Английская Википедия:Andrew Jackson
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Distinguish Шаблон:Pp-move Шаблон:Pp-semi-indef Шаблон:Featured article Шаблон:Use American English Шаблон:Use mdy dates Шаблон:Infobox officeholder
Andrew Jackson Jr (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was an American lawyer, planter, general, and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. Before his presidency, he gained fame as a general in the U.S. Army and served in both houses of the U.S. Congress. Often praised as an advocate for ordinary Americans and for his work in preserving the union of states, Jackson has also been criticized for his racial policies, particularly his treatment of Native Americans.
Jackson was born in the colonial Carolinas before the American Revolutionary War. He became a frontier lawyer and married Rachel Donelson Robards. He briefly served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate, representing Tennessee. After resigning, he served as a justice on the Tennessee Superior Court from 1798 until 1804. Jackson purchased a property later known as the Hermitage, becoming a wealthy planter who owned hundreds of African American slaves during his lifetime. In 1801, he was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia and was elected its commander. He led troops during the Creek War of 1813–1814, winning the Battle of Horseshoe Bend and negotiating the Treaty of Fort Jackson that required the indigenous Creek population to surrender vast tracts of present-day Alabama and Georgia. In the concurrent war against the British, Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815 made him a national hero. He later commanded U.S. forces in the First Seminole War, which led to the annexation of Florida from Spain. Jackson briefly served as Florida's first territorial governor before returning to the Senate. He ran for president in 1824. He won a plurality of the popular and electoral vote, but no candidate won the electoral majority. With the help of Henry Clay, the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams in a contingent election. Jackson's supporters alleged that there was a "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Clay and began creating their own political organization that would eventually become the Democratic Party.
Jackson ran again in 1828, defeating Adams in a landslide. In 1830, he signed the Indian Removal Act. This act, which has been described as ethnic cleansing, displaced tens of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands east of the Mississippi and resulted in thousands of deaths. Jackson faced a challenge to the integrity of the federal union when South Carolina threatened to nullify a high protective tariff set by the federal government. He threatened the use of military force to enforce the tariff, but the crisis was defused when it was amended. In 1832, he vetoed a bill by Congress to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States, arguing that it was a corrupt institution. After a lengthy struggle, the Bank was dismantled. In 1835, Jackson became the only president to pay off the national debt. He survived the first assassination attempt on a sitting president. In one of his final presidential acts, he recognized the Republic of Texas.
After leaving office, Jackson supported the presidencies of Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk, as well as the annexation of Texas. Jackson's legacy remains controversial, and opinions are frequently polarized. Supporters characterize him as a defender of democracy and the Constitution, while critics point to his reputation as a demagogue who ignored the law when it suited him. Jackson's presidency has consistently been ranked as above average, although his reputation has declined since the late 20th century.
Early life and education
Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in the Waxhaws region of the Carolinas. His parents were Scots-Irish colonists Andrew Jackson and Elizabeth Hutchinson, Presbyterians who had emigrated from Ulster, Ireland, in 1765.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson's father was born in Carrickfergus, County Antrim, around 1738,Шаблон:Sfn and his ancestors had crossed into Northern Ireland from Scotland after the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson had two older brothers who came with his parents from Ireland, Hugh (born 1763) and Robert (born 1764).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Elizabeth had a strong hatred of the British that she passed on to her sons.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson's exact birthplace is unclear. Jackson's father died at the age of 29 in a logging accident while clearing land in February 1767, three weeks before his son Andrew was born.Шаблон:Sfn Afterwards, Elizabeth and her three sons moved in with her sister and brother-in-law, Jane and James Crawford.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson later stated that he was born on the Crawford plantation,Шаблон:Sfn which is in Lancaster County, South Carolina, but second-hand evidence suggests that he might have been born at another uncle's home in North Carolina.Шаблон:Sfn
When Jackson was young, Elizabeth thought he might become a minister and paid to have him schooled by a local clergyman.Шаблон:Sfn He learned to read, write, work with numbers, and was exposed to Greek and Latin,Шаблон:Sfn but he was too strong-willed and hot-tempered for the ministry.Шаблон:Sfn
Revolutionary War
Jackson and his older brothers, Hugh and Robert, served on the Patriot side against British forces during the American Revolutionary War. Hugh served under Colonel William Richardson Davie, dying from heat exhaustion after the Battle of Stono Ferry in June 1779.Шаблон:Sfn After anti-British sentiment intensified in the Southern Colonies following the Battle of Waxhaws in May 1780, Elizabeth encouraged Andrew and Robert to participate in militia drills.Шаблон:Sfn They served as couriers,Шаблон:Sfn and were present at the Battle of Hanging Rock in August 1780.Шаблон:Sfn
Andrew and Robert were captured in April 1781 when the British occupied the home of a Crawford relative. A British officer demanded to have his boots polished. Andrew refused, and the officer slashed him with a sword, leaving him with scars on his left hand and head. Robert also refused and was struck a blow on the head.Шаблон:Sfnm The brothers were taken to a prisoner-of-war camp in Camden, South Carolina, where they became malnourished and contracted smallpox.Шаблон:Sfn In late spring, the brothers were released to their mother in a prisoner exchange.Шаблон:Sfn Robert died two days after arriving home, but Elizabeth was able to nurse Andrew back to health.Шаблон:Sfn Once he recovered, Elizabeth volunteered to nurse American prisoners of war housed in British prison ships in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina.Шаблон:Sfn She contracted cholera and died soon afterwards.Шаблон:Sfn The war made Jackson an orphan at age 14Шаблон:Sfn and increased his hatred for the values he associated with Britain, in particular aristocracy and political privilege.Шаблон:Sfn
Early career
Legal career and marriage
After the American Revolutionary War, Jackson worked as a saddler,Шаблон:Sfn briefly returned to school, and taught reading and writing to children.Шаблон:Sfn In 1784, he left the Waxhaws region for Salisbury, North Carolina, where he studied law under attorney Spruce Macay.Шаблон:Sfn He completed his training under John Stokes,Шаблон:Sfn and was admitted to the North Carolina bar in September 1787.[1] Shortly thereafter, his friend John McNairy helped him get appointed as a prosecuting attorney in the Western District of North Carolina,Шаблон:Sfn which would later become the state of Tennessee. While traveling to assume his new position, Jackson stopped in Jonesborough. While there, he bought his first slave, a woman who was around his age.Шаблон:Sfn He also fought his first duel, accusing another lawyer, Waightstill Avery, of impugning his character. The duel ended with both men firing in the air.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson began his new career in the frontier town of Nashville in 1788 and quickly moved up in social status.Шаблон:Sfn He became a protégé of William Blount, one of the most powerful men in the territory.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson was appointed attorney general of the Mero District in 1791 and judge-advocate for the militia the following year.Шаблон:Sfn He also got involved in land speculation,Шаблон:Sfn eventually forming a partnership with fellow lawyer John Overton.Шаблон:Sfn Their partnership mainly dealt with claims made under a "land grab" act of 1783 that opened Cherokee and Chickasaw territory to North Carolina's white residents.Шаблон:Sfn
While boarding at the home of Rachel Stockly Donelson, the widow of John Donelson, Jackson became acquainted with their daughter, Rachel Donelson Robards. The younger Rachel was in an unhappy marriage with Captain Lewis Robards, and the two were separated by 1789.Шаблон:Sfn After the separation, Jackson and Rachel became romantically involved,Шаблон:Sfn living together as husband and wife.Шаблон:Sfn Robards petitioned for divorce, which was granted on the basis of Rachel's infidelity.Шаблон:Sfn The couple legally married in January 1794.Шаблон:Sfn In 1796, they acquired their first plantation, Hunter's Hill,Шаблон:Sfn on Шаблон:Convert of land near Nashville.Шаблон:Sfn
Early public career
Jackson became a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, the dominant party in Tennessee.Шаблон:Sfn He was elected as a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention in 1796.Шаблон:Sfn When Tennessee achieved statehood that year, he was elected to be its U.S. representative. In Congress, Jackson argued against the Jay Treaty, criticized George Washington for allegedly removing Democratic-Republicans from public office, and joined several other Democratic-Republican congressmen in voting against a resolution of thanks for Washington.Шаблон:Sfn He advocated for the right of Tennesseans to militarily oppose Native American interests.Шаблон:Sfn The state legislature elected him to be a U.S. senator in 1797, but he resigned after serving only six months.Шаблон:Sfn
In the spring of 1798, Governor John Sevier appointed Jackson to be a judge of the Tennessee Superior Court.Шаблон:Sfn In 1802, he also became major general, or commander, of the Tennessee militia, a position that was determined by a vote of the militia's officers. The vote was tied between Jackson and Sevier, a popular Revolutionary War veteran and former governor, but the governor, Archibald Roane, broke the tie in Jackson's favor. Jackson later accused Sevier of fraud and bribery.Шаблон:Sfn Sevier responded by impugning Rachel's honor, resulting in a shootout on a public street.Шаблон:Sfn Soon afterwards, they met to duel, but parted without having fired at each other.Шаблон:Sfn
Planting career and slavery
Jackson resigned his judgeship in 1804.Шаблон:Sfn He had almost gone bankrupt when the land and mercantile speculations he had made on the basis of promissory notes fell apart in the wake of an earlier financial panic.Шаблон:Sfnm He had to sell Hunter's Hill, as well as Шаблон:Convert of land he bought for speculation and bought a smaller Шаблон:Convert plantation near Nashville that he would call the Hermitage.Шаблон:Sfn He focused on recovering from his losses by becoming a successful planter and merchant.Шаблон:Sfn The Hermitage would grow to Шаблон:Convert,Шаблон:Sfn making it one of the largest cotton-growing plantations in the state.Шаблон:Sfn
Like most planters in the Southern United States, Jackson used slave labor. In 1804, Jackson had nine African American slaves; by 1820, he had over 100; and by his death in 1845, he had over 150.[2] Over his lifetime, he owned a total of 300 slaves.[3] Jackson subscribed to the paternalistic idea of slavery, which claimed that slave ownership was morally acceptable as long as slaves were treated with humanity and their basic needs were cared for.Шаблон:Sfn In practice, slaves were treated as a form of wealth whose productivity needed to be protected.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson directed harsh punishment for slaves who disobeyed or ran away.[4] For example, in an 1804 advertisement to recover a runaway slave, he offered "ten dollars extra, for every hundred lashes any person will give him" up to three hundred lashes—a number that would likely have been deadly.[4][5] Jackson also participated in the local slave trade.Шаблон:Sfn Over time, his accumulation of wealth in both slaves and land placed him among the elite families of Tennessee.Шаблон:Sfn
Duel with Dickinson and adventure with Burr
In May 1806, Jackson fought a duel with Charles Dickinson. They had gotten into an argument over a horse race, and Dickinson allegedly uttered a slur against Rachel.Шаблон:Sfn During the duel, Dickinson fired first, and the bullet hit Jackson in the chest. The wound was not life-threatening because the bullet had shattered against his breastbone.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson returned fire and killed Dickinson. The killing tarnished Jackson's reputation.Шаблон:Sfn
Later that year, Jackson became involved in former vice president Aaron Burr's plan to conquer Spanish Florida and drive the Spanish from Texas. Burr, who was touring what was then the Western United States after mortally wounding Alexander Hamilton in a duel, stayed with the Jacksons at the Hermitage in 1805.Шаблон:Sfn He eventually persuaded Jackson to join his adventure. In October 1806, Jackson wrote James Winchester that the United States "can conquer not only [Florida], but all Spanish North America".Шаблон:Sfn He informed the Tennessee militia that it should be ready to march at a moment's notice "when the government and constituted authority of our country require it",Шаблон:Sfn and agreed to provide boats and provisions for the expedition.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson sent a letter to President Thomas Jefferson telling him that Tennessee was ready to defend the nation's honor.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson also expressed uncertainty about the enterprise. He warned the Governor of Louisiana William Claiborne and Tennessee Senator Daniel Smith that some of the people involved in the adventure might be intending to break away from the United States.Шаблон:Sfn In December, Jefferson ordered Burr to be arrested for treason.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson, safe from arrest because of his extensive paper trail, organized the militia to capture the conspirators.Шаблон:Sfn He testified before a grand jury in 1807, implying that it was Burr's associate James Wilkinson who was guilty of treason, not Burr. Burr was acquitted of the charges.Шаблон:Sfn
Military career
Шаблон:Infobox military person
War of 1812
Creek War
Шаблон:Main On June 18, 1812, the United States declared war on the United Kingdom, launching the War of 1812.Шаблон:Sfn Though the war was primarily caused by maritime issues,Шаблон:Sfn it provided white American settlers on the southern frontier the opportunity to overcome Native American resistance to settlement, undermine British support of the Native American tribes,Шаблон:Sfn and pry Florida from the Spanish Empire.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson immediately offered to raise volunteers for the war, but he was not called to duty until after the United States military was repeatedly defeated in the American Northwest. After these defeats, in January 1813, Jackson enlisted over 2,000 volunteers,Шаблон:Sfn who were ordered to head to New Orleans to defend against a British attack.Шаблон:Sfn[6]Шаблон:Sfn[7] When his forces arrived at Natchez, they were ordered to halt by General Wilkinson, the commander at New Orleans and the man Jackson accused of treason after the Burr adventure. A little later, Jackson received a letter from the Secretary of War, John Armstrong, stating that his volunteers were not needed,Шаблон:Sfn and that they were to hand over any supplies to Wilkinson and disband.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson refused to disband his troops; instead, he led them on the difficult march back to Nashville, earning the nickname "Hickory" (later "Old Hickory") for his toughness.Шаблон:Sfn
After returning to Nashville, Jackson and one of his colonels, John Coffee, got into a street brawl over honor with the brothers Jesse and Thomas Hart Benton. Nobody was killed, but Jackson received a gunshot in the shoulder that nearly killed him.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson had not fully recovered from his wounds when Governor Willie Blount called out the militia in September 1813 following the August Fort Mims Massacre.Шаблон:Sfn The Red Sticks, a confederate faction that had allied with Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief who was fighting with the British against the United States, killed about 250 militia men and civilians at Fort Mims in retaliation for an ambush by American militia at Burnt Corn Creek.Шаблон:Sfnm
Jackson's objective was to destroy the Red Sticks.Шаблон:Sfn He headed south from Fayetteville, Tennessee, in October with 2,500 militia, establishing Fort Strother as his supply base.Шаблон:Sfn He sent his cavalry under General Coffee ahead of the main force, destroying Red Stick villages and capturing supplies.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Coffee defeated a band of Red Sticks at the Battle of Tallushatchee on November 3, and Jackson defeated another band later that month at the Battle of Talladega.Шаблон:Sfn
By January 1814, the expiration of enlistments and desertion had reduced Jackson's force by about 1,000 volunteers,Шаблон:Sfn but he continued the offensive.Шаблон:Sfn The Red Sticks counterattacked at the Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek. Jackson repelled them but was forced to withdraw to Fort Strother.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson's army was reinforced by further recruitment and the addition of a regular army unit, the 39th U.S. Infantry Regiment. The combined force of 3,000 men—including Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek allies—attacked a Red Stick fort at Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River, which was manned by about 1,000 men.Шаблон:Sfn The Red Sticks were overwhelmed and massacred.Шаблон:Sfn Almost all their warriors were killed, and nearly 300 women and children were taken prisoner and distributed to Jackson's Native American allies.Шаблон:Sfn The victory broke the power of the Red Sticks.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson continued his scorched-earth campaign of burning villages, destroying supplies,Шаблон:Sfn and starving Red Stick women and children.Шаблон:Sfn The campaign ended when William Weatherford, the Red Stick leader, surrendered,Шаблон:Sfn although some Red Sticks fled to East Florida.Шаблон:Sfn
On June 8, Jackson was appointed a brigadier general in the United States Army, and 10 days later was made a brevet major general with command of the Seventh Military District, which included Tennessee, Louisiana, the Mississippi Territory, and the Muscogee Creek Confederacy.Шаблон:Sfn With President James Madison's approval, Jackson imposed the Treaty of Fort Jackson. The treaty required all Creek, including those who had remained allies, to surrender Шаблон:Convert of land to the United States.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson then turned his attention to the British and Spanish. He moved his forces to Mobile, Alabama, in August, accused the Spanish governor of West Florida, Mateo González Manrique, of arming the Red Sticks, and threatened to attack. The governor responded by inviting the British to land at Pensacola to defend it, which violated Spanish neutrality.Шаблон:Sfn The British attempted to capture Mobile, but their invasion fleet was repulsed at Fort Bowyer.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson then invaded Florida, defeating the Spanish and British forces at the Battle of Pensacola on November 7.Шаблон:Sfn Afterwards, the Spanish surrendered, and the British withdrew. Weeks later, Jackson learned that the British were planning an attack on New Orleans, which was the gateway to the Lower Mississippi River and control of the American West.Шаблон:Sfn He evacuated Pensacola, strengthened the garrison at Mobile,Шаблон:Sfn and led his troops to New Orleans.Шаблон:Sfn
Battle of New Orleans
Jackson arrived in New Orleans on December 1, 1814.Шаблон:Sfn There he instituted martial law because he worried about the loyalty of the city's Creole and Spanish inhabitants. He augmented his force by forming an alliance with Jean Lafitte's smugglers and raising units of free African Americans and Creek,Шаблон:Sfn paying non-white volunteers the same salary as whites.Шаблон:Sfn This gave Jackson a force of about 5,000 men when the British arrived.Шаблон:Sfn
The British arrived in New Orleans in mid-December.Шаблон:Sfn Admiral Alexander Cochrane was the overall commander of the operation;Шаблон:Sfn General Edward Pakenham commanded the army of 10,000 soldiers, many of whom had served in the Napoleonic Wars.Шаблон:Sfn As the British advanced up the east bank of the Mississippi River, Jackson constructed a fortified position to block them.Шаблон:Sfn The climactic battle took place on January 8 when the British launched a frontal assault. Their troops made easy targets for the Americans protected by their parapets, and the attack ended in disaster.Шаблон:Sfn The British suffered over 2,000 casualties (including Pakenham) to the Americans' 60.[8]
The British decamped from New Orleans at the end of January, but they still remained a threat.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson refused to lift martial law and kept the militia under arms. He approved the execution of six militiamen for desertion.Шаблон:Sfn Some Creoles registered as French citizens with the French consul and demanded to be discharged from the militia due to their foreign nationality. Jackson then ordered all French citizens to leave the city within three days,Шаблон:Sfn and had a member of the Louisiana legislature, Louis Louaillier, arrested when he wrote a newspaper article criticizing Jackson's continuation of martial law. U.S. District Court Judge Dominic A. Hall signed a writ of habeas corpus for Louaillier's release. Jackson had Hall arrested too. A military court ordered Louaillier's release, but Jackson kept him in prison and evicted Hall from the city.Шаблон:Sfn Although Jackson lifted martial law when he received official word that the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war with the British, had been signed,Шаблон:Sfn his previous behavior tainted his reputation in New Orleans.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson's victory made him a national hero,Шаблон:Sfn and on February 27, 1815, he was given the Thanks of Congress and awarded a Congressional Gold Medal.[9] Though the Treaty of Ghent had been signed in December 1814 before the Battle of New Orleans was fought,Шаблон:Sfn Jackson's victory assured that the United States control of the region between Mobile and New Orleans would not be effectively contested by European powers. This control allowed the American government to ignore one of the articles in the treaty, which would have returned the Creek lands taken in the Treaty of Fort Jackson.Шаблон:Sfn
First Seminole War
Following the war, Jackson remained in command of troops in the southern half of the United States and was permitted to make his headquarters at the Hermitage.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson continued to displace the Native Americans in areas under his command. Despite resistance from Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford, he signed five treaties between 1816 and 1820 in which the Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee and Chickasaw ceded tens of millions of acres of land to the United States. These included the Treaty of Tuscaloosa and the Treaty of Doak's Stand.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Jackson soon became embroiled in conflict in Florida. The former British post at Prospect Bluff, which became known to Americans as "the Negro fort", remained occupied by more than a thousand former soldiers of the British Royal and Colonial Marines, escaped slaves, and various indigenous peoples.Шаблон:Sfn It had become a magnet for escapeesШаблон:Sfn and was seen as a threat to the property rights of American enslavers,Шаблон:Sfn even a potential source of insurrection by enslaved people.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson ordered Colonel Duncan Clinch to capture the fort in July 1816. He destroyed it and killed many of the garrison. Some survivors were enslaved while others fled into the wilderness of Florida.Шаблон:Sfn
White American settlers were in constant conflict with Native American people collectively known as the Seminoles, who straddled the border between the U.S. and Florida.Шаблон:Sfn In December 1817, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun initiated the First Seminole War by ordering Jackson to lead a campaign "with full power to conduct the war as he may think best".Шаблон:Sfn Jackson believed the best way to do this was to seize Florida from Spain once and for all. Before departing, Jackson wrote to President James Monroe, "Let it be signified to me through any channel ... that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished."Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson invaded Florida, captured the Spanish fort of St. Marks, and occupied Pensacola. Seminole and Spanish resistance was effectively ended by May 1818. He also captured two British subjects, Robert Ambrister and Alexander Arbuthnot, who had been working with the Seminoles. After a brief trial, Jackson executed both of them, causing an international incident with the British. Jackson's actions polarized Monroe's cabinet. The occupied territories were returned to Spain.Шаблон:Sfn Calhoun wanted him censured for violating the Constitution, since the United States had not declared war on Spain. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams defended him as he thought Jackson's occupation of Pensacola would lead Spain to sell Florida, which Spain did in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819.Шаблон:Sfn In February 1819, a congressional investigation exonerated Jackson,Шаблон:Sfn and his victory was instrumental in convincing the Seminoles to sign the Treaty of Moultrie Creek in 1823, which surrendered much of their land in Florida.Шаблон:Sfn
Presidential aspirations
Election of 1824
The Panic of 1819, the United States' first prolonged financial depression, caused Congress to reduce the military's size and abolish Jackson's generalship.Шаблон:Sfn In compensation, Monroe made him the first territorial governor of Florida in 1821.Шаблон:Sfn He served as the governor for two months, returning to the Hermitage in ill health.Шаблон:Sfn During his convalescence, Jackson, who had been a Freemason since at least 1798, became the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Tennessee for 1822–1823.Шаблон:Sfn Around this time, he also completed negotiations for Tennessee to purchase Chickasaw lands. This became known as the Jackson Purchase. Jackson, Overton, and another colleague had speculated in some of the land and used their portion to form the town of Memphis.[11]
In 1822, Jackson agreed to run in the 1824 presidential election, and he was nominated by the Tennessee legislature in July.Шаблон:Sfn At the time, the Federalist Party had collapsed, and there were four major contenders for the Democratic-Republican Party nomination: William Crawford, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Jackson was intended to be a stalking horse candidate to prevent Tennessee's electoral votes from going to Crawford, who was seen as a Washington insider. Jackson unexpectedly garnered popular support outside of Tennessee and became a serious candidate.Шаблон:Sfn He benefited from the expansion of suffrage among white males that followed the conclusion of the War of 1812.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He was a popular war hero whose reputation suggested he had the decisiveness and independence to bring reform to Washington.Шаблон:Sfn He also was promoted as an outsider who stood for all the people, blaming banks for the country's depression.Шаблон:Sfn
During his presidential candidacy, Jackson reluctantly ran for one of Tennessee's U.S. Senate seats. Jackson's political managers William Berkeley Lewis and John Eaton convinced him that he needed to defeat incumbent John Williams, who opposed him. The legislature elected Jackson in October 1823.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He was attentive to his senatorial duties. He was appointed chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs but avoided debate or initiating legislation.Шаблон:Sfn He used his time in the Senate to form alliances and make peace with old adversaries.Шаблон:Sfn Eaton continued to campaign for Jackson's presidency, updating his biography and writing a series of widely circulated pseudonymous letters that portrayed Jackson as a champion of republican liberty.Шаблон:Sfn
Democratic-Republican presidential nominees had historically been chosen by informal congressional nominating caucuses. In 1824, most of the Democratic-Republicans in Congress boycotted the caucus,Шаблон:Sfn and the power to choose nominees was shifting to state nominating committees and legislatures.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson was nominated by a Pennsylvania convention, making him not merely a regional candidate but the leading national contender.Шаблон:Sfn When Jackson won the Pennsylvania nomination, Calhoun dropped out of the presidential race.Шаблон:Sfn Afterwards, Jackson won the nomination in six other states and had a strong second-place finish in three others.Шаблон:Sfn
In the presidential election, Jackson won a 42-percent plurality of the popular vote. More importantly, he won a plurality of electoral votes, receiving 99 votes from states in the South, West, and Mid-Atlantic. He was the only candidate to win states outside of his regional base: Adams dominated New England, Crawford won Virginia and Georgia, and Clay took three western states. Because no candidate had a majority of 131 electoral votes, the House of Representatives held a contingent election under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment. The amendment specifies that only the top three electoral vote-winners are eligible to be elected by the House, so Clay was eliminated from contention.Шаблон:Sfn Clay, who was also Speaker of the House and presided over the election's resolution, saw a Jackson presidency as a disaster for the country.Шаблон:Sfn Clay threw his support behind Adams, who won the contingent election on the first ballot. Adams appointed Clay as his Secretary of State, leading supporters of Jackson to accuse Clay and Adams of having struck a "corrupt bargain".Шаблон:Sfn After the Congressional session concluded, Jackson resigned his Senate seat and returned to Tennessee.Шаблон:Sfn
Election of 1828 and death of Rachel Jackson
After the election, Jackson's supporters formed a new party to undermine Adams and ensure he served only one term. Adams's presidency went poorly, and Adams's behavior undermined it. He was perceived as an intellectual elite who ignored the needs of the populace. He was unable to accomplish anything because Congress blocked his proposals.Шаблон:Sfn In his First Annual Message to Congress, Adams stated that "we are palsied by the will of our constituents", which was interpreted as his being against representative democracy.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson responded by championing the needs of ordinary citizens and declaring that "the voice of the peopleШаблон:Nbsp... must be heard".Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson was nominated for president by the Tennessee legislature in October 1825, more than three years before the 1828 election.Шаблон:Sfn He gained powerful supporters in both the South and North, including Calhoun, who became Jackson's vice-presidential running mate, and New York Senator Martin Van Buren.Шаблон:Sfn Meanwhile, Adams's support from the Southern states was eroded when he signed a tax on European imports, the Tariff of 1828, which was called the "Tariff of Abominations" by opponents, into law.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson's victory in the presidential race was overwhelming. He won 56 percent of the popular vote and 68 percent of the electoral vote. The election ended the one-party system that had formed during the Era of Good Feelings as Jackson's supporters coalesced into the Democratic Party and the various groups who did not support him eventually formed the Whig Party.Шаблон:Sfn
The political campaign was dominated by the personal abuse that partisans flung at both candidates.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson was accused of being the son of an English prostitute and a mulatto,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and he was labeled a slave trader who trafficked in human flesh.Шаблон:Sfn A series of pamphlets known as the Coffin HandbillsШаблон:Sfn accused him of having murdered 18 white men, including the soldiers he had executed for desertion and alleging that he stabbed a man in the back with his cane.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn They stated that he had intentionally massacred Native American women and children at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, ate the bodies of Native Americans he killed in battle,Шаблон:Sfn[12] and threatened to cut off the ears of congressmen who questioned his behavior during the First Seminole War.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson and Rachel were accused of adultery for living together before her divorce was finalized,Шаблон:Sfn and Rachel heard about the accusation.Шаблон:Sfn She had been under stress throughout the election, and just as Jackson was preparing to head to Washington for his inauguration, she fell ill.Шаблон:Sfn She did not live to see her husband become president, dying of a stroke or heart attack a few days later.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson believed that the abuse from Adams' supporters had hastened her death, stating at her funeral: "May God Almighty forgive her murderers, as I know she forgave them. I never can."Шаблон:Sfn
Presidency (1829–1837)
Inauguration
Jackson arrived in Washington, D.C., on February 11, and began forming his cabinet.Шаблон:Sfn He chose Van Buren as Secretary of State, John Eaton as Secretary of War, Samuel D. Ingham as Secretary of Treasury, John Branch as Secretary of Navy, John M. Berrien as Attorney General, and William T. Barry as Postmaster General.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson was inaugurated on March 4, 1829; Adams, who was embittered by his defeat, refused to attend.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson become the first president-elect to take the oath of office on the East Portico of the U.S. Capitol.[13] In his inaugural address, he promised to protect the sovereignty of the states, respect the limits of the presidency, reform the government by removing disloyal or incompetent appointees, and observe a fair policy toward Native Americans.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson invited the public to the White House, which was promptly overrun by well-wishers who caused minor damage to its furnishings. The spectacle earned him the nickname "King Mob".Шаблон:Sfn
Reforms and rotation in office
Шаблон:Further Jackson believed that Adams's administration had been corrupt and he initiated investigations into all executive departments.Шаблон:Sfn These investigations revealed that $280,000 (Шаблон:Inflation) was stolen from the Treasury. They also resulted in a reduction in costs to the Department of the Navy, saving $1 million (Шаблон:Inflation).Шаблон:Sfn Jackson asked Congress to tighten laws on embezzlement and tax evasion, and he pushed for an improved government accounting system.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson implemented a principle he called "rotation in office". The previous custom had been for the president to leave the existing appointees in office, replacing them through attrition. Jackson enforced the Tenure of Office Act, an 1820 law that limited office tenure, authorized the president to remove current office holders, and appoint new ones.Шаблон:Sfn During his first year in office, he removed about 10% of all federal employeesШаблон:Sfn and replaced them with loyal Democrats.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson argued that rotation in office reduced corruptionШаблон:Sfn by making officeholders responsible to the popular will,Шаблон:Sfn but it functioned as political patronage and became known as the spoils system.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Petticoat affair
Jackson spent much of his time during his first two and a half years in office dealing with what came to be known as the "Petticoat Affair" or "Eaton Affair".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The affair focused on Secretary of War Eaton's wife, Margaret. She had a reputation for being promiscuous, and like Rachel Jackson, she was accused of adultery. She and Eaton had been close before her first husband John Timberlake died, and they married nine months after his death.Шаблон:Sfn With the exception of Barry's wife Catherine,Шаблон:Sfn the cabinet members' wives followed the lead of Vice-president Calhoun's wife Floride and refused to socialize with the Eatons.Шаблон:Sfn Though Jackson defended Margaret, her presence split the cabinet, which had been so ineffective that he rarely called it into session,Шаблон:Sfn and the ongoing disagreement led to its dissolution.Шаблон:Sfn
In the spring of 1831, Jackson demanded the resignations of all the cabinet members except Barry,Шаблон:Sfn who would resign in 1835 when a Congressional investigation revealed his mismanagement of the Post Office.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson tried to compensate Van Buren by appointing him the Minister to Great Britain, but Calhoun blocked the nomination with a tie-breaking vote against it.Шаблон:Sfn Van Buren—along with newspaper editors Amos KendallШаблон:Sfn and Francis Preston BlairШаблон:Sfn—would become regular participants in Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet, an unofficial, varying group of advisors that Jackson turned to for decision making even after he had formed a new official cabinet.Шаблон:Sfn
Indian Removal Act
Jackson's presidency marked the beginning of a national policy of Native American removal.Шаблон:Sfn Before Jackson took office, the relationship between the southern states and the Native American tribes who lived within their boundaries was strained. The states felt that they had full jurisdiction over their territories; the native tribes saw themselves as autonomous nations that had a right to the land they lived on.Шаблон:Sfn Significant portions of the five major tribes in the area then known as the Southwest—the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminoles— began to adopt white culture, including education, agricultural techniques, a road system, and rudimentary manufacturing.Шаблон:Sfn In the case of the tensions between the state of Georgia and the Cherokee, Adams had tried to address the issue encouraging Cherokee emigration west of the Mississippi through financial incentives, but most refused.Шаблон:Sfn
In the first days of Jackson's presidency, some southern states passed legislation extending state jurisdiction to Native American lands.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson supported the states' right to do so.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His position was later made clear in the 1832 Supreme Court test case of this legislation, Worcester v. Georgia. Georgia had arrested a group of missionaries for entering Cherokee territory without a permit; the Cherokee declared these arrests illegal. The court under Chief Justice John Marshall decided in favor of the Cherokee: imposition of Georgia law on the Cherokee was unconstitutional.Шаблон:Sfn Horace Greeley alleges that when Jackson heard the ruling, he said, "Well, John Marshall has made his decision, but now let him enforce it."Шаблон:Sfn Although the quote may be apocryphal, Jackson made it clear he would not use the federal government to enforce the ruling.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Jackson used the power of the federal government to enforce the separation of Indigenous tribes and whites.Шаблон:Sfn In May 1830, Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, which Congress had narrowly passed.Шаблон:Sfn It gave the president the right to negotiate treaties to buy tribal lands in the eastern part of the United States in exchange for lands set aside for Native Americans west of the Mississippi,Шаблон:Sfn as well as broad discretion on how to use the federal funds allocated to the negotiations.Шаблон:Sfn The law was supposed to be a voluntary relocation program, but it was not implemented as one. Jackson's administration often achieved agreement to relocate through bribes, fraud and intimidation,Шаблон:Sfn and the leaders who signed the treaties often did not represent the entire tribe.Шаблон:Sfn The relocations could be a source of misery too: the Choctaw relocation was rife with corruption, theft, and mismanagement that brought great suffering to that people.Шаблон:Sfn
In 1830, Jackson personally negotiated with the Chickasaw, who quickly agreed to move.Шаблон:Sfn In the same year, Choctaw leaders signed the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek; the majority did not want the treaty but complied with its terms.Шаблон:Sfn In 1832, Seminole leaders signed the Treaty of Payne's Landing, which stipulated that the Seminoles would move west and become part of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy if they found the new land suitable.Шаблон:Sfn Most Seminoles refused to move, leading to the Second Seminole War in 1835 that lasted six years.Шаблон:Sfn Members of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy ceded their land to the state of Alabama in the Treaty of Cusseta of 1832. Their private ownership of the land was to be protected, but the federal government did not enforce this. The government did encourage voluntary removal until the Creek War of 1836, after which almost all Creek were removed to Oklahoma territory.Шаблон:Sfn In 1836, Cherokee leaders ceded their land to the government by the Treaty of New Echota.Шаблон:Sfn Their removal, known as the Trail of Tears, was enforced by Jackson's successor, Van Buren.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson also applied the removal policy in the Northwest. He was not successful in removing the Iroquois Confederacy in New York, but when some members of the Meskwaki (Fox) and the Sauk triggered the Black Hawk War by trying to cross back to the east side of the Mississippi, the peace treaties ratified after their defeat reduced their lands further.Шаблон:Sfn
During his administration, he made about 70 treaties with American Indian tribes. He had removed almost all the Native Americans east of the Mississippi and south of Lake Michigan, about 70,000 people, from the United States;Шаблон:Sfn though it was done at the cost of thousands of Native American lives lost because of the unsanitary conditions and epidemics arising from their dislocation, as well as their resistance to expulsion.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson's implementation of the Indian Removal Act contributed to his popularity with his constituency. He added over 170,000 square miles of land to the public domain, which primarily benefited the United States' agricultural interests. The act also benefited small farmers, as Jackson allowed them to purchase moderate plots at low prices and offered squatters on land formerly belonging to Native Americans the option to purchase it before it was offered for sale to others.Шаблон:Sfn
Nullification crisis
Jackson had to confront another challenge that had been building up since the beginning of his first term. The Tariff of 1828, which had been passed in the last year of Adams' administration, set a protective tariff at a very high rate to prevent the manufacturing industries in the Northern states from having to compete with lower-priced imports from Britain.Шаблон:Sfn The tariff reduced the income of southern cotton planters: it propped up consumer prices, but not the price of cotton which had severely declined in the previous decade.Шаблон:Sfn Immediately after the tariff's passage, the South Carolina Exposition and Protest was sent to the U.S. Senate.Шаблон:Sfn This document, which had been anonymously written by John C. Calhoun, asserted that the constitution was a compact of individual statesШаблон:Sfn and when the federal government went beyond its delegated duties, such as enacting a protective tariff, a state had a right to declare this action unconstitutional and make the act null and void within the borders of that state.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson suspected Calhoun of writing the Exposition and Protest and opposed his interpretation. Jackson argued that Congress had full authority to enact tariffs and that a dissenting state was denying the will of the majority.Шаблон:Sfn He also needed the tariff, which generated 90% of the federal revenue,Шаблон:Sfn to achieve another of his presidential goals, eliminating the national debt.Шаблон:Sfn The issue developed into a personal rivalry between the two men. For example, during a celebration of Thomas Jefferson's birthday on April 13, 1830, the attendees gave after-dinner toasts. Jackson toasted: "Our federal Union: It must be preserved!" – a clear challenge to nullification. Calhoun, whose toast immediately followed, rebutted: "The Union: Next to our Liberty, the most dear!"Шаблон:Sfn
As a compromise, Jackson supported the Tariff of 1832, which reduced the duties from the Tariff of 1828 by almost half. The bill was signed on July 9, but failed to satisfy extremists on either side.Шаблон:Sfn On November 24, South Carolina had passed the Ordinance of Nullification,Шаблон:Sfn declaring both tariffs null and void and threatening to secede from the United States if the federal government tried to use force to collect the duties.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In response, Jackson sent warships to Charleston harbor, and threatened to hang any man who worked to support nullification or secession.Шаблон:Sfn On December 10, he issued a proclamation against the "nullifiers",Шаблон:Sfn condemning nullification as contrary to the Constitution's letter and spirit, rejecting the right of secession, and declaring that South Carolina stood on "the brink of insurrection and treason".Шаблон:Sfn On December 28, Calhoun, who had been elected to the U.S. Senate, resigned as vice president.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson asked Congress to pass a "Force Bill" authorizing the military to enforce the tariff. It was attacked by Calhoun as despotism.Шаблон:Sfn Meanwhile, Calhoun and Clay began to work on a new compromise tariff. Jackson saw it as an effective way to end the confrontation but insisted on the passage of the Force Bill before he signed.Шаблон:Sfn On March 2, he signed into law the Force Bill and the Tariff of 1833. The South Carolina Convention then met and rescinded its nullification ordinance but nullified the Force Bill in a final act of defiance.Шаблон:Sfn Two months later, Jackson reflected on South Carolina's nullification: "the tariff was only the pretext, and disunion and southern confederacy the real object. The next pretext will be the negro, or slavery question".Шаблон:Sfn
Bank War and Election of 1832
Bank Veto
A few weeks after his inauguration, Jackson started looking into how he could replace the Second Bank of the United States.Шаблон:Sfn The Bank had been chartered by President Madison in 1816 to restore the United States economy after the War of 1812. Monroe had appointed Nicholas Biddle as the Bank's executive.Шаблон:Sfn The Bank was a repository for the country's public monies which also serviced the national debt; it was formed as a for-profit entity that looked after the concerns of its shareholders.Шаблон:Sfn In 1828, the country was prosperous Шаблон:Sfn and the currency was stable,Шаблон:Sfn but Jackson saw the Bank as a fourth branch of government run by an elite,Шаблон:Sfn what he called the "money power" that sought to control the labor and earnings of the "real people", who depend on their own efforts to succeed: the planters, farmers, mechanics, and laborers.Шаблон:Sfn Additionally, Jackson's own near bankruptcy in 1804 due to credit-fuelled land speculation had biased him against paper money and toward a policy favorable to hard money.Шаблон:Sfn
In his First Annual Address in December 1829, Jackson openly challenged the Bank by questioning its constitutionality and the soundness of its money.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson's supporters further alleged that it gave preferential loans to speculators and merchants over artisans and farmers, that it used its money to bribe congressmen and the press, and that it had ties with foreign creditors. Biddle responded to Jackson's challenge in early 1830 by using the Bank's vast financial holding to ensure the Bank's reputation, and his supporters argued that the Bank was the key to prosperity and stable commerce. By the time of the 1832 election, Biddle had spent over $250,000 (Шаблон:Inflation) in printing pamphlets, lobbying for pro-Bank legislation, hiring agents and giving loans to editors and congressmen.Шаблон:Sfn
On the surface, Jackson's and Biddle's positions did not appear irreconcilable. Jackson seemed open to keeping the Bank if it could include some degree of Federal oversight, limit its real estate holdings, and have its property subject to taxation by the states.Шаблон:Sfn Many of Jackson's cabinet members thought a compromise was possible. In 1831, Treasury Secretary Louis McLane told Biddle that Jackson was open to chartering a modified version of the Bank, but Biddle did not consult Jackson directly. Privately, Jackson expressed opposition to the Bank;Шаблон:Sfn publicly, he announced that he would leave the decision concerning the Bank in the hands of the people.Шаблон:Sfn Biddle was finally convinced to take open action by Henry Clay, who had decided to run for president against Jackson in the 1832 election. Biddle would agree to seek renewal of the charter two years earlier than scheduled. Clay argued that Jackson was in a bind. If he vetoed the charter, he would lose the votes of his pro-Bank constituents in Pennsylvania; but if he signed the charter, he would lose his anti-Bank constituents. After the recharter bill was passed, Jackson vetoed it on July 10, 1832, arguing that the country should not surrender the will of the majority to the desires of the wealthy.Шаблон:Sfn
Election of 1832
The 1832 presidential election demonstrated the rapid development of political parties during Jackson's presidency. The Democratic Party's first national convention, held in Baltimore, nominated Jackson's choice for vice president, Martin Van Buren. The National Republican Party, which had held its first convention in Baltimore earlier in December 1831, nominated Clay, now a senator from Kentucky, and John Sergeant of Pennsylvania.Шаблон:Sfn An Anti-Masonic Party, with a platform built around opposition to Freemasonry,Шаблон:Sfn supported neither Jackson nor Clay, who both were Masons. The party nominated William Wirt of Maryland and Amos Ellmaker of Pennsylvania.Шаблон:Sfn
In addition to the votes Jackson would lose because of the bank veto, Clay hoped that Jackson's Indian Removal Act would alienate voters in the East; but Jackson's losses were offset by the Act's popularity in the West and Southwest. Clay had also expected that Jackson would lose votes because of his stand on internal improvements.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson had vetoed the Maysville Road bill, which funded an upgrade of a section of the National Road in Clay's state of Kentucky; Jackson had argued it was unconstitutional to fund internal improvements using national funds for local projects.Шаблон:Sfn
Clay's strategy failed. Jackson was able to mobilize the Democratic Party's strong political networks.Шаблон:Sfn The Northeast supported Jackson because he was in favor of maintaining a stiff tariff; the West supported him because the Indian Removal Act reduced the number of Native Americans in the region and made available more public land.Шаблон:Sfn Except for South Carolina, which passed the Ordinance of Nullification during the election month and refused to support any party by giving its votes to the future Governor of Virginia John B. Floyd,Шаблон:Sfn the South supported Jackson for implementing the Indian Removal Act, as well as for his willingness to compromise by signing the Tariff of 1832.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson won the election by a landslide, receiving 55 percent of the popular vote and 219 electoral votes.Шаблон:Sfn
Removal of deposits and censure
Jackson saw his victory as a mandate to continue his war on the Bank's control over the national economy.Шаблон:Sfn In 1833, Jackson signed an executive order ending the deposit of Treasury receipts in the bank.Шаблон:Sfn When Secretary of the Treasury McLane refused to execute the order, Jackson replaced him with William J. Duane, who also refused. Jackson then appointed Roger B. Taney as acting secretary, who implemented Jackson's policy.Шаблон:Sfn With the loss of federal deposits, the Bank had to contract its credit.Шаблон:Sfn Biddle used this contraction to create an economic downturn in an attempt to get Jackson to compromise. Biddle wrote, "Nothing but the evidence of suffering abroad will produce any effect in Congress."Шаблон:Sfn The attempt did not succeed: the economy recovered and Biddle was blamed for the recession.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson's actions led those who disagreed with him to form the Whig Party. They claimed to oppose Jackson's expansion of executive power, calling him "King Andrew the First", and naming their party after the English Whigs who opposed the British monarchy in the 17th century.Шаблон:Sfn In March 1834, the Senate censured Jackson for inappropriately taking authority for the Treasury Department when it was the responsibility of Congress and refused to confirm Taney's appointment as secretary of the treasury.Шаблон:Sfn In April, however, the House declared that the bank should not be rechartered. By July 1836, the Bank no longer held any federal deposits.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson had Federal funds deposited into state banks friendly to the administration's policies, which critics called pet banks.Шаблон:Sfn The number of these state banks more than doubled during Jackson's administration,Шаблон:Sfn and investment patterns changed. The Bank, which had been the federal government's fiscal agent, invested heavily in trade and financed interregional and international trade. State banks were more responsive to state governments and invested heavily in land development, land speculation, and state public works projects.Шаблон:Sfn In spite of the efforts of Taney's successor, Levi Woodbury, to control them, the pet banks expanded their loans, helping to create a speculative boom in the final years of Jackson's administration.Шаблон:Sfn
In January 1835, Jackson paid off the national debt, the only time in U.S. history that it had been accomplished.[14][15] It was paid down through tariff revenues,Шаблон:Sfn carefully managing federal funding of internal improvements like roads and canals,Шаблон:Sfn and the sale of public lands.Шаблон:Sfn Between 1834 and 1836, the government had an unprecedented spike in land sales:Шаблон:Sfn At its peak in 1836, the profits from land sales were eight to twelve times higher than a typical year.Шаблон:Sfn During Jackson's presidency, 63 million acres of public land—about the size of the state of Oklahoma—was sold.Шаблон:Sfn After Jackson's term expired in 1837, a Democrat-majority Senate expunged Jackson's censure.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Panic of 1837
Despite the economic boom following Jackson's victory in the Bank War, land speculation in the west caused the Panic of 1837.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson's transfer of federal monies to state banks in 1833 caused western banks to relax their lending standards;Шаблон:Sfn the Indian Removal Act made large amounts of former Native American lands available for purchase and speculation.Шаблон:Sfn Two of Jackson's acts in 1836 contributed to the Panic of 1837. One was the Specie Circular, which mandated western lands only be purchased by money backed by specie. The act was intended to stabilize the economy by reducing speculation on credit, but it caused a drain of gold and silver from the Eastern banks to the Western banks to address the needs of financing land transactions.Шаблон:Sfn The other was the Deposit and Distribution Act, which transferred federal monies from eastern to western state banks. Together, they left Eastern banks unable to pay specie to the British when they recalled their loans to address their economic problems in international trade.Шаблон:Sfn The panic drove the U.S. economy into a depression that lasted until 1841.Шаблон:Sfn
Physical assault and assassination attempt
Jackson was the first president to be subjected to both a physical assault and an assassination attempt.Шаблон:Sfn On May 6, 1833, Robert B. Randolph struck Jackson in the face with his hand because Jackson had ordered Randolph's dismissal from the navy for embezzlement. Jackson declined to press charges.Шаблон:Sfn While Jackson was leaving the United States Capitol on January 30, 1835, Richard Lawrence, an unemployed house painter from England, aimed a pistol at him, which misfired. Lawrence pulled out a second pistol, which also misfired. Jackson attacked Lawrence with his cane until others intervened to restrain Lawrence, who was later found not guilty by reason of insanity and institutionalized.Шаблон:Sfn[16]
Slavery
During Jackson's presidency, slavery remained a minor political issue.Шаблон:Sfn Though federal troops were used to crush Nat Turner's slave rebellion in 1831,Шаблон:Sfn Jackson ordered them withdrawn immediately afterwards despite the petition of local citizens for them to remain for protection.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson considered the issue too divisive to the nation and to the delicate alliances of the Democratic Party.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson's view was challenged when the American Anti-Slavery Society agitated for abolitionШаблон:Sfn by sending anti-slavery tracts through the postal system into the South in 1835.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson condemned these agitators as "monsters"Шаблон:Sfn who should atone with their livesШаблон:Sfn because they were attempting to destroy the Union by encouraging sectionalism.Шаблон:Sfn The act provoked riots in Charleston, and pro-slavery Southerners demanded that the postal service ban distribution of the materials. To address the issue, Jackson authorized that the tracts could be sent only to subscribers, whose names could be made publicly accountable.Шаблон:Sfn That December, Jackson called on Congress to prohibit the circulation through the South of "incendiary publications intended to instigate the slaves to insurrection".Шаблон:Sfn
Foreign affairs
Шаблон:CSS image crop The Jackson administration successfully negotiated a trade agreement with Siam, the first East Asian country to form a trade agreement with the U.S. The administration also made trade agreements with Great Britain, Spain, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire.Шаблон:Sfn
In his First Annual Message to Congress, Jackson addressed the issues of spoliation claims, demands of compensation for the capture of American ships and sailors by foreign nations during the Napoleonic Wars.Шаблон:Sfn Using a combination of bluster and tact, he successfully settled these claims with Denmark, Portugal, and Spain,Шаблон:Sfn but he had difficulty collecting spoliation claims from France, which was unwilling to pay an indemnity agreed to in an earlier treaty. Jackson asked Congress in 1834 to authorize reprisals against French property if the country failed to make payment, as well as to arm for defense.Шаблон:Sfn In response, France put its Caribbean fleet on a wartime footing.Шаблон:Sfn Both sides wanted to avoid a conflict, but the French wanted an apology for Jackson's belligerence. In his 1835 Annual Message to the Congress, Jackson asserted that he refused to apologize, but stated that he did not intend to "menace or insult the Government of France".Шаблон:Sfn The French were assuaged and agreed to pay $5,000,000 (Шаблон:Inflation) to settle the claims.Шаблон:Sfn
Since the early 1820s, large numbers of Americans had been immigrating into Texas, a territory of the newly independent nation of Mexico.Шаблон:Sfn As early as 1824, Jackson had supported acquiring the region for the United States.Шаблон:Sfn In 1829, he attempted to purchase it, but Mexico did not want to sell. By 1830, there were twice as many settlers from the United States as from Mexico, leading to tensions with the Mexican government that started the Texas Revolution. During the conflict, Jackson covertly allowed the settlers to obtain weapons and money from the United States.Шаблон:Sfn They defeated the Mexican military in April 1836 and declared the region an independent country, the Republic of Texas. The new Republic asked Jackson to recognize and annex it. Although Jackson wanted to do so, he was hesitant because he was unsure it could maintain independence from Mexico.Шаблон:Sfn He also was concerned because Texas had legalized slavery, which was an issue that could divide the Democrats during the 1836 election. Jackson recognized the Republic of Texas on the last full day of his presidency, March 3, 1837.Шаблон:Sfn
Judiciary
Шаблон:Further Jackson appointed six justices to the Supreme Court.[17] Most were undistinguished. Jackson nominated Roger B. Taney in January 1835 to the Court in reward for his services, but the nomination failed to win Senate approval.Шаблон:Sfn
When Chief Justice Marshall died in 1835, Jackson again nominated Taney for Chief Justice; he was confirmed by the new Senate,Шаблон:Sfn serving as Chief Justice until 1864.Шаблон:Sfn He was regarded with respect during his career on the bench, but he is most remembered for his widely condemned decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford.[18] On the last day of his presidency, Jackson signed the Judiciary Act of 1837,Шаблон:Sfn which created two new Supreme Court seats and reorganized the federal circuit courts.Шаблон:Sfn
States admitted to the Union
Two new states were admitted into the Union during Jackson's presidency: Arkansas (June 15, 1836) and Michigan (January 26, 1837). Both states increased Democratic power in Congress and helped Van Buren win the presidency in 1836, as new states tended to support the party that had done the most to admit them.Шаблон:Sfn
Later life and death (1837–1845)
Jackson's presidency ended on March 4, 1837. Jackson left Washington, D.C., three days later, retiring to the Hermitage in Nashville, where he remained influential in national and state politics.Шаблон:Sfn To reduce the inflation caused by the Panic of 1837, Jackson supported an Independent Treasury system that would restrict the government from printing paper money and require it to hold its money in silver and gold.Шаблон:Sfn
During the 1840 presidential election,Шаблон:Sfn Jackson campaigned for Van Buren in Tennessee, but Van Buren had become unpopular during the continuing depression. The Whig Party nominee, William Henry Harrison, won the election using a campaign style similar to that of the Democrats: Van Buren was depicted as an uncaring aristocrat, while Harrison's war record was glorified, and he was portrayed as a man of the people.Шаблон:Sfn Harrison won the 1840 election and the Whigs captured majorities in both houses of Congress,Шаблон:Sfn but Harrison died a month into his term, and was replaced by his vice president, former Democrat John Tyler. Jackson was encouraged because Tyler was not bound to party loyalties and praised him when he vetoed two Whig-sponsored bills to establish a new national bank in 1841.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson lobbied for the annexation of Texas. He was concerned that the British could use it as a base to threaten the United StatesШаблон:Sfn and insisted that it was part of the Louisiana Purchase.Шаблон:Sfn Tyler signed a treaty of annexation in April 1844, but it became associated with the expansion of slavery and was not ratified. Van Buren, who had been Jackson's preferred candidate for the Democratic Party in the 1844 presidential election, had opposed annexation. Disappointed by Van Buren, Jackson convinced fellow Tennessean James K. Polk, who was then set to be Van Buren's running mate, to run as the Democratic Party's presidential nominee instead. Polk defeated Van Buren for the nomination and won the general election against Jackson's old enemy, Henry Clay. Meanwhile, the Senate passed a bill to annex Texas, and it was signed on March 1, 1845.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson died of dropsy, tuberculosis and heart failure[19] at 78 years of age on June 8, 1845. He was surrounded by family and friends at his deathbed, and his last words were to them, "Oh, do not cry. Be good children and we will all meet in Heaven."Шаблон:Sfn He was buried in the same tomb as his wife Rachel.Шаблон:Sfn
Personal life
Family
Jackson and Rachel had no children together but adopted Andrew Jackson Jr., the son of Rachel's deceased brother Severn Donelson. The Jacksons acted as guardians for Donelson's other children: John Samuel, Daniel Smith, and Andrew Jackson. They were also guardians for Andrew Jackson Hutchings, Rachel's orphaned grand nephew, and the orphaned children of a friend, Edward Butler – Caroline, Eliza, Edward, and Anthony – who lived with the Jacksons after their father died.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson also had three Creek children living with them: Lyncoya, a Creek orphan Jackson had adopted after the Battle of Tallushatchee,Шаблон:Sfn and two boys they called TheodoreШаблон:Sfn and Charley.Шаблон:Sfn
For the only time in U.S. history, two women acted simultaneously as unofficial first lady for the widower Jackson. Rachel's niece Emily Donelson was married to Andrew Jackson Donelson (who acted as Jackson's private secretary) and served as hostess at the White House. The president and Emily became estranged for over a year during the Petticoat affair, but they eventually reconciled and she resumed her duties as White House hostess. Sarah Yorke Jackson, the wife of Andrew Jackson Jr., became co-hostess of the White House in 1834, and took over all hostess duties after Emily died from tuberculosis in 1836.Шаблон:Sfn
Temperament
Jackson had a reputation for being short-tempered and violent,Шаблон:Sfn which terrified his opponents.Шаблон:Sfn He was able to use his temper strategically to accomplish what he wanted.Шаблон:Sfnm He could keep it in check when necessary: his behavior was friendly and urbane when he went to Washington as senator during the campaign leading up to the 1824 election. According to Van Buren, he remained calm in times of difficulty and made his decisions deliberatively.Шаблон:Sfn
He had the tendency to take things personally. If someone crossed him, he would often become obsessed with crushing them.Шаблон:Sfn For example, on the last day of his presidency, Jackson declared he had only two regrets: that he had not hanged Henry Clay or shot John C. Calhoun.Шаблон:Sfn He also had a strong sense of loyalty. He considered threats to his friends as threats to himself, but he demanded unquestioning loyalty in return.Шаблон:Sfn
Jackson was self-confident,Шаблон:Sfn without projecting a sense of self-importance.Шаблон:Sfn This self-confidence gave him the ability to persevere in the face of adversity.Шаблон:Sfn Once he decided on a plan of action, he would adhere to it.Шаблон:Sfn His reputation for being both quick-tempered and confident worked to his advantage;Шаблон:Sfn it misled opponents to see him as simple and direct, leading them to often understimate his political shrewdness.Шаблон:Sfn
Religious faith
In 1838, Jackson became an official member of the First Presbyterian Church in Nashville.Шаблон:Sfn Both his mother and his wife had been devout Presbyterians all their lives, but Jackson stated that he had postponed officially entering the church until after his retirement to avoid accusations that he had done so for political reasons.Шаблон:Sfn
Legacy
Jackson's legacy is controversial and polarizing.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:RefnШаблон:Sfn His contemporary, Alexis de Tocqueville, depicted him as the spokesperson of the majority and their passions.Шаблон:Sfn He has been variously described as a frontiersman personifying the independence of the American West,Шаблон:Sfn a slave-owning member of the Southern gentry,Шаблон:Sfn and a populist who promoted faith in the wisdom of the ordinary citizen.Шаблон:Sfn He has been represented as a statesman who substantially advanced the spirit of democracyШаблон:Sfn and upheld the foundations of American constitutionalism,Шаблон:Sfn as well as an autocratic demagogue who crushed political opposition and trampled the law.Шаблон:Sfn[20]
In the 1920s, Jackson's rise to power became associated with the idea of the "common man".Шаблон:Sfnm This idea defined the age as a populist rejection of social elites and a vindication of every person's value independent of class and status.Шаблон:Sfn Jackson was seen as its personification,Шаблон:Sfn an individual free of societal constraints who can achieve great things.Шаблон:Sfn In 1945, Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.'s influential Age of Jackson redefined Jackson's legacy through the lens of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal,Шаблон:Sfn describing the common man as a member of the working class struggling against exploitation by business concerns.Шаблон:Sfnm
In the twenty-first century, Jackson's Indian Removal Act has been described as ethnic cleansing:Шаблон:Sfnm the use of force, terror and violence to make an area ethnically homogeneous.Шаблон:Refn To achieve the goal of separating Native Americans from the whites,Шаблон:Sfnm coercive force such as threats and bribes were used to effect removalШаблон:Sfnm and unauthorized military force was used when there was resistance,Шаблон:Sfnm as in the case of the Second Seminole War.Шаблон:Sfn The act has been discussed in the context of genocide,Шаблон:Sfn and its role in the long-term destruction of Native American societies and their cultures continues to be debated.Шаблон:Sfnm
Jackson's legacy has been variously used by later presidents. Abraham Lincoln referenced Jackson's ideas when negotiating the challenges to the Union that he faced during 1861, including Jackson's understanding of the constitution during the nullification crisis and the president's right to interpret the constitution.[21] Franklin D. Roosevelt used Jackson to redefine the Democratic Party, describing him as a defender of the exploited and downtrodden and as a fighter for social justice and human rights.Шаблон:Sfn[22] Donald Trump used Jackson's legacy to present himself as the president of the common man,Шаблон:Sfn praising Jackson for saving the country from a rising aristocracy and protecting American workers with a tariff.[23] In 2016, President Barack Obama's administration announced it was removing Jackson's portrait from the $20 bill and replacing it with one of Harriet Tubman.Шаблон:Sfn Though the plan was put on hold during Trump's presidency, President Joe Biden's administration resumed it in 2021.[24]
Jackson is usually rated highly as a president, but his reputation began to decline in the 1960s.[25][26] His contradictory legacy is shown in opinion polls. A 2014 survey of political scientists rated Jackson as the ninth-highest rated president but the third-most polarizing. He was also ranked the third-most overrated president.Шаблон:Sfn In a C-SPAN poll of historians, Jackson was ranked the 13th in 2009, 18th in 2017, and 22nd in 2021.[27]
Writings
- Шаблон:Cite book (11 volumes to date; 17 volumes projected). Ongoing project to print all of Jackson's papers.
- Шаблон:Cite book (7 volumes; 2 available online).
- Шаблон:Cite book Reprints Jackson's major messages and reports.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Biographies
- Шаблон:Cite book
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Books
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Journal articles and dissertations
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Primary sources
- Шаблон:Cite web
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- Шаблон:Cite web
- Шаблон:Cite book
External links
- Scholarly coverage of Jackson at Miller Center, U of Virginia
- Шаблон:Gutenberg author
- Шаблон:Internet Archive author
- Шаблон:Librivox author
- The Papers of Andrew Jackson at the Avalon Project
- The Hermitage, home of President Andrew Jackson
- Шаблон:Cite web A digital archive providing access to manuscript images of many of Jackson's documents.
Шаблон:Andrew Jackson Шаблон:Navboxes Шаблон:Navboxes Шаблон:Portal bar Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Шаблон:Cite thesis
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- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
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