Английская Википедия:Arabic phonology
Шаблон:Main Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Self reference Шаблон:IPA notice
While many languages have numerous dialects that differ in phonology, the contemporary spoken Arabic language is more properly described as a continuum of varieties.[1] This article deals primarily with Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), which is the standard variety shared by educated speakers throughout Arabic-speaking regions. MSA is used in writing in formal print media and orally in newscasts, speeches and formal declarations of numerous types.[2]
Modern Standard Arabic has 28 consonant phonemes and 6 vowel phonemes or 8 or 10 vowels in most modern dialects. All phonemes contrast between "emphatic" (pharyngealized) consonants and non-emphatic ones. Some of these phonemes have coalesced in the various modern dialects, while new phonemes have been introduced through borrowing or phonemic splits. A "phonemic quality of length" applies to consonants as well as vowels.[3]
Vowels
Modern Standard Arabic has six vowel phonemes forming three pairs of corresponding short and long vowels (Шаблон:IPA). Many spoken varieties also include Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. Modern Standard Arabic has two diphthongs (formed by a combination of short Шаблон:IPA with the semivowels Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA). Allophony in different dialects of Arabic can occur and is partially conditioned by neighboring consonants within the same word. The following are some general rules:
- Шаблон:IPA
- retracted to Шаблон:IPAblink in the environment of a neighboring Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or an emphatic consonant (one that is uvularized, though customarily transcribed as if pharyngealized): Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, the pharyngeal consonants Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and in a few regional standard pronunciations also Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA;[4]
- only in Iraq and the Persian Gulf: Шаблон:IPAblink before a word boundary;[4]
- advanced to Шаблон:IPAblink in the environment of most consonants:
- labial consonants (Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA),
- plain (non-emphatic) coronal consonants with the exception of Шаблон:IPA: namely Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA
- glottal consonants (Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA)
- Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA;[5]
- Across North Africa and West Asia, the allophones Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA may be realized differently, either as Шаблон:IPA, or both as Шаблон:IPA;
- In northwestern Africa, the open front vowel Шаблон:IPAslink is raised to Шаблон:IPAblink or Шаблон:IPAblink.
- Шаблон:IPA
- Across North Africa and West Asia, Шаблон:IPA may be realized as Шаблон:IPA before or adjacent to emphatic consonants and Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink. Шаблон:IPA can also have different realizations, i.e. Шаблон:IPA. Sometimes with one value for each vowel in both short and long lengths or two different values for each short and long lengths. They can be distinct phonemes in loanwords for a number of speakers.
- In Egypt, close vowels have different values; short initial or medial: Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink ← instead of Шаблон:IPA. Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA completely become Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA respectively in some other particular dialects. Unstressed final long Шаблон:IPA are most often shortened or reduced: Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA.
| short | long | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| i | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA | "promise!" | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA | "holiday" |
| u | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA | "count (command)" | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA | "lute" |
| a | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA | "counted" | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA | "came back" |
| aj | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA | "eye" | ||
| aw | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA | "return" | ||
However, the actual rules governing vowel-retraction are a good deal more complex and have relatively little in the way of an agreed-upon standard, as there are often competing notions of what constitutes a "prestige" form.[7] Often, even highly proficient speakers will import the vowel-retraction rules from their native dialects.[8] Thus, for example, in the Arabic of someone from Cairo, emphatic consonants will affect every vowel between word boundaries, whereas certain Saudi speakers exhibit emphasis only on the vowels adjacent to an emphatic consonant.[9] Certain speakers (most notably Levantine speakers) exhibit a degree of asymmetry in leftward vs. rightward spread of vowel-retraction.[9][10]
| Short | Long | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Front | Back | Front | Back | |
| Close | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:IPAslink |
| Open | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | ||
| Diphthongs | Шаблон:IPAs, Шаблон:IPAs | |||
| Short | Long | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Front | Back | Front | Back | |
| Close | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:IPAslink |
| Mid | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:IPAslink | ||
| Open | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:IPAslink | ||
| Diphthongs | Шаблон:IPAs, Шаблон:IPAs | |||
The final heavy syllable of a root is stressed.[6]
The short vowels Шаблон:IPA are all possible allophones of Шаблон:IPA across different dialects; e.g., Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('I said') is pronounced Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, since the difference between the short mid vowels Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is never phonemic, and they are mostly found in complementary distribution, except for a number of speakers where they can be phonemic but only in foreign words.
The short vowels Шаблон:IPA are all possible allophones of Шаблон:IPA across different dialects; e.g., Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('from') is pronounced Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA since the difference between the short mid vowels Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is never phonemic, and they are mostly found in complementary distribution, except for a number of speakers where they can be phonemic but only in foreign words.
The long mid vowels Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA appear to be phonemic in most varieties of Arabic except in general Maghrebi Arabic, where they merge with Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. For example, لون ('color') is generally pronounced Шаблон:IPA in Mashriqi dialects but Шаблон:IPA in most Maghrebi Arabic. The long mid vowels can be used in Modern Standard Arabic in dialectal words or in some stable loanwords or foreign names,[11] as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('Rome') and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('cheque').
Foreign words often have a liberal sprinkling of long vowels, as vowels tend to be written as long vowels in foreign loans, under the influence of European-language orthographies which write down every vowel with a letter.[12] The long mid vowels Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are always rendered with the letters Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, respectively, accompanied by a preceding hamzah sitting above (أ) and below (إ) an alif (ا) respectively word-initially. In general, the pronunciation of loanwords is highly dependent on the speaker's native variety.
Consonants
Even in the most formal of conventions, pronunciation depends upon a speaker's background.[13] Nevertheless, the number and phonetic character of most of the 28 consonants has a broad degree of regularity among Arabic-speaking regions. Note that Arabic is particularly rich in uvular, pharyngeal, and pharyngealized ("emphatic") sounds. The emphatic coronals (Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA) cause assimilation of emphasis to adjacent non-emphatic coronal consonants.Шаблон:Citation needed The standard pronunciation of ⟨ج⟩ Шаблон:IPA varies regionally, most prominently Шаблон:IPAblink in the Arabian Peninsula, parts of the Levant, Iraq, and northern Algeria, it is also considered as the predominant pronunciation of Literary Arabic outside the Arab world, Шаблон:IPAblink in most of Northwest Africa and the Levant, Шаблон:IPAblink in Egypt, coastal Yemen, and south coastal Oman, as well as Шаблон:IPAblink in Sudan.
Note: the table and notes below discuss the phonology of Modern Standard Arabic among Arabic speakers and not regional dialects.
Long (geminate or double) consonants are pronounced exactly like short consonants, but last longer. In Arabic, they are called mushaddadah ("strengthened", marked with a shaddah). Between a long consonant and a pause, an epenthetic Шаблон:IPA occurs,[6] but this is only common across regions in West Asia.
The foreign sounds Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang (usually transcribed as Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA respectively) are not necessarily pronounced by all Arabic speakers and their usage is optional. As these letters are not present on standard keyboards, they are simply written with Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "Pakistan", Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "virus", etc.[12][14]
Phonotactics
Standard Arabic syllables come in only five forms:[15]
- C V (light)
- C V V (heavy)
- C V C (heavy)
- C V V C (super-heavy)
- C V C C (super-heavy)
Arabic syllable structure does not allow syllables to start with a vowel or with a consonant cluster.[15] In cases where a word starts with a consonant cluster it is preceded by an epenthetic Шаблон:IPA utterance initially or Шаблон:IPAslink when preceded by a word that ends with a consonant; there are however exceptions like Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA that connect with a following word-initial consonant cluster with Шаблон:IPAslink and Шаблон:IPAslink respectively, if the preceding word ends with a long vowel that vowel is then shortened.
Super-heavy syllables are usually not allowed except word finally,[15] with the exception of CVV- before geminates creating non-final CVVC- syllables, these can be found in the active participles of geminate Form I verbs, like in Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:IPA ('substance, matter'), Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:IPA ('entirely'). In the pausal form, the final geminates behave as a single consonant, only when preceding another word or with vocalization, the geminates start appearing, belonging to two separate syllables. E.g.: Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:IPA ('poisonous'), Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:IPA ('dry'), Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:IPA ('public, general'), Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:IPA ('private, special'), and Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:IPA ('hot, spicy').[15]
Loanwords can break some phonotactic rules like allowing initial consonant clusters (with an initial epenthetic Шаблон:IPAslink or often another repeated vowel from the word being optional inserted after the first consonant) like in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "Pluto" and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "Prague" or allowing CVVC syllables non-finally without geminates like in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "Russia" and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "Syria", which can be modified to Шаблон:IPA to fit the phonotactics better.[15]
Word stress
The placement of word stress in Arabic varies considerably from one dialect to another, and has been the focus of extensive research and debate.
In determining stress, Arabic distinguishes three types of syllables:[16]Шаблон:Rp
- Light:
- An open syllable containing a short vowel (i.e. CV), such as وَ wa 'and'
- Heavy:
- An open syllable containing a long vowel (i.e. CVV), such as سَفَرَ sā.fara 'he travelled'
- A closed syllable containing a short vowel followed by one consonant (i.e. CVC), such as مِن min 'from' or كَتَبْتُ ka.tab.tu 'I wrote'
- Super-heavy:
- A closed syllable containing a long vowel followed by one consonant (i.e. CVVC), such as باب bāb# 'door' or مادٌّ mād.dun 'stretching (NOM)'
- A closed syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants (i.e. CVCC), such as بِنْت bint# 'girl', or a long vowel followed by a geminate consonant (i.e. CVVCiCi), such as مادّ mādd# 'stretching'
The word stress of Classical Arabic has been the subject of debate. However, there is consensus as to the general rule, even though there are some exceptions. A simple rule of thumb is that word-stress falls on the penultimate syllable of a word if that syllable is closed, and otherwise on the antepenultimate.[17]
A more precise description is J. C. E. Watson's. Here the stressed syllable follows the marker ' and variant rules are in brackets:[16]Шаблон:Rp Шаблон:Blockquote
Modern Arabic dialects all maintain rules (1) and (2). But if there is neither a final superheavy syllable nor a heavy penultimate syllable, their behaviour varies. Thus in Palestinian, rule (3) is instead 'otherwise stress the first syllable (up to the antepenult): كَتَب Шаблон:IPA ‘he wrote’, زَلَمة Шаблон:IPA ‘man’', whereas the basic rules of Cairene (to which there are exceptions) are:[16]Шаблон:Rp Шаблон:Blockquote
Local variations of Modern Standard Arabic
Spoken varieties differ from Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic not only in grammar but also in pronunciation. Outside of the Arabian peninsula, a major linguistic division is between sedentary, largely urban, varieties and rural varieties. Inside the Arabian peninsula and in Iraq, the two types are less distinct; but the language of the urbanized Hejaz, at least, strongly looks like a conservative sedentary variety.Шаблон:Citation needed
Some examples of variation:
- Consonants
In Modern Standard Arabic (not in Egypt's use), Шаблон:IPA is used as a marginal phoneme to pronounce some dialectal and loan words. On the other hand, it is considered a native phoneme or allophone in most modern Arabic dialects, mostly as a variant of Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (as in Arabian Peninsula and Northwest African dialects) or as a variant of Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang (as in Egyptian and a number of Yemeni and Omani dialects). It is also considered a separate foreign phoneme that appears only in loanwords, as in most urban Levantine dialects where Шаблон:Lang is Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:Lang is Шаблон:IPA.
The phoneme represented by the Arabic letter Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang) has many standard pronunciations: Шаблон:IPAblink in most of the Arabian Peninsula and as the predominant pronunciation of Literary Arabic outside the Arab world, Шаблон:IPAblink in most of Egypt and some regions in southern Yemen and southwestern Oman. This is also a characteristic of colloquial Egyptian and southern Yemeni dialects.[18] In Morocco and western Algeria, it is pronounced as Шаблон:IPAblink in some words, especially colloquially. In most north Africa and most of the Levant, the standard is pronounced Шаблон:IPAblink, and in certain regions of the Persian Gulf colloquially with Шаблон:IPAblink. In some Sudanese and Yemeni dialects, it may be either Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPAblink as it used to be in Classical Arabic.
The foreign phonemes Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are not necessarily pronounced by all Arabic speakers, but are often pronounced in names and loanwords. Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are usually transcribed with their own letters Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA but as these letters are not present on standard keyboards, they are simply written with Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, e.g. both Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA "November", both Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "caprice" can be used.[12][14] The use of both sounds may be considered marginal and Arabs may pronounce the words interchangeably; besides, many loanwords have become Arabized, e.g. Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "Pakistan", Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "virus".
Шаблон:IPA is another possible loanword phoneme, as in the word Шаблон:Script/Arabic or Шаблон:Script/Arabic (sandawitš or sāndwitš 'sandwich'), though a number of varieties instead break up the Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA sounds with an epenthetic vowel.[19] Egyptian Arabic treats Шаблон:IPA as two consonants (Шаблон:IPA) and inserts Шаблон:IPA, as [[[:Шаблон:IPA]]C] or [CШаблон:IPA], when it occurs before or after another consonant. Шаблон:IPA is found as normal in Iraqi Arabic and Gulf Arabic.[20] Normally the combination Шаблон:Lang (tā’-shīn) is used to transliterate the Шаблон:IPA, while in rural Levantine dialects /k/ is usually substituted with Шаблон:IPA while speaking and would be written as ك. Otherwise Arabic usually substitutes other letters in the transliteration of names and loanwords like the Persian character Шаблон:Lang which is used for writing Шаблон:IPA.
Other Variations include:
- Split of original Шаблон:IPA into two phonemes, distinguished primarily by how they affect neighboring vowels. This has progressed the farthest in North Africa. See Moroccan Arabic, Algerian Arabic, Tunisian Arabic and Libyan Arabic
- Loss of the glottal stop in places where it is historically attested, as in سماء Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Citation needed
- Vowels
- Development of highly distinctive allophones of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, with highly fronted Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA in non-emphatic contexts, and retracted Шаблон:IPA in emphatic contexts.Шаблон:Citation needed The more extreme distinctions are characteristic of sedentary varieties, while Bedouin and conservative Arabian-peninsula varieties have much closer allophones. In some of the sedentary varieties, the allophones are gradually splitting into new phonemes under the influence of loanwords, where the allophone closest in sound to the source-language vowel often appears regardless of the presence or absence of nearby emphatic consonants.Шаблон:Citation needed
- Spread of "emphasis", visible in the backing of phonemic Шаблон:IPA. In conservative varieties of the Arabic peninsula, only Шаблон:IPA adjacent to emphatic consonants is affected, while in Cairo, an emphatic consonant anywhere in a word tends to trigger emphatic allophones throughout the entire word.Шаблон:Citation needed Dialects of the Levant are somewhere in between. Moroccan Arabic is unusual in that Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA have clear emphatic allophones as well (typically lowered, e.g. to Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA).Шаблон:Citation needed
- Monophthongization of diphthongs such as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively (Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in parts of the Maghrib, such as in Moroccan Arabic). Mid vowels may also be present in loanwords such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:IPA Melbourne), Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:IPA '(male) secretary') and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:IPA 'doctor').[11]
- Raising of word final Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA. In some parts of Levant, also word-medial Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA. See Lebanese Arabic.
- Loss of final short vowels (with Шаблон:IPA sometimes remaining), and shortening of final long vowels. This triggered the loss of most Classical Arabic case and mood distinctions.Шаблон:Citation needed
- Collapse and deletion of short vowels. In many varieties, such as North Mesopotamian, many Levantine dialects, many Bedouin dialects of the Maghrib, and Mauritanian, short Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA have collapsed to schwa and exhibit very little distinction so that such dialects have two short vowels, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Citation needed Many Levantine dialects show partial collapse of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, which appear as such only in the next-to-last phoneme of a word (i.e. followed by a single word-final consonant), and merge to Шаблон:IPA elsewhere.Шаблон:Citation needed A number of dialects that still allow three short vowels Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA in all positions, such as Egyptian Arabic, nevertheless show little functional contrast between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA as a result of past sound changes converting one sound into the other.[21] Arabic varieties everywhere have a tendency to delete short vowels (especially other than Шаблон:IPA) in many phonological contexts. When combined with the operation of inflectional morphology, disallowed consonant clusters often result, which are broken up by epenthetic short vowels, automatically inserted by phonological rules. In these respects (as in many others), Moroccan Arabic has the most extreme changes, with all three short vowels Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA collapsing to a schwa Шаблон:IPA, which is then deleted in nearly all contexts.Шаблон:Citation needed This variety, in fact, has essentially lost the quantitative distinction between short and long vowels in favor of a new qualitative distinction between unstable "reduced" vowels (especially Шаблон:IPA) and stable, half-long "full" vowels Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA (the reflexes of original long vowels).Шаблон:Citation needed Classical Arabic words borrowed into Moroccan Arabic are pronounced entirely with "full" vowels regardless of the length of the original vowel.Шаблон:Citation needed
Phonologies of different Arabic dialects
The main dialectal variations in Arabic consonants revolve around the six consonants; Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr:
- Grayed ones are also standard pronunciations.
Cairene
Шаблон:Main The Arabic of Cairo (often called "Egyptian Arabic" or more correctly "Cairene Arabic") is a typical sedentary variety and a de facto standard variety among certain segments of the Arabic-speaking population, due to the dominance of Egyptian media. Watson adds emphatic labials Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA[22] and emphatic Шаблон:IPA[18] to Cairene Arabic with marginal phonemic status. Cairene has also merged the interdental consonants with the dental plosives (e.g. ثلاثة Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA, 'three') except in loanwords from Classical Arabic where they are nativized as sibilant fricatives (e.g. ثانوية Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA, 'secondary school'). Cairene speakers pronounce Шаблон:IPA as Шаблон:IPA and debuccalized Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA (again, loanwords from Classical Arabic have reintroduced the earlier sound[21] or approximated to Шаблон:IPA with the front vowel around it Шаблон:IPAblink changed to the back vowel Шаблон:IPAblink). Classical Arabic diphthongs Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA became realized as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA respectively. Still, Egyptian Arabic sometimes has minimal pairs like شايلة Шаблон:IPA ('carrying' f.s.) vs شيلة Шаблон:IPA ('burden'). جيب Шаблон:IPA 'pocket' + نا Шаблон:IPA 'our' → collapsing with Шаблон:IPA which means (جبنة 'cheese' or جيبنا 'our pocket'),[23] because Cairene phonology cannot have long vowels before two consonants. Cairene also has Шаблон:IPAblink as a marginal phoneme from loanwords from languages other than Classical Arabic.[24]
Sanaa
Шаблон:See also Varieties such as that of Sanaa, Yemen, are more conservative and retain most phonemic contrasts of Classical Arabic. Sanaani possesses Шаблон:IPAblink as a reflex of Classical Шаблон:IPAslink (which still functions as an emphatic consonant).[23] In unstressed syllables, Sanaani short vowels may be reduced to Шаблон:IPAblink.[25] Шаблон:IPA is voiced to Шаблон:IPA in initial and intervocalic positions.[22]
Distribution
The most frequent consonant phoneme is Шаблон:IPA, the rarest is Шаблон:IPA. The frequency distribution of the 28 consonant phonemes, based on the 2,967 triliteral roots listed by Wehr[14] is (with the percentage of roots in which each phoneme occurs):
| Phoneme | Frequency | Phoneme | Frequency | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:IPA | 24% | Шаблон:IPA | 18% | |
| Шаблон:IPA | 17% | Шаблон:IPA | 17% | |
| Шаблон:IPA | 17% | Шаблон:IPA | 16% | |
| Шаблон:IPA | 14% | Шаблон:IPA | 13% | |
| Шаблон:IPA | 13% | Шаблон:IPA | 13% | |
| Шаблон:IPA | 13% | Шаблон:IPA | 12% | |
| Шаблон:IPA | 12% | Шаблон:IPA | 11% | |
| Шаблон:IPA | 10% | Шаблон:IPA | 9% | |
| Шаблон:IPA | 8% | Шаблон:IPA | 8% | |
| Шаблон:IPA | 8% | Шаблон:IPA | 8% | |
| Шаблон:IPA | 7% | Шаблон:IPA | 7% | |
| Шаблон:IPA | 6% | Шаблон:IPA | 5% | |
| Шаблон:IPA | 5% | Шаблон:IPA | 3% | |
| Шаблон:IPA | 3% | Шаблон:IPA | 1% |
This distribution does not necessarily reflect the actual frequency of occurrence of the phonemes in speech, since pronouns, prepositions and suffixes are not taken into account, and the roots themselves will occur with varying frequency. In particular, Шаблон:IPA occurs in several extremely common affixes (occurring in the marker for second-person or feminine third-person as a prefix, the marker for first-person or feminine third-person as a suffix, and as the second element of Forms VIII and X as an infix) despite being fifth from last on Wehr's list. The list does give, however, an idea of which phonemes are more marginal than others. Note that the five least frequent letters are among the six letters added to those inherited from the Phoenician alphabet, namely, Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl.
Sample
The Literary Arabic sample text is a reading of The North Wind and the Sun by a speaker who was born in Safed, lived and was educated in Beirut from age 8 to 15, subsequently studied and taught in Damascus, studied phonetics in Scotland and since then has resided in Scotland and Kuwait.[26]
Normal orthographic version
Diacriticized orthographic version
Phonemic transcription (with i‘rāb)
Phonemic transcription (without i‘rāb)
Phonetic transcription (Egypt)
ALA-LC transliteration
English Wiktionary transliteration (based on Hans Wehr)
English Translation
The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.
References
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Hans Wehr, (1952) Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
Шаблон:Language phonologies Шаблон:Arabic language
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 6,0 6,1 6,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 9,0 9,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 11,0 11,1 Elementary Modern Standard Arabic: Volume 1, by Peter F. Abboud (Editor), Ernest N. McCarus (Editor)
- ↑ 12,0 12,1 12,2 Teach Yourself Arabic, by Jack Smart (Author), Frances Altorfer (Author)
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 14,0 14,1 14,2 Hans Wehr, Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (transl. of Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart, 1952)
- ↑ 15,0 15,1 15,2 15,3 15,4 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 16,0 16,1 16,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Kees Versteegh, The Arabic Language (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997), p. 90.
- ↑ 18,0 18,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, citing Ṣan‘ā’ni and Cairene as examples with and without this phoneme, respectively.
- ↑ Gulf Arabic Sounds
- ↑ 21,0 21,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 22,0 22,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 23,0 23,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
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