr 
0.040 oz 
Шаблон:Abbr "small pebble"[24]
semisextula or dimidia sextula Шаблон:Frac uncia 2.28 g  35.2 gr 
0.080 oz 
Шаблон:Abbr "half-sixth", "little sixth"
sextula sextula[25] Шаблон:Frac uncia 4.57 g  70.5 gr 
0.161 oz 
Шаблон:Abbr "little sixth"[25]
sicilicus or siciliquus Шаблон:Frac uncia 6.85 g  106 gr 
0.242 oz 
Шаблон:Abbr "little sickle"
duella Шаблон:Frac uncia 9.14 g  141 gr 
0.322 oz 
Шаблон:Abbr "little double [sixths]"
semuncia half-ounce
semuncia[26]
Шаблон:Frac uncia 13.7 g  211 gr 
0.483 oz 
Шаблон:Abbr "half-twelfth"[26]
uncia Roman ounce 27.4 g  423 gr 
0.967 oz 
Derived from unus, "one," in the sense of "single unit of weight."[27]
Except where noted, based on Smith (1851).[2] Metric equivalents are approximate, converted at 1 libra = 328.9 g .

Time

Шаблон:Unreferenced section

Years

The complicated Roman calendar was replaced by the Julian calendar in 45 BC.[28] In the Julian calendar, an ordinary year is 365 days long, and a leap year is 366 days long. Between 45 BC and AD 1, leap years occurred at irregular intervals. Starting in AD 4, leap years occurred regularly every four years. Year numbers were rarely used; rather, the year was specified by naming the Roman consuls for that year. (As consuls' terms latterly ran from January to December, this eventually caused January, rather than March, to be considered the start of the year.) When a year number was required, the Greek Olympiads were used, or the count of years since the founding of Rome, "ab urbe condita" in 753 BC. In the Middle Ages, the year numbering was changed to the Anno Domini count.

The calendar used in most of the modern world, the Gregorian calendar, differs from the Julian calendar in that it skips three leap years every four centuries to more closely approximate the length of the tropical year.

Weeks

The Romans grouped days into an eight-day cycle called the Шаблон:Lang, with every eighth day being a market day.

Independent of the Шаблон:Lang, astrologers kept a seven-day cycle called a hebdomas where each day corresponded to one of the seven classical planets, with the first day of the week being Saturn-day, followed by Sun-day, Moon-day, Mars-day, Mercury-day, Jupiter-day, and lastly Venus-day. Each astrological day was reckoned to begin at sunrise. The Jews also used a seven-day week, which began Saturday evening. The seventh day of the week they called Sabbath; the other days they numbered rather than named, except for Friday, which could be called either the Parasceve or the sixth day. Each Jewish day begins at sunset. Christians followed the Jewish seven-day week, except that they commonly called the first day of the week the Шаблон:Lang, or the Lord's day. In 321, Constantine the Great gave his subjects every Sunday off in honor of his family's tutelary deity, the Unconquered Sun, thus cementing the seven-day week into Roman civil society.

Hours

Шаблон:Main article The Romans divided the daytime into twelve horae or hours starting at sunrise and ending at sunset. The night was divided into four watches. The duration of these hours varied with seasons; in the winter, when the daylight period was shorter, its 12 hours were correspondingly shorter and its four watches were correspondingly longer.

Astrologers divided the solar day into 24 equal hours, and these astrological hours became the basis for medieval clocks and our modern 24-hour mean solar day.

Although the division of hours into minutes and seconds did not occur until the Middle Ages, Classical astrologers had a minuta equal to Шаблон:Frac of a day (24 modern minutes), a secunda equal to Шаблон:Frac of a day (24 modern seconds), and a tertia equal to Шаблон:Frac of a day (0.4 modern seconds).

Unicode

Шаблон:Special characters Шаблон:Main article Шаблон:See also A number of special symbols for Roman currency were added to the Unicode Standard version 5.1 (April 2008) as the Ancient Symbols block (U+10190–U+101CF, in the Supplementary Multilingual Plane ).

Шаблон:Unicode chart Ancient Symbols

As mentioned above, the names for divisions of an Шаблон:Lang coin (originally one libra of bronze) were also used for divisions of a libra, and the symbols U+10190–U+10195 are likewise also symbols for weights:

  • U+10190 (𐆐): Sextans
  • U+10191 (𐆑): Uncia
  • U+10192 (𐆒): Semuncia
  • U+10193 (𐆓): Sextula
  • U+10194 (𐆔): Semisextula
  • U+10195 (𐆕): Siliqua


See also

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

External links

Шаблон:Systems of measurement

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  7. Equivalent to the English cable (600 feet) or furlong (Шаблон:Frac mile)
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  16. Dominic Rathbone, "Earnings and Costs: Living Standards and the Roman Economy (First to Third Centuries AD), p. 301, in Alan Bowman and Andrew Wilson, Quantifying the Roman Economy: Methods and Problems.
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  26. 26,0 26,1 Шаблон:Citation.
  27. Шаблон:Cite book
  28. Шаблон:Cite web