Английская Википедия:Angle trisection
Angle trisection is a classical problem of straightedge and compass construction of ancient Greek mathematics. It concerns construction of an angle equal to one third of a given arbitrary angle, using only two tools: an unmarked straightedge and a compass.
In 1837, Pierre Wantzel proved that the problem, as stated, is impossible to solve for arbitrary angles. However, some special angles can be trisected: for example, it is trivial to trisect a right angle.
It is possible to trisect an arbitrary angle by using tools other than straightedge and compass. For example, neusis construction, also known to ancient Greeks, involves simultaneous sliding and rotation of a marked straightedge, which cannot be achieved with the original tools. Other techniques were developed by mathematicians over the centuries.
Because it is defined in simple terms, but complex to prove unsolvable, the problem of angle trisection is a frequent subject of pseudomathematical attempts at solution by naive enthusiasts. These "solutions" often involve mistaken interpretations of the rules, or are simply incorrect.[1]
Background and problem statement
Using only an unmarked straightedge and a compass, Greek mathematicians found means to divide a line into an arbitrary set of equal segments, to draw parallel lines, to bisect angles, to construct many polygons, and to construct squares of equal or twice the area of a given polygon.
Three problems proved elusive, specifically, trisecting the angle, doubling the cube, and squaring the circle. The problem of angle trisection reads:
Construct an angle equal to one-third of a given arbitrary angle (or divide it into three equal angles), using only two tools:
- an unmarked straightedge, and
- a compass.
Proof of impossibility
Pierre Wantzel published a proof of the impossibility of classically trisecting an arbitrary angle in 1837.[2] Wantzel's proof, restated in modern terminology, uses the concept of field extensions, a topic now typically combined with Galois theory. However, Wantzel published these results earlier than Évariste Galois (whose work, written in 1830, was published only in 1846) and did not use the concepts introduced by Galois.[3]
The problem of constructing an angle of a given measure Шаблон:Math is equivalent to constructing two segments such that the ratio of their length is Шаблон:Math. From a solution to one of these two problems, one may pass to a solution of the other by a compass and straightedge construction. The triple-angle formula gives an expression relating the cosines of the original angle and its trisection: Шаблон:Math = Шаблон:Math.
It follows that, given a segment that is defined to have unit length, the problem of angle trisection is equivalent to constructing a segment whose length is the root of a cubic polynomial. This equivalence reduces the original geometric problem to a purely algebraic problem.
Every rational number is constructible. Every irrational number that is constructible in a single step from some given numbers is a root of a polynomial of degree 2 with coefficients in the field generated by these numbers. Therefore, any number that is constructible by a sequence of steps is a root of a minimal polynomial whose degree is a power of two. The angle Шаблон:Math radians (60 degrees, written 60°) is constructible. The argument below shows that it is impossible to construct a 20° angle. This implies that a 60° angle cannot be trisected, and thus that an arbitrary angle cannot be trisected.
Denote the set of rational numbers by Шаблон:Math. If 60° could be trisected, the degree of a minimal polynomial of Шаблон:Math over Шаблон:Math would be a power of two. Now let Шаблон:Math. Note that Шаблон:Math = Шаблон:Math = Шаблон:Math. Then by the triple-angle formula, Шаблон:Math and so Шаблон:Math. Thus Шаблон:Math. Define Шаблон:Math to be the polynomial Шаблон:Math.
Since Шаблон:Math is a root of Шаблон:Math, the minimal polynomial for Шаблон:Math is a factor of Шаблон:Math. Because Шаблон:Math has degree 3, if it is reducible over by Шаблон:Math then it has a rational root. By the rational root theorem, this root must be Шаблон:Math or Шаблон:Math, but none of these is a root. Therefore, Шаблон:Math is irreducible over by Шаблон:Math, and the minimal polynomial for Шаблон:Math is of degree Шаблон:Math.
So an angle of measure Шаблон:Math cannot be trisected.
Angles which can be trisected
However, some angles can be trisected. For example, for any constructible angle Шаблон:Math, an angle of measure Шаблон:Math can be trivially trisected by ignoring the given angle and directly constructing an angle of measure Шаблон:Math. There are angles that are not constructible but are trisectible (despite the one-third angle itself being non-constructible). For example, Шаблон:Math is such an angle: five angles of measure Шаблон:Math combine to make an angle of measure Шаблон:Math, which is a full circle plus the desired Шаблон:Math.
For a positive integer Шаблон:Mvar, an angle of measure Шаблон:Math is trisectible if and only if Шаблон:Math does not divide Шаблон:Mvar.[4][5] In contrast, Шаблон:Math is constructible if and only if Шаблон:Mvar is a power of Шаблон:Math or the product of a power of Шаблон:Math with the product of one or more distinct Fermat primes.
Algebraic characterization
Again, denote the set of rational numbers by Шаблон:Math.
Theorem: An angle of measure Шаблон:Math may be trisected if and only if Шаблон:Math is reducible over the field extension Шаблон:Math.
The proof is a relatively straightforward generalization of the proof given above that a Шаблон:Math angle is not trisectible.[6]
Other numbers of parts
For any nonzero integer Шаблон:Mvar, an angle of measure Шаблон:Math radians can be divided into Шаблон:Mvar equal parts with straightedge and compass if and only if Шаблон:Mvar is either a power of Шаблон:Math or is a power of Шаблон:Math multiplied by the product of one or more distinct Fermat primes, none of which divides Шаблон:Mvar. In the case of trisection (Шаблон:Math, which is a Fermat prime), this condition becomes the above-mentioned requirement that Шаблон:Mvar not be divisible by Шаблон:Math.[5]
Other methods
The general problem of angle trisection is solvable by using additional tools, and thus going outside of the original Greek framework of compass and straightedge.
Many incorrect methods of trisecting the general angle have been proposed. Some of these methods provide reasonable approximations; others (some of which are mentioned below) involve tools not permitted in the classical problem. The mathematician Underwood Dudley has detailed some of these failed attempts in his book The Trisectors.[1]
Approximation by successive bisections
Trisection can be approximated by repetition of the compass and straightedge method for bisecting an angle. The geometric series Шаблон:Nowrap or Шаблон:Nowrap can be used as a basis for the bisections. An approximation to any degree of accuracy can be obtained in a finite number of steps.[7]
Using origami
Шаблон:Main Trisection, like many constructions impossible by ruler and compass, can easily be accomplished by the operations of paper folding, or origami. Huzita's axioms (types of folding operations) can construct cubic extensions (cube roots) of given lengths, whereas ruler-and-compass can construct only quadratic extensions (square roots).
Using a linkage
There are a number of simple linkages which can be used to make an instrument to trisect angles including Kempe's Trisector and Sylvester's Link Fan or Isoklinostat.[8]
With a right triangular ruler
In 1932, Ludwig Bieberbach published in Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik his work Zur Lehre von den kubischen Konstruktionen.[9] He states therein (free translation):
- "As is known ... every cubic construction can be traced back to the trisection of the angle and to the multiplication of the cube, that is, the extraction of the third root. I need only to show how these two classical tasks can be solved by means of the right angle hook."
The construction begins with drawing a circle passing through the vertex Шаблон:Mvar of the angle to be trisected, centered at Шаблон:Mvar on an edge of this angle, and having Шаблон:Mvar as its second intersection with the edge. A circle centered at Шаблон:Mvar and of the same radius intersects the line supporting the edge in Шаблон:Mvar and Шаблон:Mvar.
Now the right triangular ruler is placed on the drawing in the following manner: one leg of its right angle passes through Шаблон:Mvar; the vertex of its right angle is placed at a point Шаблон:Mvar on the line Шаблон:Mvar in such a way that the second leg of the ruler is tangent at Шаблон:Mvar to the circle centered at Шаблон:Mvar. It follows that the original angle is trisected by the line Шаблон:Mvar, and the line Шаблон:Mvar perpendicular to Шаблон:Mvar and passing through Шаблон:Mvar. This line can be drawn either by using again the right triangular ruler, or by using a traditional straightedge and compass construction. With a similar construction, one can improve the location of Шаблон:Mvar, by using that it is the intersection of the line Шаблон:Mvar and its perpendicular passing through Шаблон:Mvar.
Proof: One has to prove the angle equalities <math>\widehat{EPD}= \widehat{DPS}</math> and <math>\widehat{BPE} = \widehat{EPD}.</math> The three lines Шаблон:Mvar, Шаблон:Mvar, and Шаблон:Mvar are parallel. As the line segments Шаблон:Mvar and Шаблон:Mvar are equal, these three parallel lines delimit two equal segments on every other secant line, and in particular on their common perpendicular Шаблон:Mvar. Thus Шаблон:Math, where Шаблон:Mvar is the intersection of the lines Шаблон:Mvar and Шаблон:Mvar. It follows that the right triangles Шаблон:Mvar and Шаблон:Mvar are congruent, and thus that <math>\widehat{EPD}= \widehat{DPS},</math> the first desired equality. On the other hand, the triangle Шаблон:Mvar is isosceles, since all radiuses of a circle are equal; this implies that <math>\widehat{APE}=\widehat{AEP}.</math> One has also <math>\widehat{AEP}=\widehat{EPD},</math> since these two angles are alternate angles of a transversal to two parallel lines. This proves the second desired equality, and thus the correctness of the construction.
With an auxiliary curve
-
Trisection using the Archimedean spiral
-
Trisection using the Maclaurin trisectrix
There are certain curves called trisectrices which, if drawn on the plane using other methods, can be used to trisect arbitrary angles.[10] Examples include the trisectrix of Colin Maclaurin, given in Cartesian coordinates by the implicit equation
- <math>2x(x^2+y^2)=a(3x^2-y^2),</math>
and the Archimedean spiral. The spiral can, in fact, be used to divide an angle into any number of equal parts. Archimedes described how to trisect an angle using the Archimedean spiral in On Spirals around 225 BC.
With a marked ruler
Another means to trisect an arbitrary angle by a "small" step outside the Greek framework is via a ruler with two marks a set distance apart. The next construction is originally due to Archimedes, called a Neusis construction, i.e., that uses tools other than an un-marked straightedge. The diagrams we use show this construction for an acute angle, but it indeed works for any angle up to 180 degrees.
This requires three facts from geometry (at right):
- Any full set of angles on a straight line add to 180°,
- The sum of angles of any triangle is 180°, and,
- Any two equal sides of an isosceles triangle will meet the third side at the same angle.
Let Шаблон:Mvar be the horizontal line in the adjacent diagram. Angle Шаблон:Mvar (left of point Шаблон:Mvar) is the subject of trisection. First, a point Шаблон:Mvar is drawn at an angle's ray, one unit apart from Шаблон:Mvar. A circle of radius Шаблон:Mvar is drawn. Then, the markedness of the ruler comes into play: one mark of the ruler is placed at Шаблон:Mvar and the other at Шаблон:Mvar. While keeping the ruler (but not the mark) touching Шаблон:Mvar, the ruler is slid and rotated until one mark is on the circle and the other is on the line Шаблон:Mvar. The mark on the circle is labeled Шаблон:Mvar and the mark on the line is labeled Шаблон:Mvar. This ensures that Шаблон:Math. A radius Шаблон:Mvar is drawn to make it obvious that line segments Шаблон:Mvar, Шаблон:Mvar, and Шаблон:Mvar all have equal length. Now, triangles Шаблон:Mvar and Шаблон:Mvar are isosceles, thus (by Fact 3 above) each has two equal angles.
Hypothesis: Given Шаблон:Mvar is a straight line, and Шаблон:Mvar, Шаблон:Mvar, and Шаблон:Mvar all have equal length,
Conclusion: angle Шаблон:Math.
- From Fact 1) above, <math> e + c = 180</math>°.
- Looking at triangle BCD, from Fact 2) <math> e + 2b = 180</math>°.
- From the last two equations, <math> c = 2b</math>.
- From Fact 2), <math> d + 2c = 180</math>°, thus <math> d = 180</math>°<math> - 2c </math>, so from last, <math> d = 180</math>°<math> - 4b</math>.
- From Fact 1) above, <math> a + d + b = 180</math>°, thus <math> a + (180</math>°<math> - 4b) + b = 180</math>°.
Clearing, Шаблон:Math, or Шаблон:Math, and the theorem is proved.
Again, this construction stepped outside the framework of allowed constructions by using a marked straightedge.
With a string
Thomas Hutcheson published an article in the Mathematics Teacher[11] that used a string instead of a compass and straight edge. A string can be used as either a straight edge (by stretching it) or a compass (by fixing one point and identifying another), but can also wrap around a cylinder, the key to Hutcheson's solution.
Hutcheson constructed a cylinder from the angle to be trisected by drawing an arc across the angle, completing it as a circle, and constructing from that circle a cylinder on which a, say, equilateral triangle was inscribed (a 360-degree angle divided in three). This was then "mapped" onto the angle to be trisected, with a simple proof of similar triangles.
With a "tomahawk"
A "tomahawk" is a geometric shape consisting of a semicircle and two orthogonal line segments, such that the length of the shorter segment is equal to the circle radius. Trisection is executed by leaning the end of the tomahawk's shorter segment on one ray, the circle's edge on the other, so that the "handle" (longer segment) crosses the angle's vertex; the trisection line runs between the vertex and the center of the semicircle.
While a tomahawk is constructible with compass and straightedge, it is not generally possible to construct a tomahawk in any desired position. Thus, the above construction does not contradict the nontrisectibility of angles with ruler and compass alone.
As a tomahawk can be used as a set square, it can be also used for trisection angles by the method described in Шаблон:Slink.
The tomahawk produces the same geometric effect as the paper-folding method: the distance between circle center and the tip of the shorter segment is twice the distance of the radius, which is guaranteed to contact the angle. It is also equivalent to the use of an architects L-Ruler (Carpenter's Square).
With interconnected compasses
An angle can be trisected with a device that is essentially a four-pronged version of a compass, with linkages between the prongs designed to keep the three angles between adjacent prongs equal.[12]
Uses of angle trisection
A cubic equation with real coefficients can be solved geometrically with compass, straightedge, and an angle trisector if and only if it has three real roots.[13]Шаблон:Rp
A regular polygon with n sides can be constructed with ruler, compass, and angle trisector if and only if <math>n=2^r3^sp_1p_2\cdots p_k,</math> where r, s, k ≥ 0 and where the pi are distinct primes greater than 3 of the form <math>2^t3^u +1</math> (i.e. Pierpont primes greater than 3).[13]Шаблон:Rp
See also
References
Further reading
- Courant, Richard, Herbert Robbins, Ian Stewart, What is mathematics?: an elementary approach to ideas and methods, Oxford University Press US, 1996. Шаблон:ISBN.
External links
- MathWorld site
- Geometric problems of antiquity, including angle trisection
- Some history
- One link of marked ruler construction
- Another, mentioning Archimedes
- A long article with many approximations & means going outside the Greek framework
- Geometry site
Other means of trisection
- Approximate angle trisection as an animation, max. error of the angle ≈ ±4E-8°
- Trisecting via (Archived 2009-10-25) the limacon of Pascal; see also Trisectrix
- Trisecting via an Archimedean Spiral
- Trisecting via the Conchoid of Nicomedes
- sciencenews.org site on using origami
- Hyperbolic trisection and the spectrum of regular polygons
Шаблон:Greek mathematics Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 Шаблон:Citation
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ For the historical basis of Wantzel's proof in the earlier work of Ruffini and Abel, and its timing vis-a-vis Galois, see Шаблон:Citation.
- ↑ MacHale, Desmond. "Constructing integer angles", Mathematical Gazette 66, June 1982, 144–145.
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Ludwig Bieberbach (1932) "Zur Lehre von den kubischen Konstruktionen", Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik, H. Hasse und L. Schlesinger, Band 167 Berlin, p. 142–146 online-copie (GDZ). Retrieved on June 2, 2017.
- ↑ Jim Loy Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Isaac, Rufus, "Two mathematical papers without words", Mathematics Magazine 48, 1975, p. 198. Reprinted in Mathematics Magazine 78, April 2005, p. 111.
- ↑ 13,0 13,1 13,2 Шаблон:Cite journal
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