Английская Википедия:Arabic alphabet
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:For Шаблон:Infobox writing system Шаблон:Arabic alphabet Шаблон:Alphabet
The Arabic alphabet (Шаблон:Lang-ar, Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA-ar or Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Transl), or Arabic abjad, is the Arabic script as specifically codified for writing the Arabic language. It is written from right-to-left in a cursive style, and includes 28 letters, of which most have contextual letterforms. The Arabic alphabet is considered an abjad, with only consonants required to be written; due to its optional use of diacritics to notate vowels, it is considered an impure abjad.[1]
Consonants
The basic Arabic alphabet contains 28 letters. Forms using the Arabic script to write other languages added and removed letters: for example Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Kurdish, Urdu, Sindhi, Azerbaijani, Malay, Acehnese, Banjarese, Javanese, Pashto, Punjabi, Uyghur, Arwi and Arabi Malayalam all have additional letters in their alphabets. Unlike Greek-derived alphabets, Arabic has no distinct upper and lower case letterforms.
Many letters look similar but are distinguished from one another by dots (Шаблон:Transl) above or below their central part (Шаблон:Transl). These dots are an integral part of a letter, since they distinguish between letters that represent different sounds. For example, the Arabic letters Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl, and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl have the same basic shape, but with one dot added below, two dots added above, and three dots added above respectively. The letter Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl also has the same form in initial and medial forms, with one dot added above, though it is somewhat different in its isolated and final forms.
Both printed and written Arabic are cursive, with most letters within a word directly joined to adjacent letters.
Alphabetical order
There are two main collating sequences ('alphabetical orderings') for the Arabic alphabet: Шаблон:Transl, and Шаблон:Transl.
The original Шаблон:Transl order derives from that used by the Phoenician alphabet, and is therefore reminiscent of the orderings of other alphabets, such as those in Hebrew and Greek. With this ordering, letters are also used as numbers known as abjad numerals, possessing the same numerological codes as in Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy.
The Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Transl order is used when sorting lists of words and names, such as in phonebooks, classroom lists, and dictionaries. The ordering groups letters by the graphical similarity of the glyphs' shapes.
Abjadi
The Шаблон:Transl order is not a simple correspondence with the earlier north Semitic alphabetic order, as it has a position corresponding to the Aramaic letter samek Шаблон:Lang, which has no cognate letter in the Arabic alphabet historically.
The loss of Шаблон:Transl was compensated for by:
- In the Mashriqi abjad sequence, the letter shin Шаблон:Lang was split into two Arabic letters, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl, the latter of which took the place of Шаблон:Transl.
- In the Maghrebi abjad sequence, the letter [[Tsade (letter)|Шаблон:Transl]] Шаблон:Lang was split into two independent Arabic letters, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl, with the latter taking the place of Шаблон:Transl.
The six other letters that do not correspond to any north Semitic letter are placed at the end.
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | 200 | 300 | 400 | 500 | 600 | 700 | 800 | 900 | 1000 | – |
This is commonly vocalized as follows:
Another vocalization is:
This can be vocalized as:
Шаблон:Transl
Modern dictionaries and other reference books do not use the Шаблон:Transl order to sort alphabetically; instead, the newer Шаблон:Transl order is used wherein letters are partially grouped together by similarity of shape. The Шаблон:Transl order is never used as numerals.
In the Шаблон:Transl order (replaced recently Шаблон:When by the Mashriqi order,[2]Шаблон:Unreliable source? (though still used in many Quranic schools in Algeria)Шаблон:Cn the sequence is:Шаблон:Sfn
In Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani's encyclopedia Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl, the letter sequence is:Шаблон:Sfn
Letter forms
Шаблон:Calligraphy The Arabic alphabet is always cursive and letters vary in shape depending on their position within a word. Letters can exhibit up to four distinct forms corresponding to an initial, medial (middle), final, or isolated position (IMFI). While some letters show considerable variations, others remain almost identical across all four positions. Generally, letters in the same word are linked together on both sides by short horizontal lines, but six letters (Шаблон:Lang) can only be linked to their preceding letter. For example, Шаблон:Lang (Ararat) has only isolated forms because each letter cannot be connected to its following one. In addition, some letter combinations are written as ligatures (special shapes), notably Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang,[3] which is the only mandatory ligature (the unligated combination Шаблон:Lang is considered difficult to read).
Table of basic letters
Notes
- See the article Romanization of Arabic for details on various transliteration schemes. Arabic language speakers may usually not follow a standardized scheme when transcribing words or names. Some Arabic letters which do not have an equivalent in English (such as ق) are often spelled as numbers when Romanized. Also names are regularly transcribed as pronounced locally, not as pronounced in Literary Arabic (if they were of Arabic origin).
- Regarding pronunciation, the phonemic values given are those of Modern Standard Arabic, which is taught in schools and universities. In practice, pronunciation may vary considerably from region to region. For more details concerning the pronunciation of Arabic, consult the articles Arabic phonology and varieties of Arabic.
- The names of the Arabic letters can be thought of as abstractions of an older version where they were meaningful words in the Proto-Semitic language. Names of Arabic letters may have quite different names popularly.
- Six letters (Шаблон:Lang) do not have a distinct medial form and have to be written with their final form without being connected to the next letter. Their initial form matches the isolated form. The following letter is written in its initial form, or isolated form if it is the final letter in the word.
- The letter Шаблон:Transl originated in the Phoenician alphabet as a consonant-sign indicating a glottal stop. Today it has lost its function as a consonant, and, together with Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl, is a mater lectionis, a consonant sign standing in for a long vowel (see below), or as support for certain diacritics (Шаблон:Transl and [[hamza|Шаблон:Transl]]).
- Arabic currently uses a diacritic sign, Шаблон:Lang, called Шаблон:Transl, to denote the glottal stop Шаблон:IPA, written alone or with a carrier:
- alone: Шаблон:Lang
- with a carrier: Шаблон:Lang (above or under an Шаблон:Transl), Шаблон:Lang (above a Шаблон:Transl), Шаблон:Lang (above a dotless Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Transl).
- In academic work, the [[hamza|Шаблон:Transl]] (Шаблон:Lang) is transliterated with the modifier letter right half ring (ʾ), while the modifier letter left half ring (ʿ) transliterates the letter [[Ayin|Шаблон:Transl]] (Шаблон:Lang), which represents a different sound, not found in English.
- The Шаблон:Transl has a single form, since it is never linked to a preceding or following letter. However, it is sometimes combined with a Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, or Шаблон:Transl, and in that case the carrier behaves like an ordinary Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, or Шаблон:Transl.
Variations
Alif
Context | Form | Value | Closest English Equivalent |
---|---|---|---|
Without diacritics | Шаблон:Lang |
|
|
With [[hamza|Шаблон:Transl]] over
(hamzah alif) |
Шаблон:Lang |
|
|
With [[hamza|Шаблон:Transl]] under
(hamzah alif) |
Шаблон:Lang |
|
|
With [[Arabic diacritics#Maddah|Шаблон:Transl]] | Шаблон:Lang |
| |
With waslah | Шаблон:Lang |
|
|
Modified letters
The following are not individual letters, but rather different contextual variants of some of the Arabic letters.
Conditional forms | Name | Translit. | Phonemic Value (IPA) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Isolated | Final | Medial | Initial | |||
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | [[Arabic diacritics#Maddah|Шаблон:Transl]] | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:IPA(aka "lengthening/ stressing 'alif") | ||
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | [[Tāʾ marbūṭah|Шаблон:Transl]] | Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Transl |
(aka "correlated tāШаблон:'")
used in final position only and for denoting the feminine noun/word or to make the noun/word feminine; however, in rare irregular noun/word cases, it appears to denote the "masculine"; singular nouns: Шаблон:IPA, plural nouns: Шаблон:Transl (a preceding letter followed by a Шаблон:Transl + Шаблон:Transl = Шаблон:Script/Arabic) | ||
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang) | Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Transl |
Two uses: 1. The letter called Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl, pronounced Шаблон:IPA in Modern Standard Arabic. It is used only at the end of words in some special cases to denote the neuter/non-feminine aspect of the word (mainly verbs), where [[Tāʾ marbūṭah|Шаблон:Transl]] cannot be used. |
Ligatures
The use of ligature in Arabic is common. There is one compulsory ligature, that for Шаблон:Transl ل + Шаблон:Transl ا, which exists in two forms. All other ligatures, of which there are many,[4] are optional.
Contextual forms | Name | Trans. | Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Final | Medial | Initial | Isolated | |||
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | lām + alif | laa | /laː/ | ||
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic[5] | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | yāʾ + mīm | īm | /iːm/ |
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | lam + mīm | lm | /lm/ |
A more complex ligature that combines as many as seven distinct components is commonly used to represent the word Шаблон:Transl.
The only ligature within the primary range of Arabic script in Unicode (U+06xx) is Шаблон:Transl + Шаблон:Transl. This is the only one compulsory for fonts and word-processing. Other ranges are for compatibility to older standards and contain other ligatures, which are optional.
Note: Unicode also has in its Presentation Form B FExx range a code for this ligature. If your browser and font are configured correctly for Arabic, the ligature displayed above should be identical to this one, U+FEFB
ARABIC LIGATURE LAM WITH ALEF ISOLATED FORM:
U+0640
ARABIC TATWEEL + Шаблон:Transl + Шаблон:Transl
Note: Unicode also has in its Presentation Form B U+FExx range a code for this ligature. If your browser and font are configured correctly for Arabic, the ligature displayed above should be identical to this one:
U+FEFC
ARABIC LIGATURE LAM WITH ALEF FINAL FORM
Another ligature in the Unicode Presentation Form A range U+FB50 to U+FDxx is the special code for glyph for the ligature Шаблон:Transl ("God"), U+FDF2
ARABIC LIGATURE ALLAH ISOLATED FORM:
This is a work-around for the shortcomings of most text processors, which are incapable of displaying the correct vowel marks for the word Шаблон:Transl in Koran. Because Arabic script is used to write other texts rather than Koran only, rendering Шаблон:Transl + Шаблон:Transl + Шаблон:Transl as the previous ligature is considered faulty.
If one of a number of the fonts (Noto Naskh Arabic, mry_KacstQurn, KacstOne, Nadeem, DejaVu Sans, Harmattan, Scheherazade, Lateef, Iranian Sans, Baghdad, DecoType Naskh) is installed on a computer (Iranian Sans is supported by Wikimedia web-fonts), the word will appear without diacritics.
- Шаблон:Transl + Шаблон:Transl + Шаблон:Transl = LILLĀH (meaning "to Allāh [only to God]")
- Шаблон:Script/Arabic or لله
- Шаблон:Transl + Шаблон:Transl + Шаблон:Transl + Шаблон:Transl = ALLĀH (the Arabic word for "god")
- Шаблон:Script/Arabic or الله
- Шаблон:Transl + Шаблон:Transl + Шаблон:Transl +
U+0651
ARABIC SHADDA +U+0670
ARABIC LETTER SUPERSCRIPT ALEF + Шаблон:Transl- اللّٰه (DejaVu Sans and KacstOne don't show the added superscript Alef)
An attempt to show them on the faulty fonts without automatically adding the gemination mark and the superscript alif, although may not display as desired on all browsers, is by adding the U+200d
(Zero width joiner) after the first or second Шаблон:Transl
- (Шаблон:Transl +) Шаблон:Transl + Шаблон:Transl +
U+200d
ZERO WIDTH JOINER + Шаблон:Transl
Gemination
Gemination is the doubling of a consonant. Instead of writing the letter twice, Arabic places a W-shaped sign called Шаблон:Transl, above it. Note that if a vowel occurs between the two consonants the letter will simply be written twice. The diacritic only appears where the consonant at the end of one syllable is identical to the initial consonant of the following syllable. (The generic term for such diacritical signs is Шаблон:Transl).
General Unicode | Name | Name in Arabic script | Transliteration | |
---|---|---|---|---|
0651 | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Lang | (consonant doubled) |
Nunation
Nunation (Шаблон:Lang-ar Шаблон:Transl) is the addition of a final Шаблон:Transl to a noun or adjective. The vowel before it indicates grammatical case. In written Arabic nunation is indicated by doubling the vowel diacritic at the end of the word.
Vowels
Users of Arabic usually write long vowels but omit short ones, so readers must utilize their knowledge of the language in order to supply the missing vowels. However, in the education system and particularly in classes on Arabic grammar these vowels are used since they are crucial to the grammar. An Arabic sentence can have a completely different meaning by a subtle change of the vowels. This is why in an important text such as the Шаблон:Transl the three basic vowel signs (see below) are mandated, like the ḥarakāt and all the other diacritics or other types of marks, for example the cantillation signs.
Short vowels
In the Arabic handwriting of everyday use, in general publications, and on street signs, short vowels are typically not written. On the other hand, copies of the Шаблон:Transl cannot be endorsed by the religious institutes that review them unless the diacritics are included. Children's books, elementary school texts, and Arabic-language grammars in general will include diacritics to some degree. These are known as "vocalized" texts.
Short vowels may be written with diacritics placed above or below the consonant that precedes them in the syllable, called Шаблон:Transl. All Arabic vowels, long and short, follow a consonant; in Arabic, words like "Ali" or "alif", for example, start with a consonant: Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl.
Short vowels (fully vocalized text) |
Code | Name | Name in Arabic script | Trans. | Value | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | 064E | fat·ḥah | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:IPA | Ranges from Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink, to Шаблон:IPAblink, depending on the native dialect, position, and stress. |
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | 064F | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:IPA | Ranges from Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink, to Шаблон:IPAblink, depending on the native dialect, position, and stress. Approximated to English "OO" (as "boot" but shorter) |
0650 | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:IPA | Ranges from Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink, to Шаблон:IPAblink, depending on the native dialect, position, and stress. Approximated to English "I" (as in "pick") |
Long vowels
In the fully vocalized Arabic text found in texts such as Quran, a long Шаблон:Transl following a consonant other than a [[hamza|Шаблон:Transl]] is written with a short Шаблон:Transl sign (Шаблон:Transl) on the consonant plus an Шаблон:Transl after it; long Шаблон:Transl is written as a sign for short Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Transl) plus a Шаблон:Transl; and long Шаблон:Transl as a sign for short Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Transl) plus a Шаблон:Transl. Briefly, Шаблон:Transl = Шаблон:Transl; Шаблон:Transl = Шаблон:Transl; and Шаблон:Transl = Шаблон:Transl. Long Шаблон:Transl following a Шаблон:Transl may be represented by an Шаблон:Transl or by a free Шаблон:Transl followed by an Шаблон:Transl (two consecutive Шаблон:Transls are never allowed in Arabic).
The table below shows vowels placed above or below a dotted circle replacing a primary consonant letter or a [[Shadda|Шаблон:Transl]] sign. For clarity in the table, the primary letters on the left used to mark these long vowels are shown only in their isolated form. Most consonants do connect to the left with Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl written then with their medial or final form. Additionally, the letter Шаблон:Transl in the last row may connect to the letter on its left, and then will use a medial or initial form. Use the table of primary letters to look at their actual glyph and joining types.
Unicode | Letter with diacritic | Name | Trans. | Variants | Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
064E 0627 | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | aa | Шаблон:IPA |
064E 0649 | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | fatḥah ʾalif maqṣūrah | Шаблон:Transl | aa | |
0650 0649 | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | kasrah ʾalif maqṣūrah | y | iy | Шаблон:IPA |
064F 0648 | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | uw/ ou | Шаблон:IPA |
0650 064A | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | iy | Шаблон:IPA |
In unvocalized text (one in which the short vowels are not marked), the long vowels are represented by the vowel in question: Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, or Шаблон:Transl. Long vowels written in the middle of a word of unvocalized text are treated like consonants with a Шаблон:Transl (see below) in a text that has full diacritics. Here also, the table shows long vowel letters only in isolated form for clarity.
Combinations Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are always pronounced Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl respectively. The exception is the suffix Шаблон:Lang in verb endings where Шаблон:Transl is silent, resulting in Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Transl.
Long vowels (unvocalized text) |
Name | Trans. | Value |
---|---|---|---|
0627 Шаблон:Script/Arabic |
(implied Шаблон:Transl) Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:IPA |
0649 Шаблон:Script/Arabic |
(implied Шаблон:Transl) Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl / Шаблон:Transl | |
0648 Шаблон:Script/Arabic |
(implied Шаблон:Transl) Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:IPA |
064A Шаблон:Script/Arabic |
(implied Шаблон:Transl) Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:IPA |
In addition, when transliterating names and loanwords, Arabic language speakers write out most or all the vowels as long (Шаблон:Transl with Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl with Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl, and Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl with Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl), meaning it approaches a true alphabet.
Diphthongs
The diphthongs Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are represented in vocalized text as follows:
Diphthongs (fully vocalized text) |
Name | Trans. | Value |
---|---|---|---|
064A 064E Шаблон:Script/Arabic |
Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:IPA |
0648 064E Шаблон:Script/Arabic |
Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:Transl | Шаблон:IPA |
Vowel omission
An Arabic syllable can be open (ending with a vowel) or closed (ending with a consonant):
- open: CV [consonant-vowel] (long or short vowel)
- closed: CVC (short vowel only)
A normal text is composed only of a series of consonants plus vowel-lengthening letters; thus, the word qalb, "heart", is written qlb, and the word qalaba "he turned around", is also written qlb.
To write qalaba without this ambiguity, we could indicate that the l is followed by a short a by writing a fatḥah above it.
To write qalb, we would instead indicate that the l is followed by no vowel by marking it with a diacritic called sukūn (Шаблон:Script/Arabic), like this: Шаблон:Lang.
This is one step down from full vocalization, where the vowel after the q would also be indicated by a fatḥah: Шаблон:Lang.
The Qurʾān is traditionally written in full vocalization.
The long i sound in some editions of the Qur’ān is written with a kasrah followed by a diacritic-less y, and long u by a ḍammah followed by a bare w. In others, these y and w carry a sukūn. Outside of the Qur’ān, the latter convention is extremely rare, to the point that y with sukūn will be unambiguously read as the diphthong Шаблон:IPA, and w with sukūn will be read Шаблон:IPA.
For example, the letters Шаблон:Transl can be read like English meel or mail, or (theoretically) also like mayyal or mayil. But if a sukūn is added on the y then the m cannot have a sukūn (because two letters in a row cannot be sukūnated), cannot have a ḍammah (because there is never an uy sound in Arabic unless there is another vowel after the y), and cannot have a kasrah (because kasrah before sukūnated y is never found outside the Qur’ān), so it must have a fatḥah and the only possible pronunciation is Шаблон:IPA (meaning mile, or even e-mail). By the same token, m-y-t with a sukūn over the y can be mayt but not mayyit or meet, and m-w-t with a sukūn on the w can only be mawt, not moot (iw is impossible when the w closes the syllable).
Vowel marks are always written as if the i‘rāb vowels were in fact pronounced, even when they must be skipped in actual pronunciation. So, when writing the name Aḥmad, it is optional to place a sukūn on the ḥ, but a sukūn is forbidden on the d, because it would carry a ḍammah if any other word followed, as in Aḥmadu zawjī "Ahmad is my husband".
Another example: the sentence that in correct literary Arabic must be pronounced Aḥmadu zawjun shirrīr "Ahmad is a wicked husband", is usually mispronounced (due to influence from vernacular Arabic varieties) as Aḥmad zawj shirrīr. Yet, for the purposes of Arabic grammar and orthography, is treated as if it were not mispronounced and as if yet another word followed it, i.e., if adding any vowel marks, they must be added as if the pronunciation were Aḥmadu zawjun sharrīrun with a tanwīn 'un' at the end. So, it is correct to add an un tanwīn sign on the final r, but actually pronouncing it would be a hypercorrection. Also, it is never correct to write a sukūn on that r, even though in actual pronunciation it is (and in correct Arabic MUST be) sukūned.
Of course, if the correct i‘rāb is a sukūn, it may be optionally written.
General Unicode | Name | Name in Arabic script | Translit. | Phonemic Value (IPA) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0652 | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | sukūn | سُكُون | (no vowel with this consonant letter or diphthong with this long vowel letter) |
∅ |
0670 | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | alif khanjariyyah [dagger ’alif – smaller ’alif written above consonant] | أَلِف خَنْجَرِيَّة | ā | Шаблон:IPA |
ٰٰ The sukūn is also used for transliterating words into the Arabic script. The Persian word Шаблон:Lang (mâsk, from the English word "mask"), for example, might be written with a sukūn above the Шаблон:Lang to signify that there is no vowel sound between that letter and the Шаблон:Lang.
Additional letters
Regional variations
Some letters take a traditionally different form in specific regions:
Letter | Explanation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Isolated | Final | Medial | Initial | |
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | A traditional form to denotate the Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang letter, used in areas influenced by Persian script and former Ottoman script, although rarely. Also used in older Pashto script.[6] |
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | A traditional Maghrebi variant of Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang. |
Шаблон:Nowrap | Шаблон:Nowrap | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | A traditional Maghrebi variant of Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang. Generally dotless in isolated and final positions and dotted in the initial and medial forms. |
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | An alternative version of Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang used especially in Maghrebi under the influence of the Ottoman script or in Gulf script under the influence of the Persian script. |
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:Script/Arabic | The traditional style to write or print the letter, and remains so in the Nile Valley region (Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan... etc.) and sometimes Maghreb; Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang is dotless in the isolated and final position. Visually identical to Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang; resembling the Perso-Arabic letter Шаблон:Lang which was also used in Ottoman Turkish. |
The phoneme Шаблон:IPA is considered native in most Arabic dialects, below are the different representations of the phoneme in native and loanwords:
Non-native letters to Standard Arabic
Some modified letters are used to represent non-native sounds of Modern Standard Arabic. These letters are used in transliterated names, loanwords and dialectal words.
Letter | Value | Note |
---|---|---|
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:IPAslink | Sometimes used when transliterating foreign names and loanwords instead of Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Script/Arabic |
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:IPAslink | Sometimes used when transliterating foreign names and loanwords instead of Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Script/Arabic.[7] Not to be confused with Шаблон:Script/Arabic. |
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Used in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. | |
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Шаблон:IPAslink1 | Used in Gulf and Iraqi Arabic dialects. The sequence Шаблон:Script/Arabic Шаблон:Transl is usually preferred in most of the Arab world (e.g. Шаблон:Script/Arabic for "Chad"). |
Шаблон:IPAslink2 | Used in Egypt for Шаблон:IPAslink or Шаблон:IPAslink where Шаблон:Script/Arabic is pronounced Шаблон:IPAslink. | |
Шаблон:IPAslink3 | Used in Israel, for example on road signs. | |
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Used in Gulf and Iraqi Arabic dialects | |
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Used in Tunisia and in Algeria for loanwords and for the dialectal pronunciation of Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Script/Arabic in some words. Not to be confused with Шаблон:Script/Arabic. | |
Шаблон:Script/Arabic | Used in Morocco. |
- Шаблон:IPAslink is considered a native phoneme/allophone in some dialects, e.g. Kuwaiti and Iraqi dialects.
- Шаблон:IPAslink is considered a native phoneme (instead of Шаблон:IPAslink) in a number of Levantine and North African dialects and as an allophone in others.
- Шаблон:IPAslink is considered a native phoneme/allophone in most modern Arabic dialects.
Used in languages other than Arabic
Numerals
Western (Maghreb, Europe) |
Central (Mideast) |
Eastern | |
---|---|---|---|
Persian | Urdu | ||
0 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
1 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
2 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
3 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
4 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
5 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
6 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
7 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
8 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
9 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
10 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
There are two main kinds of numerals used along with Arabic text; Western Arabic numerals and Eastern Arabic numerals. In most of present-day North Africa, the usual Western Arabic numerals are used. Like Western Arabic numerals, in Eastern Arabic numerals, the units are always right-most, and the highest value left-most. Eastern Arabic numbers are written from left to right.
Letters as numerals
In addition, the Arabic alphabet can be used to represent numbers (Abjad numerals). This usage is based on the Шаблон:Transl order of the alphabet. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl is 1, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl is 2, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl is 3, and so on until Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl = 10, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl = 20, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl = 30, ..., Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl = 200, ..., Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl = 1000. This is sometimes used to produce chronograms.
History
The Arabic alphabet can be traced back to the Nabataean script used to write Nabataean Aramaic. The first known text in the Arabic alphabet is a late fourth-century inscription from Шаблон:Transl 50 km east of Шаблон:Transl in Jordan, but the first dated one is a trilingual inscription at Zebed in Syria from 512.Шаблон:Citation needed However, the epigraphic record is extremely sparse, with only five certainly pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions surviving, though some others may be pre-Islamic. Later, dots were added above and below the letters to differentiate them. (The Aramaic language had fewer phonemes than the Arabic, and some originally distinct Aramaic letters had become indistinguishable in shape, so that in the early writings 15 distinct letter-shapes had to do duty for 29 sounds; cf. the similarly ambiguous Book Pahlavi.)
The first surviving document that definitely uses these dots is also the first surviving Arabic papyrus (PERF 558), dated April 643, although they did not become obligatory until much later. Important texts were and still are frequently memorized, especially in Qurʾan memorization.
Later still, vowel marks and the hamzah were introduced, beginning some time in the latter half of the 7th century, preceding the first invention of Syriac and Tiberian vocalizations. Initially, this was done by a system of red dots, said to have been commissioned in the Umayyad era by Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali, a dot above = Шаблон:Transl, a dot below = Шаблон:Transl, a dot on the line = Шаблон:Transl, and doubled dots indicated nunation. However, this was cumbersome and easily confusable with the letter-distinguishing dots, so about 100 years later, the modern system was adopted. The system was finalized around 786 by al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi.
Arabic printing
Medieval Arabic blockprinting flourished from the 10th century until the 14th. It was devoted only to very small texts, usually for use in amulets.
In 1514, following Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press in 1450, Gregorio de Gregorii, a Venetian, published an entire prayer-book in Arabic script; it was entitled Kitab Salat al-Sawa'i and was intended for eastern Christian communities.[11]
Between 1580 and 1586, type designer Robert Granjon designed Arabic typefaces for Cardinal Ferdinando de' Medici, and the Medici Oriental Press published many Christian prayer and scholarly Arabic texts in the late 16th century.[12]
Maronite monks at Maar Quzhay Monastery on Mount Lebanon published the first Arabic books to use movable type in the Middle East. The monks transliterated the Arabic language using Syriac script.
Although Napoleon generally receives credit for introducing the printing press to Egypt during his invasion of that country in 1798, and though he did indeed bring printing presses and Arabic presses to print the French occupation's official newspaper Al-Tanbiyyah "The Courier", printing in the Arabic language started several centuries earlier.
A goldsmith (like Gutenberg) designed and implemented an Arabic-script movable-type printing-press in the Middle East. The Lebanese Melkite monk Abdallah Zakher set up an Arabic printing press using movable type at the monastery of Saint John at the town of Dhour El Shuwayr in Mount Lebanon, the first homemade press in Lebanon using Arabic script. He personally cut the type molds and did the founding of the typeface. The first book came off his press in 1734; this press continued in use until 1899.[13]
Computers
The Arabic alphabet can be encoded using several character sets, including ISO-8859-6, Windows-1256 and Unicode (see links in Infobox above), latter thanks to the "Arabic segment", entries U+0600 to U+06FF. However, none of the sets indicates the form that each character should take in context. It is left to the rendering engine to select the proper glyph to display for each character.
Each letter has a position-independent encoding in Unicode, and the rendering software can infer the correct glyph form (initial, medial, final or isolated) from its joining context. That is the current recommendation. However, for compatibility with previous standards, the initial, medial, final and isolated forms can also be encoded separately.
Unicode
Шаблон:Main As of Unicode Шаблон:Unicode version, the Arabic script is contained in the following blocks:[14]
- Arabic (0600–06FF, 256 characters)
- Arabic Supplement (0750–077F, 48 characters)
- Arabic Extended-A (08A0–08FF, 96 characters)
- Arabic Extended-B (0870–089F, 41 characters)
- Arabic Extended-C (10EC0–10EFF, 3 characters)
- Arabic Presentation Forms-A (FB50–FDFF, 631 characters)
- Arabic Presentation Forms-B (FE70–FEFF, 141 characters)
- Rumi Numeral Symbols (10E60–10E7F, 31 characters)
- Indic Siyaq Numbers (1EC70–1ECBF, 68 characters)
- Ottoman Siyaq Numbers (1ED00–1ED4F, 61 characters)
- Arabic Mathematical Alphabetic Symbols (1EE00—1EEFF, 143 characters)
The basic Arabic range encodes the standard letters and diacritics but does not encode contextual forms (U+0621-U+0652 being directly based on ISO 8859-6). It also includes the most common diacritics and Arabic-Indic digits. U+06D6 to U+06ED encode Qur'anic annotation signs such as "end of ayah" ۖ and "start of rub el hizb" ۞. The Arabic supplement range encodes letter variants mostly used for writing African (non-Arabic) languages. The Arabic Extended-A range encodes additional Qur'anic annotations and letter variants used for various non-Arabic languages.
The Arabic Presentation Forms-A range encodes contextual forms and ligatures of letter variants needed for Persian, Urdu, Sindhi and Central Asian languages. The Arabic Presentation Forms-B range encodes spacing forms of Arabic diacritics, and more contextual letter forms. The Arabic Mathematical Alphabetical Symbols block encodes characters used in Arabic mathematical expressions.
See also the notes of the section on modified letters.
Keyboards
Keyboards designed for different nations have different layouts, so proficiency in one style of keyboard, such as Iraq's, does not transfer to proficiency in another, such as Saudi Arabia's. Differences can include the location of non-alphabetic characters.
All Arabic keyboards allow typing Roman characters, e.g., for the URL in a web browser. Thus, each Arabic keyboard has both Arabic and Roman characters marked on the keys. Usually, the Roman characters of an Arabic keyboard conform to the QWERTY layout, but in North Africa, where French is the most common language typed using the Roman characters, the Arabic keyboards are AZERTY.
To encode a particular written form of a character, there are extra code points provided in Unicode which can be used to express the exact written form desired. The range Arabic presentation forms A (U+FB50 to U+FDFF) contain ligatures while the range Arabic presentation forms B (U+FE70 to U+FEFF) contains the positional variants. These effects are better achieved in Unicode by using the zero-width joiner and zero-width non-joiner, as these presentation forms are deprecated in Unicode and should generally only be used within the internals of text-rendering software; when using Unicode as an intermediate form for conversion between character encodings; or for backwards compatibility with implementations that rely on the hard-coding of glyph forms.
Finally, the Unicode encoding of Arabic is in logical order, that is, the characters are entered, and stored in computer memory, in the order that they are written and pronounced without worrying about the direction in which they will be displayed on paper or on the screen. Again, it is left to the rendering engine to present the characters in the correct direction, using Unicode's bi-directional text features. In this regard, if the Arabic words on this page are written left to right, it is an indication that the Unicode rendering engine used to display them is out of date.[15][16]
There are competing online tools, e.g. Yamli editor, which allow entry of Arabic letters without having Arabic support installed on a PC, and without knowledge of the layout of the Arabic keyboard.[17]
Handwriting recognition
The first software program of its kind in the world that identifies Arabic handwriting in real time was developed by researchers at Ben-Gurion University (BGU).
The prototype enables the user to write Arabic words by hand on an electronic screen, which then analyzes the text and translates it into printed Arabic letters in a thousandth of a second. The error rate is less than three percent, according to Dr. Jihad El-Sana, from BGU's department of computer sciences, who developed the system along with master's degree student Fadi Biadsy.[18]
See also
Шаблон:Commons category Шаблон:Div col
- Abjad numerals
- Ancient South Arabian script
- Algerian braille
- Arabic braille
- Arabic calligraphy
- Arabic chat alphabet
- Arabic diacritics
- Arabic letter frequency
- Arabic Mathematical Alphabetic Symbols
- Arabic numerals
- Arabic phonology
- Arabic script – about other languages written in Arabic script
- ArabTeX – provides Arabic support for TeX and LaTeX
- History of the Arabic alphabet
- Kufic
- Modern Arabic mathematical notation
- Perso-Arabic script
- Rasm
- Romanization of Arabic
References
Sources
External links
Шаблон:Arabic alphabets Шаблон:Arabic language Шаблон:List of writing systems Шаблон:Northwest Semitic abjad Шаблон:Language orthographies Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 2,0 2,1 Шаблон:In lang Alyaseer.net Шаблон:Lang Ordering entries and cards in subject indexes Шаблон:Webarchive Discussion thread (Accessed 2009-October–06)
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Depending on fonts used for rendering, the form shown on-screen may or may not be the ligature form.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ File:Basmala kufi.svg – Wikimedia Commons
- ↑ File:Kufi.jpg – Wikimedia Commons
- ↑ File:Qur'an folio 11th century kufic.jpg – Wikimedia Commons
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Arabic and the Art of Printing – A Special Section Шаблон:Webarchive, by Paul Lunde
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ For more information about encoding Arabic, consult the Unicode manual available at The Unicode website
- ↑ See also Multilingual Computing with Arabic and Arabic Transliteration: Arabicizing Windows Applications to Read and Write Arabic & Solutions for the Transliteration Quagmire Faced by Arabic-Script Languages and A PowerPoint Tutorial (with screen shots and an English voice-over) on how to add Arabic to the Windows Operating System. Шаблон:Webarchive
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web