Английская Википедия:Arabic diacritics
Arabic script has numerous diacritics, which include consonant pointing known as Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lang), and supplementary diacritics known as Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lang). The latter include the vowel marks termed Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lang; singular: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Transliteration).
The Arabic script is a modified abjad, where short consonants and long vowels are represented by letters but short vowels and consonant length are not generally indicated in writing. Шаблон:Transliteration is optional to represent missing vowels and consonant length. Modern Arabic is always written with the i‘jām—consonant pointing, but only religious texts, children's books and works for learners are written with the full tashkīl—vowel guides and consonant length. It is however not uncommon for authors to add diacritics to a word or letter when the grammatical case or the meaning is deemed otherwise ambiguous. In addition, classical works and historic documents rendered to the general public are often rendered with the full tashkīl, to compensate for the gap in understanding resulting from stylistic changes over the centuries.
Tashkil (marks used as phonetic guides)
The literal meaning of Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration is 'forming'. As the normal Arabic text does not provide enough information about the correct pronunciation, the main purpose of Шаблон:Transliteration (and Шаблон:Transliteration) is to provide a phonetic guide or a phonetic aid; i.e. show the correct pronunciation for children who are learning to read or foreign learners.
The bulk of Arabic script is written without Шаблон:Transliteration (or short vowels). However, they are commonly used in texts that demand strict adherence to exact pronunciation. This is true, primarily, of the Qur'an Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration) and poetry. It is also quite common to add Шаблон:Transliteration to hadiths Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration; plural: Шаблон:Transliteration) and the Bible. Another use is in children's literature. Moreover, Шаблон:Transliteration are used in ordinary texts in individual words when an ambiguity of pronunciation cannot easily be resolved from context alone. Arabic dictionaries with vowel marks provide information about the correct pronunciation to both native and foreign Arabic speakers. In art and calligraphy, Шаблон:Transliteration might be used simply because their writing is considered aesthetically pleasing.
An example of a fully vocalised (vowelised or vowelled) Arabic from the Bismillah:
Some Arabic textbooks for foreigners now use Шаблон:Transliteration as a phonetic guide to make learning reading Arabic easier. The other method used in textbooks is phonetic romanisation of unvocalised texts. Fully vocalised Arabic texts (i.e. Arabic texts with Шаблон:Transliteration/diacritics) are sought after by learners of Arabic. Some online bilingual dictionaries also provide Шаблон:Transliteration as a phonetic guide similarly to English dictionaries providing transcription.
Harakat (short vowel marks)
The Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Lang, which literally means 'motions', are the short vowel marks. There is some ambiguity as to which Шаблон:Transliteration are also Шаблон:Transliteration; the Шаблон:Transliteration, for example, are markers for both vowels and consonants.
Fatḥah
The Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket is a small diagonal line placed above a letter, and represents a short Шаблон:IPA (like the /a/ sound in the English word "cat"). The word Шаблон:Transliteration itself (Шаблон:Lang) means opening and refers to the opening of the mouth when producing an Шаблон:IPA. For example, with [[Dalet|Шаблон:Transliteration]] (henceforth, the base consonant in the following examples): Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA.
When a Шаблон:Transliteration is placed before a plain letter Шаблон:Angle bracket ([[Aleph|Шаблон:Transliteration]]) (i.e. one having no hamza or vowel of its own), it represents a long Шаблон:IPA (close to the sound of "a" in the English word "dad", with an open front vowel /æː/, not back /ɑː/ as in "father"). For example: Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA. The Шаблон:Transliteration is not usually written in such cases. When a fathah is placed before the letter ⟨Шаблон:Lang⟩ (yā’), it creates an Шаблон:IPA (as in "lie"); and when placed before the letter ⟨Шаблон:Lang⟩ (wāw), it creates an Шаблон:IPA (as in "cow").
Although paired with a plain letter creates an open front vowel (/a/), often realized as near-open (/æ/), the standard also allows for variations, especially under certain surrounding conditions. Usually, in order to have the more central (/ä/) or back (/ɑ/) pronunciation, the word features a nearby back consonant, such as the emphatics, as well as [[ق|Шаблон:Transliteration]], or [[ر|Шаблон:Transliteration]]. A similar "back" quality is undergone by other vowels as well in the presence of such consonants, however not as drastically realized as in the case of Шаблон:Transliteration.[1][2][3]
Kasrah
A similar diagonal line below a letter is called a Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket and designates a short Шаблон:IPA (as in "me", "be") and its allophones [i, ɪ, e, e̞, ɛ] (as in "Tim", "sit"). For example: Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA.[4]
When a Шаблон:Transliteration is placed before a plain letter Шаблон:Angle bracket ([[ي|Шаблон:Transliteration]]), it represents a long Шаблон:IPA (as in the English word "steed"). For example: Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA. The Шаблон:Transliteration is usually not written in such cases, but if [[ي|Шаблон:Transliteration]] is pronounced as a diphthong Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Transliteration should be written on the preceding consonant to avoid mispronunciation. The word Шаблон:Transliteration means 'breaking'.[1]
Ḍammah
The Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket is a small curl-like diacritic placed above a letter to represent a short /u/ (as in "duke", shorter "you") and its allophones [u, ʊ, o, o̞, ɔ] (as in "put", or "bull"). For example: Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA.[4]
When a Шаблон:Transliteration is placed before a plain letter Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration), it represents a long Шаблон:IPA (like the 'oo' sound in the English word "swoop"). For example: Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA. The Шаблон:Transliteration is usually not written in such cases, but if Шаблон:Transliteration is pronounced as a diphthong Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Transliteration should be written on the preceding consonant to avoid mispronunciation.[1]
The word ḍammah (ضَمَّة) in this context means rounding, since it is the only rounded vowel in the vowel inventory of Arabic.
Alif Khanjariyah
The [[Dagger alif|superscript (or dagger) Шаблон:Transliteration]] Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration), is written as short vertical stroke on top of a consonant. It indicates a long Шаблон:IPA sound for which [[Aleph#Arabic|Шаблон:Transliteration]] is normally not written. For example: Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration) or Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration).
The dagger Шаблон:Transliteration occurs in only a few words, but they include some common ones; it is seldom written, however, even in fully vocalised texts. Most keyboards do not have dagger Шаблон:Transliteration. The word Allah Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration) is usually produced automatically by entering Шаблон:Transliteration. The word consists of Шаблон:Transliteration + ligature of doubled Шаблон:Transliteration with a Шаблон:Transliteration and a dagger Шаблон:Transliteration above Шаблон:Transliteration.
Maddah
Шаблон:Not to be confused Шаблон:Unreferenced section
The Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket is a tilde-shaped diacritic, which can only appear on top of an [[Aleph|Шаблон:Transliteration]] (آ) and indicates a glottal stop Шаблон:IPA followed by a long Шаблон:IPA.
In theory, the same sequence Шаблон:IPA could also be represented by two Шаблон:Transliterations, as in *Шаблон:Angle bracket, where a hamza above the first Шаблон:Transliteration represents the Шаблон:IPA while the second Шаблон:Transliteration represents the Шаблон:IPA. However, consecutive Шаблон:Transliterations are never used in the Arabic orthography. Instead, this sequence must always be written as a single Шаблон:Transliteration with a Шаблон:Transliteration above it, the combination known as an Шаблон:Transliteration. For example: Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA.
Alif waslah
The Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket or Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket looks like a small letter [[Tsade#Arabic Ṣād|Шаблон:Transliteration]] on top of an Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket (also indicated by an Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket without a Шаблон:Transliteration). It means that the Шаблон:Transliteration is not pronounced when its word does not begin a sentence. For example: Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration), but Шаблон:Angle bracket (imshū not mshū). This is because no Arab word can start with a vowel-less consonant: If the second letter from the Шаблон:Transliteration has a kasrah, the alif-waslah makes the sound /i/. However, when the second letter from it has a dammah, it makes the sound /u/.
It occurs only in the beginning of words, but it can occur after prepositions and the definite article. It is commonly found in imperative verbs, the perfective aspect of verb stems VII to X and their verbal nouns (Шаблон:Transliteration). The alif of the definite article is considered a Шаблон:Transliteration.
It occurs in phrases and sentences (connected speech, not isolated/dictionary forms):
- To replace the elided hamza whose alif-seat has assimilated to the previous vowel. For example: Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transliteration) ‘in Yemen’.
- In hamza-initial imperative forms following a vowel, especially following the conjunction Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration) ‘and’. For example: َШаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transliteration) ‘rise and then drink the water’.
Like the superscript alif, it is not written in fully vocalized scripts, except for sacred texts, like the Quran and Arabized Bible.
Sukūn
The Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket is a circle-shaped diacritic placed above a letter (Шаблон:Lang). It indicates that the consonant to which it is attached is not followed by a vowel, i.e., zero-vowel.
It is a necessary symbol for writing consonant-vowel-consonant syllables, which are very common in Arabic. For example: Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration).
The Шаблон:Transliteration may also be used to help represent a diphthong. A Шаблон:Transliteration followed by the letter Шаблон:Angle bracket ([[yodh|Шаблон:Transliteration]]) with a Шаблон:Transliteration over it (Шаблон:Lang) indicates the diphthong Шаблон:Transliteration (IPA Шаблон:IPA). A Шаблон:Transliteration, followed by the letter Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration) with a Шаблон:Transliteration, (Шаблон:Lang) indicates Шаблон:IPA.
The Шаблон:Transliteration may have also an alternative form of the small high head of [[ḥāʾ|Шаблон:Transliteration]] (Шаблон:Unichar), particularly in some Qurans. Other shapes may exist as well (for example, like a small comma above ⟨ʼ⟩ or like a circumflex ⟨ˆ⟩ in [[Nastaʿlīq script|Шаблон:Transliteration]]).[5]
Tanwin (final postnasalized or long vowels)
The three vowel diacritics may be doubled at the end of a word to indicate that the vowel is followed by the consonant n. They may or may not be considered Шаблон:Transliteration and are known as Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket, or nunation. The signs indicate, from left to right, Шаблон:Transliteration.
These endings are used as non-pausal grammatical indefinite case endings in Literary Arabic or classical Arabic (triptotes only). In a vocalised text, they may be written even if they are not pronounced (see pausa). See [[ʾIʿrab|Шаблон:Transliteration]] for more details. In many spoken Arabic dialects, the endings are absent. Many Arabic textbooks introduce standard Arabic without these endings. The grammatical endings may not be written in some vocalized Arabic texts, as knowledge of [[ʾIʿrab|Шаблон:Transliteration]] varies from country to country, and there is a trend towards simplifying Arabic grammar.
The sign Шаблон:Angle bracket is most commonly written in combination with Шаблон:Angle bracket ([[aleph|Шаблон:Transliteration]]), Шаблон:Angle bracket ([[Ta' marbuta|Шаблон:Transliteration]]), Шаблон:Angle bracket (alif hamzah) or stand-alone Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration). Шаблон:Transliteration should always be written (except for words ending in Шаблон:Transliteration or diptotes) even if Шаблон:Transliteration is not. Grammatical cases and Шаблон:Transliteration endings in indefinite triptote forms:
- Шаблон:Transliteration: nominative case;
- Шаблон:Transliteration: accusative case, also serves as an adverbial marker;
- Шаблон:Transliteration: genitive case.
Shaddah (consonant gemination mark)
The shadda or shaddah Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration), or tashdid Шаблон:Angle bracket (Шаблон:Transliteration), is a diacritic shaped like a small written Latin "w".
It is used to indicate gemination (consonant doubling or extra length), which is phonemic in Arabic. It is written above the consonant which is to be doubled. It is the only Шаблон:Transliteration that is commonly used in ordinary spelling to avoid ambiguity. For example: Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA; Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket ('school') vs. Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket ('teacher', female).
I‘jām (phonetic distinctions of consonants)
The i‘jām Шаблон:Angle bracket (sometimes also called nuqaṭ)[6] are the diacritic points that distinguish various consonants that have the same form (Шаблон:Transliteration), such as Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA ب, Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA ت, Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA ث, Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA ن, and Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA ي. Typically i‘jām are not considered diacritics but part of the letter.
Early manuscripts of the [[Qur'an|Шаблон:Transliteration]] did not use diacritics either for vowels or to distinguish the different values of the Шаблон:Transliteration. Vowel pointing was introduced first, as a red dot placed above, below, or beside the Шаблон:Transliteration, and later consonant pointing was introduced, as thin, short black single or multiple dashes placed above or below the rasm (image). These i‘jām became black dots about the same time as the Шаблон:Transliteration became small black letters or strokes.
Typically, Egyptians do not use dots under final Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket, which looks exactly like Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Angle bracket in handwriting and in print. This practice is also used in copies of the [[Mus'haf|Шаблон:Transliteration]] (Qurʾān) scribed by [[Uthman Taha|Шаблон:Transliteration]]. The same unification of Шаблон:Transliteration and Шаблон:Transliteration has happened in Persian, resulting in what the Unicode Standard calls "Шаблон:Smallcaps", that looks exactly the same as Шаблон:Transliteration in initial and medial forms, but exactly the same as Шаблон:Transliteration in final and isolated forms Шаблон:Angle bracket.
At the time when the i‘jām was optional, unpointed letters were ambiguous. To clarify that a letter would lack i‘jām in pointed text (i.e. Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA), the letter could be marked with a small v- or seagull-shaped diacritic above, also a superscript semicircle (crescent), a subscript dot (except in the case of Шаблон:Angle bracket; three dots were used with Шаблон:Angle bracket), or a subscript miniature of the letter itself. A superscript stroke known as jarrah, resembling a long fatħah, was used for a contracted (assimilated) sin. Thus Шаблон:Angle bracket were all used to indicate that the letter in question was truly Шаблон:Angle bracket and not Шаблон:Angle bracket.[7] These signs, collectively known as ‘alāmātu-l-ihmāl, are still occasionally used in modern Arabic calligraphy, either for their original purpose (i.e. marking letters without i‘jām), or often as purely decorative space-fillers. The small Шаблон:Lang above the kāf in its final and isolated forms Шаблон:Angle bracket was originally an ‘alāmatu-l-ihmāl that became a permanent part of the letter. Previously this sign could also appear above the medial form of kāf, when that letter was written without the stroke on its ascender. When kaf was written without that stroke, it could be mistaken for lam, thus kaf was distinguished with a superscript kaf or a small superscript hamza (nabrah), and lam with a superscript l-a-m (lam-alif-mim).[8]
Шаблон:AnchorHamza (glottal stop semi-consonant)
Although normally a diacritic is not considered a letter of the alphabet, the hamza Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transliteration, glottal stop), often stands as a separate letter in writing, is written in unpointed texts and is not considered a Шаблон:Transliteration. It may appear as a letter by itself or as a diacritic over or under an Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration, or Шаблон:Transliteration.
Which letter is to be used to support the Шаблон:Transliteration depends on the quality of the adjacent vowels;
- If the glottal stop occurs at the beginning of the word, it is always indicated by hamza on an Шаблон:Transliteration: above if the following vowel is Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA and below if it is Шаблон:IPA.
- If the glottal stop occurs in the middle of the word, Шаблон:Transliteration above Шаблон:Transliteration is used only if it is not preceded or followed by Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA:
- If Шаблон:IPA is before or after the glottal stop, a Шаблон:Transliteration with a Шаблон:Transliteration is used (the two dots which are usually beneath the Шаблон:Transliteration disappear in this case): Шаблон:Angle bracket.
- Otherwise, if Шаблон:IPA is before or after the glottal stop, a Шаблон:Transliteration with a Шаблон:Transliteration is used: Шаблон:Angle bracket.
- If the glottal stop occurs at the end of the word (ignoring any grammatical suffixes), if it follows a short vowel it is written above Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration, or Шаблон:Transliteration the same as for a medial case; otherwise on the line (i.e. if it follows a long vowel, diphthong or consonant).
- Two Шаблон:Transliterations in succession are never allowed: Шаблон:IPA is written with [[#Maddah|Шаблон:Transliteration]] Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:IPA is written with a free Шаблон:Transliteration on the line Шаблон:Angbr.
Consider the following words: Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA ("brother"), Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA ("Ismael"), Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA ("mother"). All three of above words "begin" with a vowel opening the syllable, and in each case, Шаблон:Transliteration is used to designate the initial glottal stop (the actual beginning). But if we consider middle syllables "beginning" with a vowel: Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA ("origin"), Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA ("hearts"—notice the Шаблон:IPA syllable; singular Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA ("heads", singular Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPA), the situation is different, as noted above. See the comprehensive article on Шаблон:Transliteration for more details.
Tone markers
Historically Arabic script has been adopted and used by many tonal languages, examples include Xiao'erjing for Mandarin Chinese as well as Ajami script adopted for writing various languages of Western Africa. However, one of the shortcomings of Arabic, especially in comparison to Latin-derived scripts or other indigenous writing systems was that Arabic did not have a way of indicating tones.
However, in the adoption of the Arabic Script for Rohingya language, known as Rohingya Fonna, 3 tone markers have been developed and used in manuscripts. These tone markers form part of the standardized and accepted orthographic convention of Rohingya. This is the only known instance of tone markers within the Arabic script.[9][10]
Tone markers act as "modifiers" of vowel diacritics. In simpler words, they are "diacritics for the diacritics". They are written "outside" of the word, meaning that they are written above the vowel diacritic if the diacritic is written above the word, and they are written below the diacritic if the diacritic is written below the word. They are only ever written where there are vowel diacritics. This is important to note, as without the diacritic present, there is no way to distinguish between tone markers and I‘jām i.e. dots that are used for purpose of phonetic distinctions of consonants.
The Hārbāy as it is called in Rohingya, is a single dot that's placed on top of Fatḥah and Ḍammah, or curly Fatḥah and curly Ḍammah (vowel diacritics unique to Rohinghya), or their respective Fatḥatan and Ḍammatan versions, and it's placed underneath Kasrah or curly Kasrah, or their respective Kasratan version. (e.g. Шаблон:Script/Arabic) This tone marker indicates a short high tone (Шаблон:IPA).[9][10]
The Ṭelā as it is called in Rohingya, is two dots that are placed on top of Fatḥah and Ḍammah, or curly Fatḥah and curly Ḍammah, or their respective Fatḥatan and Ḍammatan versions, and it's placed underneath Kasrah or curly Kasrah, or their respective Kasratan version. (e.g. Шаблон:Script/Arabic) This tone marker indicates a long falling tone (Шаблон:IPA).[9][10]
The Ṭāna as it is called in Rohingya, is a fish-like looping line that is placed on top of Fatḥah and Ḍammah, or curly Fatḥah and curly Ḍammah, or their respective Fatḥatan and Ḍammatan versions, and it's placed underneath Kasrah or curly Kasrah, or their respective Kasratan version. (e.g. Шаблон:Script/Arabic) This tone marker indicates a long rising tone (Шаблон:IPA).[9][10]
History
[[File:Arabic script evolution.svg|thumb|250px|Evolution of early Arabic calligraphy (9th–11th century). The Basmala was taken as an example, from kufic [[w:Qur’an|Шаблон:Transliteration]] manuscripts.
(1) Early 9th century, script with no dots or diacritic marks (see image of early Basmala Kufic);
(2) and (3) 9th–10th century under Abbasid dynasty, Abu al-Aswad's system established red dots with each arrangement or position indicating a different short vowel; later, a second black-dot system was used to differentiate between letters like Шаблон:Transliteration and Шаблон:Transliteration (see image of middle Kufic);
(4) 11th century, in al-Farāhídi's system (system we know today) dots were changed into shapes resembling the letters to transcribe the corresponding long vowels (see image of modern Kufic in Qur'an).
]]
According to tradition, the first to commission a system of harakat was Ali who appointed Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali for the task. Abu al-Aswad devised a system of dots to signal the three short vowels (along with their respective allophones) of Arabic. This system of dots predates the Шаблон:Transliteration, dots used to distinguish between different consonants.
-
Early Basmala Kufic
-
Middle Kufic
-
Modern Kufic in Qur'an
Abu al-Aswad's system
Abu al-Aswad's system of Harakat was different from the system we know today. The system used red dots with each arrangement or position indicating a different short vowel.
A dot above a letter indicated the vowel Шаблон:Transliteration, a dot below indicated the vowel Шаблон:Transliteration, a dot on the side of a letter stood for the vowel Шаблон:Transliteration, and two dots stood for the [[tanwin|Шаблон:Transliteration]].
However, the early manuscripts of the Qur'an did not use the vowel signs for every letter requiring them, but only for letters where they were necessary for a correct reading.
Al Farahidi's system
The precursor to the system we know today is Al Farahidi's system. [[Al Farāhídi|Шаблон:Transliteration]] found that the task of writing using two different colours was tedious and impractical. Another complication was that the Шаблон:Transliteration had been introduced by then, which, while they were short strokes rather than the round dots seen today, meant that without a color distinction the two could become confused.
Accordingly, he replaced the Шаблон:Transliteration with small superscript letters: small alif, yā’, and wāw for the short vowels corresponding to the long vowels written with those letters, a small s(h)īn for shaddah (geminate), a small khā’ for khafīf (short consonant; no longer used). His system is essentially the one we know today.[11]
Automatic diacritization
The process of automatically restoring diacritical marks is called diacritization or diacritic restoration. It is useful to avoid ambiguity in applications such as Arabic machine translation, text-to-speech, and information retrieval. Automatic diacritization algorithms have been developed.[12][13] For Modern Standard Arabic, the state-of-the-art algorithm has a word error rate (WER) of 4.79%. The most common mistakes are proper nouns and case endings.[14] Similar algorithms exist for other varieties of Arabic.[15]
See also
- Arabic alphabet:
- [[ʾIʿrab|Шаблон:Transliteration]] (Шаблон:Lang), the case system of Arabic
- [[Rasm|Шаблон:Transliteration]] (Шаблон:Lang), the basic system of Arabic consonants
- [[Tajwid|Шаблон:Transliteration]] (Шаблон:Lang), the phonetic rules of recitation of Qur'an in Arabic
- Hebrew:
- Hebrew diacritics, the Hebrew equivalent
- Niqqud, the Hebrew equivalent of Шаблон:Transliteration
- Dagesh, the Hebrew diacritic similar to Arabic Шаблон:Transliteration and shaddah
References
Шаблон:Arabic language Шаблон:Navbox diacritical marks
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 Karin C. Ryding, "A Reference Grammar of Modern Standard Arabic", Cambridge University Press, 2005, pgs. 25-34, specifically “Chapter 2, Section 4: Vowels”
- ↑ Anatole Lyovin, Brett Kessler, William Ronald Leben, "An Introduction to the Languages of the World", "5.6 Sketch of Modern Standard Arabic", Oxford University Press, 2017, pg. 255, Edition 2, specifically “5.6.2.2 Vowels”
- ↑ Amine Bouchentouf, Arabic For Dummies®, John Wiley & Sons, 2018, 3rd Edition, specifically section "All About Vowels"
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 9,0 9,1 9,2 9,3 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 10,0 10,1 10,2 10,3 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite arXiv
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
.jpg&action=edit&redlink=1){kind=link}
.jpg){kind=link}