Английская Википедия:Arabic

Материал из Онлайн справочника
Перейти к навигацииПерейти к поиску

Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Pp-semi-indef Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Use American English Шаблон:Expert needed Шаблон:Infobox language

Arabic (Шаблон:Lang-ar, Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:IPA-ar; Шаблон:Lang-ar, Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:IPA-ar or Шаблон:IPA-ar) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.[1] Having emerged in the first millennium BC, it is named after the Arab people; the term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the Arabian Peninsula, as perceived by geographers from ancient Greece.[2][3]

Since the 7th century, Arabic has been characterized by diglossia, with an opposition between a standard prestige language—i.e., Literary Arabic: Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) or Classical ArabicШаблон:Efn—and diverse vernacular varieties, which serve as mother tongues.Шаблон:Sfn Colloquial dialects vary significantly from MSA, impeding mutual intelligibility.[4][5][6] MSA is only acquired through formal education and is not spoken natively. It is the language of literature, official documents, and formal written media. In spoken form, MSA is used in formal contexts, news bulletins and for prayers.[7] This variety is the lingua franca of the Arab world and the liturgical language of Islam.[8] It is an official language of 26 states and one disputed territory, the third most after English and French.[9] It is also one of six official languages of the United Nations.[10]

Spoken varieties are the usual medium of communication in all other domains. They are not standardized and vary significantly, some of them being mutually unintelligible.[11] The International Organization for Standardization assigns language codes to 33 varieties of Arabic, including MSA.[12][13] Arabic vernaculars do not descend from MSA or Classical Arabic.[14][15] Combined, Arabic dialects have 362 million native speakers,[16] while MSA is spoken by 274 million L2 speakers,[17] making it the sixth most spoken language in the world, and the most spoken that is neither Chinese nor Indo-European.[18]

Arabic is traditionally written with the Arabic alphabet, a right-to-left abjad and the official script for MSA. Colloquial varieties were not traditionally written; however, the emergence of social media has seen a significant increase in dialects written online. Besides the Arabic alphabet, dialects are also often written in Latin script from left to right or in Hebrew characters (in Israel)[19] with no standardized orthography. Hassaniya is the only variety officially written in a Latin alphabet (in Senegal).[20]Шаблон:Efn; Maltese also uses a Latin script, though it is widely classified as distinct from Arabic dialects.

Classification

Шаблон:Further Arabic is usually classified as a Central Semitic language. Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups.[1] The Semitic languages changed significantly between Proto-Semitic and the emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include:

  1. The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation (jalas-) into a past tense.
  2. The conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation (yajlis-) into a present tense.
  3. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms (e.g., a present tense formed by doubling the middle root, a perfect formed by infixing a Шаблон:IPA after the first root consonant, probably a jussive formed by a stress shift) in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms (e.g., -u for indicative, -a for subjunctive, no ending for jussive, -an or -anna for energetic).
  4. The development of an internal passive.

There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of the northern Hejaz. These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor, Proto-Arabic.Шаблон:Sfn[21] The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence:[22]

  1. negative particles Шаблон:IPA * Шаблон:IPA; Шаблон:IPA *Шаблон:IPA to Classical Arabic Шаблон:IPA
  2. Шаблон:IPA G-passive participle
  3. prepositions and adverbs Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA
  4. a subjunctive in -Шаблон:IPA
  5. Шаблон:IPA-demonstratives
  6. leveling of the -Шаблон:IPA allomorph of the feminine ending
  7. Шаблон:IPA complementizer and subordinator
  8. the use of Шаблон:IPA- to introduce modal clauses
  9. independent object pronoun in Шаблон:IPA
  10. vestiges of nunation

On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic.Шаблон:Sfn[23] Thus, Arabic vernaculars do not descend from Classical Arabic:Шаблон:Sfn Classical Arabic is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor.Шаблон:Sfn

History

Old Arabic

Шаблон:Main Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It is believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Шаблон:Lang and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested.[24]

In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in a script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic. On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B, Thamudic D, Safaitic, and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic.[24]

Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic," a collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged around the 1st century CE.Шаблон:Citation needed Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Шаблон:Lang, in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as the conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum.[25]

It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced--epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic." Scholars named its variant dialects after the towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic).[1] However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable.[26] Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to the fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic.[24]

The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel, and dated to around 125 CE.[27] This is followed by the Namara inscription, an epitaph of the Шаблон:Lang king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From the 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era.[28] There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria (Zabad, Jabal 'Usays, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of the Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic," as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into "Classical Arabic."[1]

Old Hejazi and Classical Arabic

Шаблон:Main

In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz, which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra, most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from the "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic).[29] This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Qur'an was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi.Шаблон:Citation needed

In the late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd, probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra. During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax.Шаблон:Citation needed

Standardization

Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali (Шаблон:Circa–689) is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar, or an-naḥw (Шаблон:Lang "the way"[30]), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants (Шаблон:Lang nuqaṭu‿l-i‘jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization (Шаблон:Lang at-tashkīl).[31] Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, Kitāb al-'Ayn (Шаблон:Lang "The Book of the Letter ع"), and is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody.[32] Al-Jahiz (776–868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries.[33] The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic," Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb, is based first of all upon a corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya.[34]

Spread

Arabic spread with the spread of Islam. Following the early Muslim conquests, Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish.[35] In the early Abbasid period, many Classical Greek terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at Baghdad's House of Wisdom.[35]

By the 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, Maimonides, the Andalusi Jewish philosopher, authored works in Judeo-Arabic—Arabic written in Hebrew script.[36]

Development

Ibn Jinni of Mosul, a pioneer in phonology, wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as Kitāb Al-Munṣif, Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab, and Шаблон:Interlanguage link.[37]

Ibn Mada' of Cordoba (1116–1196) realized the overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by Al-Jahiz 200 years prior.[33]

The Maghrebi lexicographer Ibn Manzur compiled Lisān al-ʿArab (Шаблон:Lang, "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference dictionary of Arabic, in 1290.[38]

Neo-Arabic

Charles Ferguson's koine theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on the eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories.[34] According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA.Шаблон:Sfn[39]

In around the 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus, the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb.[40]

Nahda

The Nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression."[41] According to James L. Gelvin, "Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to a wider audience."[41]

In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism, pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications.[42] Rifa'a al-Tahtawi proposed the establishment of Madrasat al-Alsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted the need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah Шаблон:Lang 'automobile' or bākhirah Шаблон:Lang 'steamship').[43][44]

In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Шаблон:Lang were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations,[45] first in Damascus (1919), then in Cairo (1932), Baghdad (1948), Rabat (1960), Amman (1977), Шаблон:Interlanguage link (1993), and Tunis (1993).[46] They review language development, monitor new words and approve the inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts.Шаблон:Citation needed

In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League.[46] These academies and organizations have worked toward the Arabization of the sciences, creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward the standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a world language.[46] This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, Arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco,[47] and Sudan.[48]

Classical, Modern Standard and spoken Arabic

Шаблон:FurtherШаблон:See alsoArabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic.[49] It could also refer to any of a variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects, which are not necessarily mutually intelligible.

Файл:Safaitic script with a figure of a camel on a red sandstone fragment, from es-Safa, currently housed in the British Museum.jpg
Safaitic inscription

Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran, used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate. Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as the Lisān al-ʻArab).Шаблон:Citation needed

Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era, especially in modern times.[50]

Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while the latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children.[51]

The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages) in medieval and early modern Europe.[49]

MSA is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic.Шаблон:Citation needed

Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows:Шаблон:Citation needed

  • Certain grammatical constructions of CA that have no counterpart in any modern vernacular dialect (e.g., the energetic mood) are almost never used in Modern Standard Arabic.Шаблон:Citation needed
  • Case distinctions are very rare in Arabic vernaculars. As a result, MSA is generally composed without case distinctions in mind, and the proper cases are added after the fact, when necessary. Because most case endings are noted using final short vowels, which are normally left unwritten in the Arabic script, it is unnecessary to determine the proper case of most words. The practical result of this is that MSA, like English and Standard Chinese, is written in a strongly determined word order and alternative orders that were used in CA for emphasis are rare. In addition, because of the lack of case marking in the spoken varieties, most speakers cannot consistently use the correct endings in extemporaneous speech. As a result, spoken MSA tends to drop or regularize the endings except when reading from a prepared text.Шаблон:Citation needed
  • The numeral system in CA is complex and heavily tied in with the case system. This system is never used in MSA, even in the most formal of circumstances; instead, a significantly simplified system is used, approximating the system of the conservative spoken varieties.Шаблон:Citation needed
Файл:Arabic Swadesh list 1-100.webm
Arabic Swadesh list (1-100).

MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., Шаблон:Transliteration 'to go') that is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve.[52] Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'film' or Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'democracy').Шаблон:Citation needed

The current preference is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'apoptosis', using the root Шаблон:Lang m/w/t 'death' put into the Xth form, or Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'university', based on Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'to gather, unite'; Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'republic', based on Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk').Шаблон:Citation needed

Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible, and some linguists consider them distinct languages.[53] However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations.[54]

Файл:Epitaph Imru-l-Qays Louvre AO4083.jpg
The Namara inscription, a sample of Nabataean script, considered a direct precursor of Arabic script.[35][55]

The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows,[56] as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising.

Hassaniya Arabic, Maltese, and Cypriot Arabic are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition.[57] Hassaniya is official in Mali[58] and recognized as a minority language in Morocco,[59] while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it.[60] Maltese is official in (predominantly Catholic) Malta and written with the Latin script. Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from Siculo-Arabic, though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors," many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not a type of Arabic.[20] Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus.[61]

Status and usage

Diglossia

The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia, which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically, means the one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic.[62]

In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on the region may be mutually unintelligible.[63][64][65][66][67] Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own.[68] When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. Arabic speakers often improve their familiarity with other dialects via music or film.Шаблон:Citation needed

Файл:Flag of the Arab League.svg
Flag of the Arab League, used in some cases for the Arabic language

The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese, Hindi and Urdu, Serbian and Croatian, Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot.[69]

While there is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a significant complicating factor: A single written form, significantly different from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites a number of sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak a single language, despite significant issues of mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions.[70]

From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages.[71] This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for the Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb, a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq, much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages.Шаблон:Citation needed

Файл:Flag of Hejaz 1917.svg
Flag used in some cases for the Arabic language (Flag of the Kingdom of Hejaz 1916–1925).The flag contains the four Pan-Arab colors: black, white, green and red.

Status in the Arab world vis-à-vis other languages

With the sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior.Шаблон:Sfn

In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of the Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises."[72]

As a foreign language

Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around the world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages, Middle Eastern studies, and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions[73] of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study the language.

Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations.[74] A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries.[75]

Vocabulary

Lexicography

Шаблон:See also

Pre-modern Arabic lexicography

The tradition of Arabic lexicography extended for about a millennium before the modern period.[76] Early lexicographers (Шаблон:Lang lughawiyyūn) sought to explain words in the Quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran.[76] They gathered shawāhid (Шаблон:Lang 'instances of attested usage') from poetry and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin Шаблон:Ill (Шаблон:Lang) who were perceived to speak the “purest,” most eloquent form of Arabic—initiating a process of jamʿu‿l-luɣah (Шаблон:Lang 'compiling the language') which took place over the 8th and early 9th centuries.[76]

Файл:Birmingham Quran manuscript.jpg
Arabic from the Quran in the old Hijazi dialect (Hijazi script, 7th century AD)

Kitāb al-'Ayn (Шаблон:Circa), attributed to Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi, is considered the first lexicon to include all Arabic roots; it sought to exhaust all possible root permutations—later called taqālīb (Шаблон:Lang)—calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal (Шаблон:Lang) and those that are not used muhmal (Шаблон:Lang).[76] Lisān al-ʿArab (1290) by Ibn Manzur gives 9,273 roots, while Tāj al-ʿArūs (1774) by Murtada az-Zabidi gives 11,978 roots.[76]

This lexicographic tradition was traditionalist and corrective in nature—holding that linguistic correctness and eloquence derive from Qurʾānic usage, Шаблон:Ill, and Bedouin speech—positioning itself against laḥnu‿l-ʿāmmah (Шаблон:Lang), the solecism it viewed as defective.[76]

Western lexicography of Arabic

In the second half of the 19th century, the British Arabist Edward William Lane, working with the Egyptian scholar Шаблон:Ill,[77] compiled the Arabic–English Lexicon by translating material from earlier Arabic lexica into English.[78] The German Arabist Hans Wehr, with contributions from Hedwig Klein,[79] compiled the Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart (1952), later translated into English as A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (1961), based on established usage, especially in literature.[80]

Modern Arabic lexicography

The Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo sought to publish a historical dictionary of Arabic in the vein of the Oxford English Dictionary, tracing the changes of meanings and uses of Arabic words over time.[81] A first volume of Al-Muʿjam al-Kabīr was published in 1956 under the leadership of Taha Hussein.[82] The project is not yet complete; its 15th volume, covering the letter ṣād, was published in 2022.[83]

Loanwords

Файл:Folio Blue Quran Met 2004.88.jpg
The Qur'an has served and continues to serve as a fundamental reference for Arabic. (Maghrebi Kufic script, Blue Qur'an, 9th–10th century)

The most important sources of borrowings into (pre-Islamic) Arabic are from the related (Semitic) languages Aramaic,[84] which used to be the principal, international language of communication throughout the ancient Near and Middle East, and Ethiopic. Many cultural, religious and political terms have entered Arabic from Iranian languages, notably Middle Persian, Parthian, and (Classical) Persian,[85] and Hellenistic Greek (kīmiyāʼ has as origin the Greek khymia, meaning in that language the melting of metals; see Roger Dachez, Histoire de la Médecine de l'Antiquité au XXe siècle, Tallandier, 2008, p. 251), alembic (distiller) from ambix (cup), almanac (climate) from almenichiakon (calendar).

For the origin of the last three borrowed words, see Alfred-Louis de Prémare, Foundations of Islam, Seuil, L'Univers Historique, 2002. Some Arabic borrowings from Semitic or Persian languages are, as presented in De Prémare's above-cited book: Шаблон:Citation needed

  • madīnah/medina (مدينة, city or city square), a word of Aramaic origin ܡܕ݂ܝܼܢ݇ܬܵܐ məḏī(n)ttā (in which it means "state/city").Шаблон:Citation needed
  • jazīrah (جزيرة), as in the well-known form الجزيرة "Al-Jazeera," means "island" and has its origin in the Syriac ܓܵܙܲܪܬܵܐ gāzartā.Шаблон:Citation needed
  • lāzaward (لازورد) is taken from Persian لاژورد lājvard, the name of a blue stone, lapis lazuli. This word was borrowed in several European languages to mean (light) blue – azure in English, azur in French and azul in Portuguese and Spanish.Шаблон:Citation needed

[[File:Arabic_script_evolution.svg|thumb|Evolution of early Arabic script (9th–11th century), with the Basmala as an example, from kufic [[Qur'an|Шаблон:Transliteration]] manuscripts:

(1) Early 9th century, script with no dots or diacritic marks;(2) and (3) 9th–10th century under the Abbasid dynasty, Abu al-Aswad's system established red dots with each arrangement or position indicating a different short vowel; later, a second black-dot system was used to differentiate between letters like Шаблон:Transliteration and Шаблон:Transliteration;

(4) 11th century, in al-Farāhidi's system (system used today) dots were changed into shapes resembling the letters to transcribe the corresponding long vowels.]]A comprehensive overview of the influence of other languages on Arabic is found in Lucas & Manfredi (2020).[86]

Influence of Arabic on other languages

The influence of Arabic has been most important in Islamic countries, because it is the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Quran. Arabic is also an important source of vocabulary for languages such as Amharic, Azerbaijani, Baluchi, Bengali, Berber, Bosnian, Chaldean, Chechen, Chittagonian, Croatian, Dagestani, Dhivehi, English, German, Gujarati, Hausa, Hindi, Kazakh, Kurdish, Kutchi, Kyrgyz, Malay (Malaysian and Indonesian), Pashto, Persian, Punjabi, Rohingya, Romance languages (French, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese, Sicilian, Spanish, etc.) Saraiki, Sindhi, Somali, Sylheti, Swahili, Tagalog, Tigrinya, Turkish, Turkmen, Urdu, Uyghur, Uzbek, Visayan and Wolof, as well as other languages in countries where these languages are spoken.[86] Modern Hebrew has been also influenced by Arabic especially during the process of revival, as MSA was used as a source for modern Hebrew vocabulary and roots.[87]

English has many Arabic loanwords, some directly, but most via other Mediterranean languages. Examples of such words include admiral, adobe, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, algorithm, alkaline, almanac, amber, arsenal, assassin, candy, carat, cipher, coffee, cotton, ghoul, hazard, jar, kismet, lemon, loofah, magazine, mattress, sherbet, sofa, sumac, tariff, and zenith.[88] Other languages such as Maltese[89] and Kinubi derive ultimately from Arabic, rather than merely borrowing vocabulary or grammatical rules.

Terms borrowed range from religious terminology (like Berber taẓallit, "prayer," from salat (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration)), academic terms (like Uyghur mentiq, "logic"), and economic items (like English coffee) to placeholders (like Spanish fulano, "so-and-so"), everyday terms (like Hindustani lekin, "but," or Spanish taza and French tasse, meaning "cup"), and expressions (like Catalan a betzef, "galore, in quantity"). Most Berber varieties (such as Kabyle), along with Swahili, borrow some numbers from Arabic. Most Islamic religious terms are direct borrowings from Arabic, such as Шаблон:Lang (ṣalāh), "prayer," and Шаблон:Lang (imām), "prayer leader."Шаблон:Citation needed

In languages not directly in contact with the Arab world, Arabic loanwords are often transferred indirectly via other languages rather than being transferred directly from Arabic. For example, most Arabic loanwords in Hindustani and Turkish entered through Persian. Older Arabic loanwords in Hausa were borrowed from Kanuri. Most Arabic loanwords in Yoruba entered through Hausa.Шаблон:Citation needed

Arabic words made their way into several West African languages as Islam spread across the Sahara. Variants of Arabic words such as Шаблон:Lang kitāb ("book") have spread to the languages of African groups who had no direct contact with Arab traders.[90]

Since, throughout the Islamic world, Arabic occupied a position similar to that of Latin in Europe, many of the Arabic concepts in the fields of science, philosophy, commerce, etc. were coined from Arabic roots by non-native Arabic speakers, notably by Aramaic and Persian translators, and then found their way into other languages. This process of using Arabic roots, especially in Kurdish and Persian, to translate foreign concepts continued through to the 18th and 19th centuries, when swaths of Arab-inhabited lands were under Ottoman rule.Шаблон:Citation needed

Spoken varieties

Шаблон:Main

Файл:Arabic Varieties Map-2023.svg
Geographical distribution of the varieties of Arabic per Ethnologue and other sources: Шаблон:Legend-col

Colloquial Arabic is a collective term for the spoken dialects of Arabic used throughout the Arab world, which differ radically from the literary language. The main dialectal division is between the varieties within and outside of the Arabian peninsula, followed by that between sedentary varieties and the much more conservative Bedouin varieties. All the varieties outside of the Arabian peninsula, which include the large majority of speakers, have many features in common with each other that are not found in Classical Arabic. This has led researchers to postulate the existence of a prestige koine dialect in the one or two centuries immediately following the Arab conquest, whose features eventually spread to all newly conquered areas. These features are present to varying degrees inside the Arabian peninsula. Generally, the Arabian peninsula varieties have much more diversity than the non-peninsula varieties, but these have been understudied.Шаблон:Citation needed

Файл:Manuscript page by Maimonides Arabic in Hebrew letters (cropped).jpg
Maimonides' autograph draft of The Guide for the Perplexed (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang Dalālatu‿l-ḥāʾirīn), in Arabic written with Hebrew letters.[91]

Within the non-peninsula varieties, the largest difference is between the non-Egyptian North African dialects, especially Moroccan Arabic, and the others. Moroccan Arabic in particular is hardly comprehensible to Arabic speakers east of Libya (although the converse is not true, in part due to the popularity of Egyptian films and other media).Шаблон:Citation needed

One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided a significant number of new words and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order. However, a much more significant factor for most dialects is, as among Romance languages, retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus Iraqi aku, Levantine fīh and North African kayən all mean 'there is', and all come from Classical Arabic forms (yakūn, fīhi, kā'in respectively), but now sound very different.Шаблон:Citation needed

Koiné

According to Charles A. Ferguson,[92] the following are some of the characteristic features of the koiné that underlies all the modern dialects outside the Arabian peninsula. Although many other features are common to most or all of these varieties, Ferguson believes that these features in particular are unlikely to have evolved independently more than once or twice and together suggest the existence of the koine:

Dialect groups

Phonology

Шаблон:Main

Шаблон:Or section Шаблон:Section rewrite Шаблон:Section too long

History

Of the 29 Proto-Semitic consonants, only one has been lost: Шаблон:IPA, which merged with Шаблон:IPA, while Шаблон:IPA became Шаблон:IPA (see Semitic languages).[110] Various other consonants have changed their sound too, but have remained distinct. An original Шаблон:IPA lenited to Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA – consistently attested in pre-Islamic Greek transcription of Arabic languages[111] – became palatalized to Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA by the time of the Quran and Шаблон:IPAslink, Шаблон:IPAslink, Шаблон:IPAslink or Шаблон:IPA after early Muslim conquests and in MSA (see Arabic phonology#Local variations for more detail).[112] An original voiceless alveolar lateral fricative Шаблон:IPA became Шаблон:IPA.[113]

Its emphatic counterpart Шаблон:IPA was considered by Arabs to be the most unusual sound in Arabic (Hence the Classical Arabic's appellation Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration or "language of the Шаблон:Transliteration"). For most modern dialects, it has become an emphatic stop Шаблон:IPA with loss of the laterality[113] or with complete loss of any pharyngealization or velarization, Шаблон:IPA. The classical Шаблон:Transliteration pronunciation of pharyngealization Шаблон:IPA still occurs in the Mehri language, and the similar sound without velarization, Шаблон:IPAslink, exists in other Modern South Arabian languages.Шаблон:Image frameOther changes may also have happened. Classical Arabic pronunciation is not thoroughly recorded and different reconstructions of the sound system of Proto-Semitic propose different phonetic values. One example is the emphatic consonants, which are pharyngealized in modern pronunciations but may have been velarized in the eighth century and glottalized in Proto-Semitic.[113]

Reduction of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA between vowels occurs in a number of circumstances and is responsible for much of the complexity of third-weak ("defective") verbs. Early Akkadian transcriptions of Arabic names show that this reduction had not yet occurred as of the early part of the 1st millennium BC.Шаблон:Citation needed

The Classical Arabic language as recorded was a poetic koine that reflected a consciouly archaizing dialect, chosen based on the tribes of the western part of the Arabian Peninsula, who spoke the most conservative variants of Arabic. Even at the time of Muhammed and before, other dialects existed with many more changes, including the loss of most glottal stops, the loss of case endings, the reduction of the diphthongs Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA into monophthongs Шаблон:IPA, etc. Most of these changes are present in most or all modern varieties of Arabic.Шаблон:Citation needed

An interesting feature of the writing system of the Quran (and hence of Classical Arabic) is that it contains certain features of Muhammad's native dialect of Mecca, corrected through diacritics into the forms of standard Classical Arabic. Among these features visible under the corrections are the loss of the glottal stop and a differing development of the reduction of certain final sequences containing Шаблон:IPA: Evidently, the final Шаблон:IPA became Шаблон:IPA as in the Classical language, but final Шаблон:IPA became a different sound, possibly Шаблон:IPA (rather than again Шаблон:IPA in the Classical language). This is the apparent source of the alif maqṣūrah 'restricted alif' where a final Шаблон:IPA is reconstructed: a letter that would normally indicate Шаблон:IPA or some similar high-vowel sound, but is taken in this context to be a logical variant of alif and represent the sound Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Citation needed

Literary Arabic

Файл:Poem by Abu 'ala al-Ma'arri ("I no longer steal from nature") read in Arabic.ogg
Recording of a poem by Al-Ma'arri titled "I no longer steal from nature"

The "colloquial" spoken dialects of Arabic are learned at home and constitute the native languages of Arabic speakers. "Formal" Modern Standard Arabic is learned at school; although many speakers have a native-like command of the language, it is technically not the native language of any speakers. Both varieties can be both written and spoken, although the colloquial varieties are rarely written down and the formal variety is spoken mostly in formal circumstances, e.g., in radio and TV broadcasts, formal lectures, parliamentary discussions and to some extent between speakers of different colloquial dialects.

Even when the literary language is spoken, it is normally only spoken in its pure form when reading a prepared text out loud and communicating between speakers of different colloquial dialects. When speaking extemporaneously (i.e. making up the language on the spot, as in a normal discussion among people), speakers tend to deviate somewhat from the strict literary language in the direction of the colloquial varieties. There is a continuous range of "in-between" spoken varieties: from nearly pure Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), to a form that still uses MSA grammar and vocabulary but with significant colloquial influence, to a form of the colloquial language that imports a number of words and grammatical constructions in MSA, to a form that is close to pure colloquial but with the "rough edges" (the most noticeably "vulgar" or non-Classical aspects) smoothed out, to pure colloquial.

The particular variant (or register) used depends on the social class and education level of the speakers involved and the level of formality of the speech situation. Often it will vary within a single encounter, e.g., moving from nearly pure MSA to a more mixed language in the process of a radio interview, as the interviewee becomes more comfortable with the interviewer. This type of variation is characteristic of the diglossia that exists throughout the Arabic-speaking world.Шаблон:Citation needed

Файл:هيئة المجمع اللغوي الملكي (مجمع اللغة العربية بالقاهرة) يوم تدشينه.png
Coverage in Al-Ahram in 1934 of the inauguration of the Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo, an organization of major importance to the modernization of Arabic.

Although Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is a unitary language, its pronunciation varies somewhat from country to country and from region to region within a country. The variation in individual "accents" of MSA speakers tends to mirror corresponding variations in the colloquial speech of the speakers in question, but with the distinguishing characteristics moderated somewhat. It is important in descriptions of "Arabic" phonology to distinguish between pronunciation of a given colloquial (spoken) dialect and the pronunciation of MSA by these same speakers.

Although they are related, they are not the same. For example, the phoneme that derives from Classical Arabic Шаблон:IPA has many different pronunciations in the modern spoken varieties, e.g., Шаблон:IPA including the proposed original Шаблон:IPA. Speakers whose native variety has either Шаблон:IPAblink or Шаблон:IPAblink will use the same pronunciation when speaking MSA. Even speakers from Cairo, whose native Egyptian Arabic has Шаблон:IPAblink, normally use Шаблон:IPAblink when speaking MSA. The Шаблон:IPAblink of Persian Gulf speakers is the only variant pronunciation which is not found in MSA; Шаблон:IPA is used instead, but may use [j] in MSA for comfortable pronunciation.

Another reason of different pronunciations is influence of colloquial dialects. The differentiation of pronunciation of colloquial dialects is the influence from other languages previously spoken and some still presently spoken in the regions, such as Coptic in Egypt, Berber, Punic, or Phoenician in North Africa, Himyaritic, Modern South Arabian, and Old South Arabian in Yemen and Oman, and Aramaic and Canaanite languages (including Phoenician) in the Levant and Mesopotamia.Шаблон:Citation needed

Another example: Many colloquial varieties are known for a type of vowel harmony in which the presence of an "emphatic consonant" triggers backed allophones of nearby vowels (especially of the low vowels Шаблон:IPA, which are backed to Шаблон:IPAblink in these circumstances and very often fronted to Шаблон:IPAblink in all other circumstances). In many spoken varieties, the backed or "emphatic" vowel allophones spread a fair distance in both directions from the triggering consonant. In some varieties, most notably Egyptian Arabic, the "emphatic" allophones spread throughout the entire word, usually including prefixes and suffixes, even at a distance of several syllables from the triggering consonant.

Speakers of colloquial varieties with this vowel harmony tend to introduce it into their MSA pronunciation as well, but usually with a lesser degree of spreading than in the colloquial varieties. For example, speakers of colloquial varieties with extremely long-distance harmony may allow a moderate, but not extreme, amount of spreading of the harmonic allophones in their MSA speech, while speakers of colloquial varieties with moderate-distance harmony may only harmonize immediately adjacent vowels in MSA.Шаблон:Citation needed

Vowels

Шаблон:Essay

Файл:Nasser and Taha Hussein, Nov 19 1959.JPG
Taha Hussein and Gamal Abdel Nasser were both staunch defenders of Standard Arabic.[114][115]

Modern Standard Arabic has six pure vowels (while most modern dialects have eight pure vowels which include the long vowels Шаблон:IPA), with short Шаблон:IPA and corresponding long vowels Шаблон:IPA. There are also two diphthongs: Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Cn

The pronunciation of the vowels differs from speaker to speaker, in a way that tends to reflect the pronunciation of the corresponding colloquial variety. Nonetheless, there are some common trends. Most noticeable is the differing pronunciation of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, which tend towards fronted Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink or Шаблон:IPAblink in most situations, but a back Шаблон:IPAblink in the neighborhood of emphatic consonants. Some accents and dialects, such as those of the Hejaz region, have an open Шаблон:IPAblink or a central Шаблон:IPAblink in all situations. The vowel Шаблон:IPA varies towards Шаблон:IPAblink too. Listen to the final vowel in the recording of Шаблон:Transliteration at the beginning of this article, for example.

The point is, Arabic has only three short vowel phonemes, so those phonemes can have a very wide range of allophones. The vowels Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are often affected somewhat in emphatic neighborhoods as well, with generally more back or centralized allophones, but the differences are less great than for the low vowels. The pronunciation of short Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA tends towards Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively, in many dialects.Шаблон:Citation needed

The definitions of both "emphatic" and "neighborhood" vary in ways that reflect (to some extent) corresponding variations in the spoken dialects. Generally, the consonants triggering "emphatic" allophones are the pharyngealized consonants Шаблон:IPA; Шаблон:IPAslink; and Шаблон:IPAslink, if not followed immediately by Шаблон:IPA. Frequently, the Шаблон:Lcons fricatives Шаблон:IPA trigger emphatic allophones, occasionally also the pharyngeal consonants Шаблон:IPA, the former more than the latter.

Many dialects have multiple emphatic allophones of each vowel, depending on the particular nearby consonants. In most MSA accents, emphatic coloring of vowels is limited to vowels immediately adjacent to a triggering consonant, although in some it spreads a bit farther: e.g., Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:IPA 'time'; Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:IPA 'homeland'; Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:IPA 'downtown' (also Шаблон:IPA or similar).Шаблон:Citation needed

In a non-emphatic environment, the vowel Шаблон:IPA in the diphthong Шаблон:IPA is pronounced Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA: hence Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:IPA 'sword' but Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:IPA 'summer'. However, in accents with no emphatic allophones of Шаблон:IPA (e.g., in the Hejaz), the pronunciation Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA occurs in all situations.Шаблон:Citation needed

Consonants

Шаблон:See also

Consonant phonemes of Modern Standard Arabic
Labial Dental Denti-alveolar Post-alv./
Palatal 		Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal
plain emphatic
Nasal Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Stop voiceless Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
voiced Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link (Шаблон:IPA link)
Fricative voiceless Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link ~ Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
voiced Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link ~ Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Trill Шаблон:IPA link
Approximant Шаблон:IPA link (Шаблон:IPA link) Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link

The phoneme Шаблон:IPA is represented by the Arabic letter Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lang) and has many standard pronunciations. Шаблон:IPAblink is characteristic of north Algeria, Iraq, and most of the Arabian peninsula but with an allophonic Шаблон:IPAblink in some positions; Шаблон:IPAblink occurs in most of the Levant and most of North Africa; and Шаблон:IPAblink is standard in Egypt, coastal Yemen, as well as eastern and coastal western Oman. Generally this corresponds with the pronunciation in the colloquial dialects. In Sudan and Yemen, as well as in some Sudanese and Yemeni varieties, it may be either Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPAblink, representing the original pronunciation of Classical Arabic.[116] Foreign words containing Шаблон:IPAslink may be transcribed with Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Script/Arabic or Шаблон:Script/Arabic, depending on the regional practice. In northern Egypt, where the Arabic letter Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lang) is normally pronounced Шаблон:IPAblink, a separate phoneme Шаблон:IPAslink, which may be transcribed with Шаблон:Lang, occurs in a small number of mostly non-Arabic loanwords, e.g., Шаблон:IPA 'jacket'.Шаблон:Citation needed

Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang) can be pronounced as Шаблон:IPAblink. In some places of Maghreb it can be also pronounced as Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Citation needed

Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang) are velar, post-velar, or uvular.[117]

In many varieties, Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang) are epiglottal Шаблон:IPA in West Asia.Шаблон:Citation needed

Шаблон:IPA is pronounced as velarized Шаблон:IPAblink in الله Шаблон:IPA, the name of God, q.e. Allah, when the word follows a, ā, u or ū (after i or ī it is unvelarized: Шаблон:Lang bismi‿l-lāh Шаблон:IPA).[116]

The emphatic consonant Шаблон:IPA was actually pronounced Шаблон:IPA, or possibly Шаблон:IPA[118]—either way, a highly unusual sound. The medieval Arabs actually termed their language Шаблон:Transliteration 'the language of the Ḍād' (the name of the letter used for this sound), since they thought the sound was unique to their language. (In fact, it also exists in a few other minority Semitic languages, e.g., Mehri.)

Arabic has consonants traditionally termed "emphatic" Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang), which exhibit simultaneous pharyngealization Шаблон:IPA as well as varying degrees of velarization Шаблон:IPA (depending on the region), so they may be written with the "Velarized or pharyngealized" diacritic (Шаблон:IPA) as: Шаблон:IPA. This simultaneous articulation is described as "Retracted Tongue Root" by phonologists.[119] In some transcription systems, emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter, for example, Шаблон:IPA is written Шаблон:Angle bracket; in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it, for example, Шаблон:Angle bracket.

Vowels and consonants can be phonologically short or long. Long (geminate) consonants are normally written doubled in Latin transcription (i.e. bb, dd, etc.), reflecting the presence of the Arabic diacritic mark Шаблон:Transliteration, which indicates doubled consonants. In actual pronunciation, doubled consonants are held twice as long as short consonants. This consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'he accepted' vs. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'he kissed'.Шаблон:Citation needed

Syllable structure

Arabic has two kinds of syllables: open syllables (CV) and (CVV)—and closed syllables (CVC), (CVVC) and (CVCC). The syllable types with two morae (units of time), i.e. CVC and CVV, are termed heavy syllables, while those with three morae, i.e. CVVC and CVCC, are superheavy syllables. Superheavy syllables in Classical Arabic occur in only two places: at the end of the sentence (due to pausal pronunciation) and in words such as Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'hot', Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'stuff, substance', Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'they disputed with each other', where a long Шаблон:Transliteration occurs before two identical consonants. A former short vowel between the consonants has been lost. In less formal pronunciations of Modern Standard Arabic, superheavy syllables are common at the end of words or before clitic suffixes such as Шаблон:Transliteration 'us, our', due to the deletion of final short vowels.Шаблон:Citation needed

In surface pronunciation, every vowel must be preceded by a consonant (which may include the glottal stop Шаблон:IPA). There are no cases of hiatus within a word, where two vowels occur next to each other, without an intervening consonant. Some words do have an underlying vowel at the beginning, such as the definite article al- or words such as Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'he bought', Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration 'meeting'. When actually pronounced, one of three things happens:

Stress

Word stress is not phonemically contrastive in Standard Arabic. It bears a strong relationship to vowel length. The basic rules for Modern Standard Arabic are:

  • A final vowel, long or short, may not be stressed.
  • Only one of the last three syllables may be stressed.
  • Given this restriction, the last heavy syllable, containing a long vowel or ending in a consonant, is stressed, if it is not the final syllable.
  • If the final syllable is super heavy and closed (of the form CVVC or CVCC) it receives stress.
  • If no syllable is heavy or super heavy, the first possible syllable (i.e. third from end) is stressed.
  • As a special exception, in Form VII and VIII verb forms stress may not be on the first syllable, despite the above rules: Hence Шаблон:Transliteration 'he subscribed' (whether or not the final short vowel is pronounced), Шаблон:Transliteration 'he subscribes' (whether or not the final short vowel is pronounced), Шаблон:Transliteration 'he should subscribe (juss.)'. Likewise Form VIII Шаблон:Transliteration 'he bought', Шаблон:Transliteration 'he buys'.

These rules may result in differently stressed syllables when final case endings are pronounced, vs. the normal situation where they are not pronounced, as in the above example of Шаблон:Transliteration 'library' in full pronunciation, but Шаблон:Transliteration 'library' in short pronunciation.Шаблон:Citation needed

The restriction on final long vowels does not apply to the spoken dialects, where original final long vowels have been shortened and secondary final long vowels have arisen from loss of original final -hu/hi.Шаблон:Citation needed

Some dialects have different stress rules. In the Egyptian Arabic dialect a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word, hence Шаблон:Transliteration 'school', Шаблон:Transliteration 'Cairo'. This also affects the way that Modern Standard Arabic is pronounced in Egypt. In the Arabic of Sanaa, stress is often retracted: Шаблон:Transliteration 'two houses', Шаблон:Transliteration 'their table', Шаблон:Transliteration 'desks', Шаблон:Transliteration 'sometimes', Шаблон:Transliteration 'their school'. In this dialect, only syllables with long vowels or diphthongs are considered heavy; in a two-syllable word, the final syllable can be stressed only if the preceding syllable is light; and in longer words, the final syllable cannot be stressed.Шаблон:Citation needed

Colloquial varieties

Шаблон:Further

Vowels

Шаблон:Col-begin Шаблон:Col-2

Vowel phonemes of Modern Standard Arabic
Short Long
Front Back Front Back
Close Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Open Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Diphthongs Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA

Шаблон:Col-2

most common vowel system among Arabic dialects
Short Long
Front Back Front Back
Close Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Mid Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Open Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Diphthongs Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA

Шаблон:Col-end As mentioned above, many spoken dialects have a process of emphasis spreading, where the "emphasis" (pharyngealization) of emphatic consonants spreads forward and back through adjacent syllables, pharyngealizing all nearby consonants and triggering the back allophone Шаблон:IPAblink in all nearby low vowels. The extent of emphasis spreading varies. For example, in Moroccan Arabic, it spreads as far as the first full vowel (i.e. sound derived from a long vowel or diphthong) on either side; in many Levantine dialects, it spreads indefinitely, but is blocked by any Шаблон:IPAslink or Шаблон:IPAslink; while in Egyptian Arabic, it usually spreads throughout the entire word, including prefixes and suffixes. In Moroccan Arabic, Шаблон:IPA also have emphatic allophones Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively.Шаблон:Citation needed

Unstressed short vowels, especially Шаблон:IPA, are deleted in many contexts. Many sporadic examples of short vowel change have occurred (especially Шаблон:IPA→Шаблон:IPA and interchange Шаблон:IPA↔Шаблон:IPA). Most Levantine dialects merge short /i u/ into Шаблон:IPA in most contexts (all except directly before a single final consonant). In Moroccan Arabic, on the other hand, short Шаблон:IPA triggers labialization of nearby consonants (especially velar consonants and uvular consonants), and then short /a i u/ all merge into Шаблон:IPA, which is deleted in many contexts. (The labialization plus Шаблон:IPA is sometimes interpreted as an underlying phoneme Шаблон:IPA.) This essentially causes the wholesale loss of the short-long vowel distinction, with the original long vowels Шаблон:IPA remaining as half-long Шаблон:IPA, phonemically Шаблон:IPA, which are used to represent both short and long vowels in borrowings from Literary Arabic.Шаблон:Citation needed

Most spoken dialects have monophthongized original Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA in most circumstances, including adjacent to emphatic consonants, while keeping them as the original diphthongs in others e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA. In most of the Moroccan, Algerian and Tunisian (except Sahel and Southeastern) Arabic dialects, they have subsequently merged into original Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Citation needed

Consonants

In most dialects, there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above. For example, Шаблон:IPAblink is considered a native phoneme in most Arabic dialects except in Levantine dialects like Syrian or Lebanese where Шаблон:Lang is pronounced Шаблон:IPAblink and Шаблон:Lang is pronounced Шаблон:IPAblink. Шаблон:IPAblink or Шаблон:IPAblink (Шаблон:Lang) is considered a native phoneme in most dialects except in Egyptian and a number of Yemeni and Omani dialects where Шаблон:Lang is pronounced Шаблон:IPAblink.

Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are distinguished in the dialects of Egypt, Sudan, the Levant and the Hejaz. They have merged as Шаблон:IPA in most dialects of the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq and Tunisia and have merged as Шаблон:IPA in Morocco and Algeria. The usage of non-native Шаблон:IPAblink Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:IPAblink Шаблон:Lang depends on the usage of each speaker but they might be more prevalent in some dialects than others. The Iraqi and Gulf Arabic has the sound Шаблон:IPAblink and writes it and Шаблон:IPA with the Persian letters Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration "plum;" Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration "truffle."

Early in the expansion of Arabic, the separate emphatic phonemes Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA coalesced into a single phoneme Шаблон:IPA. Many dialects, such as Egyptian, Levantine, and much of the Maghreb, subsequently lost Шаблон:Lcons fricatives, converting Шаблон:IPA into Шаблон:IPA. Most dialects borrow "learned" words from the Standard language using the same pronunciation as for inherited words. Some dialects without interdental fricatives, particularly in Egypt and the Levant, render original Шаблон:IPA in borrowed words as Шаблон:IPA.

Another key distinguishing mark of Arabic dialects is how they render the original velar and uvular plosives Шаблон:IPAslink, Шаблон:IPAslink (Proto-Semitic Шаблон:IPAslink), and Шаблон:IPAslink:

Pharyngealization of the emphatic consonants tends to weaken in many of the spoken varieties, and to spread from emphatic consonants to nearby sounds. The "emphatic" allophone Шаблон:IPAblink automatically triggers pharyngealization of adjacent sounds in many dialects. As a result, it may be difficult or impossible to determine whether a given coronal consonant is phonemically emphatic or not, especially in dialects with long-distance emphasis spreading. A notable exception is the sounds Шаблон:IPAslink vs. Шаблон:IPAslink in Moroccan Arabic, because the former is pronounced as an affricate Шаблон:IPAblink but the latter is not.

Grammar

Файл:Fa33aalah EN.pdf
Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works

Шаблон:MainThe grammar of Arabic has similarities with the grammar of other Semitic languages. Some of the typical differences between Standard Arabic (Шаблон:Lang) and vernacular varieties are a loss of morphological markings of grammatical case, changes in word order, an shift toward more analytic morphosyntax, loss of grammatical mood, and loss of the inflected passive voice.

Literary Arabic

Шаблон:Main As in other Semitic languages, Arabic has a complex and unusual morphology, i.e. method of constructing words from a basic root. Arabic has a nonconcatenative "root-and-pattern" morphology: A root consists of a set of bare consonants (usually three), which are fitted into a discontinuous pattern to form words. For example, the word for 'I wrote' is constructed by combining the root Шаблон:Transliteration 'write' with the pattern Шаблон:Transliteration 'I Xed' to form Шаблон:Transliteration 'I wrote'.

Other verbs meaning 'I Xed' will typically have the same pattern but with different consonants, e.g. Шаблон:Transliteration 'I read', Шаблон:Transliteration 'I ate', Шаблон:Transliteration 'I went', although other patterns are possible, e.g. Шаблон:Transliteration 'I drank', Шаблон:Transliteration 'I said', Шаблон:Transliteration 'I spoke', where the subpattern used to signal the past tense may change but the suffix Шаблон:Transliteration is always used.

From a single root Шаблон:Transliteration, numerous words can be formed by applying different patterns:

Nouns and adjectives

Nouns in Literary Arabic have three grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, and genitive [also used when the noun is governed by a preposition]); three numbers (singular, dual and plural); two genders (masculine and feminine); and three "states" (indefinite, definite, and construct). The cases of singular nouns, other than those that end in long ā, are indicated by suffixed short vowels (/-u/ for nominative, /-a/ for accusative, /-i/ for genitive).

The feminine singular is often marked by Шаблон:Script/Arabic /-at/, which is pronounced as /-ah/ before a pause. Plural is indicated either through endings (the sound plural) or internal modification (the broken plural). Definite nouns include all proper nouns, all nouns in "construct state" and all nouns which are prefixed by the definite article Шаблон:Script/Arabic /al-/. Indefinite singular nouns, other than those that end in long ā, add a final /-n/ to the case-marking vowels, giving /-un/, /-an/ or /-in/, which is also referred to as nunation or tanwīn.

Adjectives in Literary Arabic are marked for case, number, gender and state, as for nouns. The plural of all non-human nouns is always combined with a singular feminine adjective, which takes the Шаблон:Script/Arabic /-at/ suffix.

Pronouns in Literary Arabic are marked for person, number and gender. There are two varieties, independent pronouns and enclitics. Enclitic pronouns are attached to the end of a verb, noun or preposition and indicate verbal and prepositional objects or possession of nouns. The first-person singular pronoun has a different enclitic form used for verbs (Шаблон:Script/Arabic /-nī/) and for nouns or prepositions (Шаблон:Script/Arabic /-ī/ after consonants, Шаблон:Script/Arabic /-ya/ after vowels).

Nouns, verbs, pronouns and adjectives agree with each other in all respects. Non-human plural nouns are grammatically considered to be feminine singular. A verb in a verb-initial sentence is marked as singular regardless of its semantic number when the subject of the verb is explicitly mentioned as a noun. Numerals between three and ten show "chiasmic" agreement, in that grammatically masculine numerals have feminine marking and vice versa.

Verbs

Шаблон:Further Verbs in Literary Arabic are marked for person (first, second, or third), gender, and number. They are conjugated in two major paradigms (past and non-past); two voices (active and passive); and six moods (indicative, imperative, subjunctive, jussive, shorter energetic and longer energetic), the fifth and sixth moods, the energetics, exist only in Classical Arabic but not in MSA.[120] There are two participles, active and passive, and a verbal noun, but no infinitive.

The past and non-past paradigms are sometimes termed perfective and imperfective, indicating the fact that they actually represent a combination of tense and aspect. The moods other than the indicative occur only in the non-past, and the future tense is signaled by prefixing Шаблон:Script/Arabic Шаблон:Transliteration or Шаблон:Script/Arabic Шаблон:Transliteration onto the non-past. The past and non-past differ in the form of the stem (e.g., past Шаблон:Script/Arabic Шаблон:Transliteration vs. non-past Шаблон:Script/Arabic Шаблон:Transliteration), and use completely different sets of affixes for indicating person, number and gender: In the past, the person, number and gender are fused into a single suffixal morpheme, while in the non-past, a combination of prefixes (primarily encoding person) and suffixes (primarily encoding gender and number) are used. The passive voice uses the same person/number/gender affixes but changes the vowels of the stem.

The following shows a paradigm of a regular Arabic verb, Шаблон:Script/Arabic Шаблон:Transliteration 'to write'. In Modern Standard, the energetic mood, in either long or short form, which have the same meaning, is almost never used.

Derivation

Like other Semitic languages, and unlike most other languages, Arabic makes much more use of nonconcatenative morphology, applying many templates applied roots, to derive words than adding prefixes or suffixes to words.

For verbs, a given root can occur in many different derived verb stems, of which there are about fifteen, each with one or more characteristic meanings and each with its own templates for the past and non-past stems, active and passive participles, and verbal noun. These are referred to by Western scholars as "Form I", "Form II", and so on through "Form XV", although Forms XI to XV are rare.

These stems encode grammatical functions such as the causative, intensive and reflexive. Stems sharing the same root consonants represent separate verbs, albeit often semantically related, and each is the basis for its own conjugational paradigm. As a result, these derived stems are part of the system of derivational morphology, not part of the inflectional system.

Examples of the different verbs formed from the root Шаблон:Script/Arabic Шаблон:Transliteration 'write' (using Шаблон:Script/Arabic Шаблон:Transliteration 'red' for Form IX, which is limited to colors and physical defects):

Most of these forms are exclusively Classical Arabic
Form Past Meaning Non-past Meaning
I Шаблон:Transliteration 'he wrote' Шаблон:Transliteration 'he writes'
II Шаблон:Transliteration 'he made (someone) write' Шаблон:Transliteration "he makes (someone) write"
III Шаблон:Transliteration 'he corresponded with, wrote to (someone)' Шаблон:Transliteration 'he corresponds with, writes to (someone)'
IV Шаблон:Transliteration 'he dictated' Шаблон:Transliteration 'he dictates'
V Шаблон:Transliteration nonexistent Шаблон:Transliteration nonexistent
VI Шаблон:Transliteration 'he corresponded (with someone, esp. mutually)' Шаблон:Transliteration 'he corresponds (with someone, esp. mutually)'
VII Шаблон:Transliteration 'he subscribed' Шаблон:Transliteration 'he subscribes'
VIII Шаблон:Transliteration 'he copied' Шаблон:Transliteration 'he copies'
IX Шаблон:Transliteration 'he turned red' Шаблон:Transliteration 'he turns red'
X Шаблон:Transliteration 'he asked (someone) to write' Шаблон:Transliteration 'he asks (someone) to write'

Form II is sometimes used to create transitive denominative verbs (verbs built from nouns); Form V is the equivalent used for intransitive denominatives.

The associated participles and verbal nouns of a verb are the primary means of forming new lexical nouns in Arabic. This is similar to the process by which, for example, the English gerund "meeting" (similar to a verbal noun) has turned into a noun referring to a particular type of social, often work-related event where people gather together to have a "discussion" (another lexicalized verbal noun). Another fairly common means of forming nouns is through one of a limited number of patterns that can be applied directly to roots, such as the "nouns of location" in ma- (e.g. Шаблон:Transliteration 'desk, office' < Шаблон:Transliteration 'write', Шаблон:Transliteration 'kitchen' < Шаблон:Transliteration 'cook').

The only three genuine suffixes are as follows:

Colloquial varieties

Шаблон:Main The spoken dialects have lost the case distinctions and make only limited use of the dual (it occurs only on nouns and its use is no longer required in all circumstances). They have lost the mood distinctions other than imperative, but many have since gained new moods through the use of prefixes (most often /bi-/ for indicative vs. unmarked subjunctive). They have also mostly lost the indefinite "nunation" and the internal passive.

The following is an example of a regular verb paradigm in Egyptian Arabic.

Example of a regular Form I verb in Egyptian Arabic, kátab/yíktib "write"
Tense/Mood Past Present Subjunctive Present Indicative Future Imperative
Singular
1st katáb-t á-ktib bá-ktib ḥá-ktib "
2nd masculine katáb-t tí-ktib bi-tí-ktib ḥa-tí-ktib í-ktib
feminine katáb-ti ti-ktíb-i bi-ti-ktíb-i ḥa-ti-ktíb-i i-ktíb-i
3rd masculine kátab yí-ktib bi-yí-ktib ḥa-yí-ktib "
feminine kátab-it tí-ktib bi-tí-ktib ḥa-tí-ktib
Plural
1st katáb-na ní-ktib bi-ní-ktib ḥá-ní-ktib "
2nd katáb-tu ti-ktíb-u bi-ti-ktíb-u ḥa-ti-ktíb-u i-ktíb-u
3rd kátab-u yi-ktíb-u bi-yi-ktíb-u ḥa-yi-ktíb-u "

Writing system Шаблон:Anchor

Шаблон:Main

Файл:Menulis khat.jpg
Arabic calligraphy written by a Malay Muslim in Malaysia. The calligrapher is making a rough draft.

The Arabic alphabet derives from the Aramaic through Nabatean, to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of Coptic or Cyrillic scripts to Greek script. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (North African) and Middle Eastern versions of the alphabet—in particular, the faʼ had a dot underneath and qaf a single dot above in the Maghreb, and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals).

However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools (zaouias) of West Africa. Arabic, like all other Semitic languages (except for the Latin-written Maltese, and the languages with the Ge'ez script), is written from right to left. There are several styles of scripts such as thuluth, muhaqqaq, tawqi, rayhan, and notably naskh, which is used in print and by computers, and ruqʻah, which is commonly used for correspondence.[121][122]

Originally Arabic was made up of only rasm without diacritical marks[123] Later diacritical points (which in Arabic are referred to as nuqaṯ) were added (which allowed readers to distinguish between letters such as b, t, th, n and y). Finally signs known as Tashkil were used for short vowels known as harakat and other uses such as final postnasalized or long vowels.

Calligraphy

Шаблон:Main After Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi finally fixed the Arabic script around 786, many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Quran and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration.

Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as calligraphy has in the Western world, and is still considered by Arabs as a major art form; calligraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the Latin script, Arabic script is used to write down a verse of the Quran, a hadith, or a proverb. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. One of the current masters of the genre is Hassan Massoudy.Шаблон:Citation needed

In modern times the intrinsically calligraphic nature of the written Arabic form is haunted by the thought that a typographic approach to the language, necessary for digitized unification, will not always accurately maintain meanings conveyed through calligraphy.[124]

Romanization

Шаблон:Main

Examples of different transliteration/transcription schemes
Letter IPA UNGEGN ALA-LC Wehr DIN ISO SAS - 2 BATR ArabTeX chat
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link ʼ ʾ ˈ, ˌ ʾ ' e ' 2
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ā ʾ ā aa aa / A a a/e/é
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link, Шаблон:IPA y y; ī y; e y; ii y y; i/ee; ei/ai
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link th ṯ ç ṯ c _t s/th
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link~Шаблон:IPA link~Шаблон:IPA link j ǧ ŷ j j ^g j/g/dj
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link ḩ ḥ H .h 7
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link kh ḵ ḫ ẖ j x K _h kh/7'/5
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link dh ḏ đ z' _d z/dh/th
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link sh š x ^s sh/ch
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link ş ṣ S .s s/9
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link ḑ ḍ D .d d/9'
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link ţ ṭ T .tu t/6
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link~Шаблон:IPA link z̧ ẓ đ̣ Z .z z/dh/6'
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:Okina ʿ ř E ' 3
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA link gh ḡ ġ g j g .g gh/3'/8

There are a number of different standards for the romanization of Arabic, i.e. methods of accurately and efficiently representing Arabic with the Latin script. There are various conflicting motivations involved, which leads to multiple systems. Some are interested in transliteration, i.e. representing the spelling of Arabic, while others focus on transcription, i.e. representing the pronunciation of Arabic. (They differ in that, for example, the same letter Шаблон:Lang is used to represent both a consonant, as in "you" or "yet", and a vowel, as in "me" or "eat".)

Some systems, e.g. for scholarly use, are intended to accurately and unambiguously represent the phonemes of Arabic, generally making the phonetics more explicit than the original word in the Arabic script. These systems are heavily reliant on diacritical marks such as "š" for the sound equivalently written sh in English. Other systems (e.g. the Bahá'í orthography) are intended to help readers who are neither Arabic speakers nor linguists with intuitive pronunciation of Arabic names and phrases.Шаблон:Citation needed

These less "scientific" systems tend to avoid diacritics and use digraphs (like sh and kh). These are usually simpler to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems, and may lead to ambiguities, e.g. whether to interpret sh as a single sound, as in gash, or a combination of two sounds, as in gashouse. The ALA-LC romanization solves this problem by separating the two sounds with a prime symbol ( ′ ); e.g., as′hal 'easier'.

During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western-invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the Arab world, such as personal computers, the World Wide Web, email, bulletin board systems, IRC, instant messaging and mobile phone text messaging. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the Latin script only, and some of them still do not have the Arabic script as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script.

To handle those Arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral "3" may be used to represent the Arabic letter Шаблон:Angle bracket. There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it Arabic Chat Alphabet or IM Arabic. Other systems of transliteration exist, such as using dots or capitalization to represent the "emphatic" counterparts of certain consonants. For instance, using capitalization, the letter Шаблон:Angle bracket, may be represented by d. Its emphatic counterpart, Шаблон:Angle bracket, may be written as D.

Numerals

In most of present-day North Africa, the Western Arabic numerals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) are used. However, in Egypt and Arabic-speaking countries to the east of it, the Eastern Arabic numerals (Шаблон:Script/Arabic – Шаблон:Script/Arabic – Шаблон:Script/Arabic – Шаблон:Script/Arabic – Шаблон:Script/Arabic – Шаблон:Script/Arabic – Шаблон:Script/Arabic – Шаблон:Script/Arabic – Шаблон:Script/Arabic – Шаблон:Script/Arabic) are in use. When representing a number in Arabic, the lowest-valued position is placed on the right, so the order of positions is the same as in left-to-right scripts. Sequences of digits such as telephone numbers are read from left to right, but numbers are spoken in the traditional Arabic fashion, with units and tens reversed from the modern English usage. For example, 24 is said "four and twenty" just like in the German language (vierundzwanzig) and Classical Hebrew, and 1975 is said "a thousand and nine-hundred and five and seventy" or, more eloquently, "a thousand and nine-hundred five seventy."

Arabic alphabet and nationalism

There have been many instances of national movements to convert Arabic script into Latin script or to Romanize the language. Currently, the only Arabic variety to use Latin script is Maltese.

Lebanon

The Beirut newspaper La Syrie pushed for the change from Arabic script to Latin letters in 1922. The major head of this movement was Louis Massignon, a French Orientalist, who brought his concern before the Arabic Language Academy in Damascus in 1928. Massignon's attempt at Romanization failed as the academy and population viewed the proposal as an attempt from the Western world to take over their country. Sa'id Afghani, a member of the academy, mentioned that the movement to Romanize the script was a Zionist plan to dominate Lebanon.[125][126] Said Akl created a Latin-based alphabet for Lebanese and used it in a newspaper he founded, Lebnaan, as well as in some books he wrote.

Egypt

After the period of colonialism in Egypt, Egyptians were looking for a way to reclaim and re-emphasize Egyptian culture. As a result, some Egyptians pushed for an Egyptianization of the Arabic language in which the formal Arabic and the colloquial Arabic would be combined into one language and the Latin alphabet would be used.[125][126] There was also the idea of finding a way to use Hieroglyphics instead of the Latin alphabet, but this was seen as too complicated to use.[125][126]

A scholar, Salama Musa agreed with the idea of applying a Latin alphabet to Arabic, as he believed that would allow Egypt to have a closer relationship with the West. He also believed that Latin script was key to the success of Egypt as it would allow for more advances in science and technology. This change in alphabet, he believed, would solve the problems inherent with Arabic, such as a lack of written vowels and difficulties writing foreign words that made it difficult for non-native speakers to learn.[125][126] Ahmad Lutfi As Sayid and Muhammad Azmi, two Egyptian intellectuals, agreed with Musa and supported the push for Romanization.[125][127]

The idea that Romanization was necessary for modernization and growth in Egypt continued with Abd Al-Aziz Fahmi in 1944. He was the chairman for the Writing and Grammar Committee for the Arabic Language Academy of Cairo.[125][127] This effort failed as the Egyptian people felt a strong cultural tie to the Arabic alphabet.[125][127] In particular, the older Egyptian generations believed that the Arabic alphabet had strong connections to Arab values and history, due to the long history of the Arabic alphabet (Shrivtiel, 189) in Muslim societies.

Example Text

From Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Literary Arabic, written in the Arabic script:[128]

Arabic text

Шаблон:Rtl-para

ALA-LC Arabic transliteration

Шаблон:Transl

Translation

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:[129]

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

See also

Шаблон:Portal Шаблон:Div col

Шаблон:Div col end

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

Further Reading

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

References

Citations

Шаблон:Reflist

Sources

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

External links

Шаблон:InterWiki Шаблон:InterWiki Шаблон:InterWiki Шаблон:Incubator Шаблон:Incubator Шаблон:Incubator Шаблон:Incubator Шаблон:Wiktionary category Шаблон:Wikiversity Шаблон:Wikibooks Шаблон:Commons category Шаблон:Wikiquote Шаблон:Wikivoyage

Шаблон:Arabic language Шаблон:Arabic language books Шаблон:Varieties of Arabic Шаблон:Language histories Шаблон:Semitic languages

Шаблон:Authority control

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin/Boston, 2011.
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  13. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  15. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
  16. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок e25 не указан текст
  17. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок arb не указан текст
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  19. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок ShachmonMack2016p223–224 не указан текст
  20. ↑ 20,0 20,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  21. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  22. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  23. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  24. ↑ 24,0 24,1 24,2 Шаблон:Cite book
  25. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  26. ↑ Шаблон:Cite webШаблон:Dead link
  27. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  28. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  29. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  30. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  31. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  32. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  33. ↑ 33,0 33,1 Шаблон:Citation
  34. ↑ 34,0 34,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  35. ↑ 35,0 35,1 35,2 Шаблон:Cite web
  36. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  37. ↑ Bernards, Monique, "Ibn Jinnī", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, Edited by: Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, Everett Rowson. Consulted online on 27 May 2021 First published online: 2021 First print edition: 9789004435964, 20210701, 2021–4
  38. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  39. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  40. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  41. ↑ 41,0 41,1 Шаблон:Cite book
  42. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  43. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  44. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  45. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  46. ↑ 46,0 46,1 46,2 Шаблон:Cite book
  47. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
  48. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  49. ↑ 49,0 49,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  50. ↑ Abdulkafi Albirini. 2016. Modern Arabic Sociolinguistics (pp. 34–35).
  51. ↑ Abdulkafi Albirini. 2016. Modern Arabic Sociolinguistics (pp. 34–35).
  52. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  53. ↑ "Arabic Language." Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009.
  54. ↑ Trentman, E. and Shiri, S., 2020. The Mutual Intelligibility of Arabic Dialects. Critical Multilingualism Studies, 8(1), pp.104–134.
  55. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  56. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
  57. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  58. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  59. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  60. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок HassaniyaAlphabet не указан текст
  61. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  62. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  63. ↑ Janet C.E. Watson, The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic Шаблон:Webarchive, Introduction, p. xix. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Шаблон:ISBN
  64. ↑ Proceedings and Debates of the Шаблон:Webarchive 107th United States Congress Congressional Record, p. 10,462. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 2002.
  65. ↑ Shalom Staub, Yemenis in New York City: The Folklore of Ethnicity Шаблон:Webarchive, p. 124. Philadelphia: Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies, 1989. Шаблон:ISBN
  66. ↑ Daniel Newman, Arabic-English Thematic Lexicon Шаблон:Webarchive, p. 1. London: Routledge, 2007. Шаблон:ISBN
  67. ↑ Rebecca L. Torstrick and Elizabeth Faier, Culture and Customs of the Arab Gulf States Шаблон:Webarchive, p. 41. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2009. Шаблон:ISBN
  68. ↑ Walter J. Ong, Interfaces of the Word: Studies in the Evolution of Consciousness and Culture Шаблон:Webarchive, p. 32. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012. Шаблон:ISBN
  69. ↑ Clive Holes, Modern Arabic: Structures, Functions, and Varieties Шаблон:Webarchive, p. 3. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2004. Шаблон:ISBN
  70. ↑ Nizar Y. Habash,Introduction to Arabic Natural Language Processing Шаблон:Webarchive, pp. 1–2. San Rafael, CA: Morgan & Claypool, 2010. Шаблон:ISBN
  71. ↑ Bernard Bate, Tamil Oratory and the Dravidian Aesthetic: Democratic Practice in South India Шаблон:Webarchive, pp. 14–15. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013. Шаблон:ISBN
  72. ↑ Suleiman, p. 93 Шаблон:Webarchive
  73. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  74. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  75. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  76. ↑ 76,0 76,1 76,2 76,3 76,4 76,5 Шаблон:Cite journal
  77. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  78. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  79. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  80. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  81. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  82. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  83. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  84. ↑ See the seminal study by Siegmund Fraenkel, Die aramäischen Fremdwörter im Arabischen, Leiden 1886 (repr. 1962)
  85. ↑ See for instance Wilhelm Eilers, "Iranisches Lehngut im Arabischen", Actas IV. Congresso des Estudos Árabes et Islâmicos, Coimbra, Lisboa, Leiden 1971, with earlier references.
  86. ↑ 86,0 86,1 Шаблон:Cite book
  87. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  88. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  89. ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
  90. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  91. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  92. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
  93. ↑ Шаблон:E25
  94. ↑ Шаблон:E25
  95. ↑ Шаблон:E25
  96. ↑ 96,0 96,1 Borg, Albert J.; Azzopardi-Alexander, Marie (1997). Maltese. Routledge. Шаблон:ISBN.
  97. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  98. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  99. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  100. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  101. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  102. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  103. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  104. ↑ Isserlin (1986). Studies in Islamic History and Civilization, Шаблон:ISBN
  105. ↑ Шаблон:E25
  106. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  107. ↑ Шаблон:E25
  108. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
  109. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
  110. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  111. ↑ Al-Jallad, 42
  112. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  113. ↑ 113,0 113,1 113,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  114. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  115. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  116. ↑ 116,0 116,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  117. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  118. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
  119. ↑ e.g., Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  120. ↑ Rydin, Karin C. (2005). A reference grammar of Modern Standard Arabic. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  121. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  122. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  123. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  124. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  125. ↑ 125,0 125,1 125,2 125,3 125,4 125,5 125,6 Шаблон:Cite book
  126. ↑ 126,0 126,1 126,2 126,3 Shrivtiel, p. 188
  127. ↑ 127,0 127,1 127,2 Shrivtiel, p. 189
  128. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  129. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:Arabic&oldid=13221025