Английская Википедия:Arabic prosody
Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang-ar, Шаблон:Transl) is the study of poetic meters, which identifies the meter of a poem and determines whether the meter is sound or broken in lines of the poem. It is often called the Science of Poetry (Шаблон:Lang-ar, Шаблон:Transl). Its laws were laid down by Al-Khalīl ibn Aḥmad al-Farāhīdī (d. 786), an early Arab lexicographer and philologist. In his book Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang-ar), which is no longer extant, he described 15 types of meter. Later Al-Akhfash al-Akbar described a 16th meter, the Шаблон:Transl.[1]
Following al-Khalil, the Arab prosodists scan poetry not in terms of syllables[2] but in terms of vowelled and unvowelled letters, which were combined into larger units known as Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Transl "peg" (pl. Шаблон:Transl) and Шаблон:Transl "cord" (pl. Шаблон:Transl). These larger units make up feet (Шаблон:Transl, pl. Шаблон:Transl).
Western prosodists, on the other hand, usually analyse the meters in terms of syllables, which can be long (–), short (u) and anceps (x), that is, a syllable which can be optionally long or short. Certain meters also have biceps positions where a pair of short syllables can optionally be replaced by a long one.
The great majority (85-90%) of early classical Arabic poetry is composed in just four meters: the Шаблон:Transl (which is the most common), the Шаблон:Transl, the Шаблон:Transl and the Шаблон:Transl.[3]
Rhyme is an important part of classical Arabic poetry.[4] Almost all Arabic poetry is composed in couplets and the same rhyme is used in the second half of each couplet throughout the poem.
Meters
The feet of an Arabic poem are traditionally represented by mnemonic words called Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang). In most poems there are eight of these: four in the first half of the verse and four in the second; in other cases, there will be six of them, meaning three in the first half of the verse and three in the second.
The Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang) (meters) (sg. baḥr Шаблон:Lang), identified according to the traditional method, are the following. Underneath each meter is its scansion by the European method (read from left to right), where – = a long syllable, u = a short syllable, x = either long or short, uu = 1 long or two shorts.
The meters most commonly used are those of circles 1 and 2 (apart from the Шаблон:Transl, which is rare). Those meters marked with an asterisk (*) are mainly theoretical, and in practice rarely used by poets.[5]
Circle 1
- Ṭawīl (Шаблон:Lang) "long":[6] Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | u – x | u – – – | u – x | u – u – |
- Madīd (Шаблон:Lang) "protracted": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | x u – – | x u – | x u – – |
- Basīṭ (Шаблон:Lang) "spread out": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | x – u – | x u – | – – u – | uu – |
Circle 2
- Kāmil (Шаблон:Lang) "complete": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | uu – u – | uu – u – | uu – u – |
- Wāfir (Шаблон:Lang) "abundant": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | u – uu – | u – uu – | u – – |
Circle 3
- Hazaj (Шаблон:Lang) "trilling": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | u – – x | u – – x |
- Rajaz (Шаблон:Lang) "trembling": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | x – u – | x – u – | x – u – |
- Ramal (Шаблон:Lang) "trotting": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | x u – – | x u – – | x u – |
Circle 4
- Sarīʿ (Шаблон:Lang) "swift": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | x x u – | x x u – | – u – |
- Munsariħ (Шаблон:Lang) "quick-paced": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | x – u – | – x – u | – u u – |
- Khafīf (Шаблон:Lang) "light": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | x u – x | – – u – | x u – x |
- *Muḍāriʿ (Шаблон:Lang) "similar": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | u – x x | – u – – |
- *Muqtaḍab (Шаблон:Lang) "untrained": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | x u – u | – u u – |
- Mujtathth (Шаблон:Lang) "cut-off": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | x – u – | x u – – |
Circle 5
- Mutaqārib (Шаблон:Lang) "nearing": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | u – x | u – x | u – x | u – |
- *Mutadārik[7] (Шаблон:Lang) "overtaking": Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang)
- | x u – | x u – | x u – | (x u –) | ( – can be substituted for u u)
Sequences of three short syllables are not found in any Arabic meter, except occasionally in a variation of the rajaz meter, in which | x – u – | may sometimes be replaced by | x u u – |.[8]
Frequency of the meters
Analysis of anthologies of classical Arabic poetry shows that some of these meters are much more common than others.[3] The most common meter by far in early poetry is the Шаблон:Transl; the Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, and Шаблон:Transl are also fairly common; the Шаблон:Transl (which are sometimes considered to be variants of the same meter) and the Шаблон:Transl occur occasionally; and the others are rarely found.
Thus in Vadet's (1955) corpus of Bedouin poetry of the 1st–3rd century AD, containing nearly 2,300 poems and fragments, the Шаблон:Transl is used in 50% of the poems, the Шаблон:Transl in 18%, the Шаблон:Transl in 14%, and the Шаблон:Transl in 11%. The Шаблон:Transl make 3%, Шаблон:Transl 2.4%, and all the rest together about 2%.[3]
In Stoetzer's (1986) corpus of 130 poems of the 8th century, the Шаблон:Transl accounts for 35% of the poems, Шаблон:Transl 20%, Шаблон:Transl 14%, Шаблон:Transl 13%, Шаблон:Transl 3%, Шаблон:Transl 7%, and the rest about 6%.[3]
Among the 1385 short poems included in the Arabian Nights, Шаблон:Transl is used in 24%, Шаблон:Transl 24%, Шаблон:Transl 23%, Шаблон:Transl 10%, Шаблон:Transl 2%, Шаблон:Transl 2%, Шаблон:Transl 5%, Шаблон:Transl 4%, Шаблон:Transl 1%, Шаблон:Transl 1%, and Шаблон:Transl 3%. The Шаблон:Transl and the Шаблон:Transl almost never occur, and the Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, and Шаблон:Transl do not occur at all.[9] These last three were usually regarded as artificial meters.[10] The Шаблон:Transl breaks almost all regular rules of meter, however it was highly regarded by Arabic Grammarians in the 10th century CE, and was noted for its eloquence. Its earliest attestation is in the 7th century CE by Amr Bin Jabir Al Jani in a poem for praise of the prophet: Шаблон:Blockquote
The collated figures can be expressed in a table as follows:
| Metre | Vadet 1st–3rd C |
Stoetzer 8th C |
Arabian Nights 9th–10th C |
|---|---|---|---|
| ṭawīl | 50% | 35% | 24% |
| basīṭ | 11% | 13% | 24% |
| kāmil | 18% | 20% | 23% |
| wāfir | 14% | 14% | 10% |
| ramal | 2% | ||
| rajaz/sarīʿ | 3% | 3% | 2% + 4% |
| xafīf | 5% | ||
| munsarih | 1% | ||
| mujtatt | 1% | ||
| mutaqārib | 7% | 3% | |
| others | 2% | 6% | <1% |
Al-Khalil's terminology
Al-Khalil was primarily a grammarian and using the grammatical terminology of his day he made use of the terms Шаблон:Transl "mobile letter" (i.e. one followed by a vowel) and Шаблон:Transl "quiescent letter" (i.e. one not followed by a vowel) to build up larger prosodic units, which he called "peg" (Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Transl, pl. Шаблон:Transl) and "cord" or "guy-rope" (Шаблон:Transl, pl. Шаблон:Transl). In European descriptions, these are conventionally abbreviated "P" and "K" respectively.[11] A "peg" is a sequence of two syllables, usually short + long (u –) (a Шаблон:Transl ); but occasionally in the rarely used metres of circle 4, long + short (– u) (a Шаблон:Transl).[12] A "cord" is a short syllable (u), long syllable (–), or two shorts (u u). Surprisingly, al-Khalil's system makes no use of the concept of the syllable as such.[13]
The Шаблон:Transl is repeated at fixed points along the line and is generally unchanging, while the Шаблон:Transl or cords are the syllables in between which could be modified. A peg and either one or two cords makes a Шаблон:Transl (pl. Шаблон:Transl) "tent pole or support"[14] or what in European terms is called a foot. Thus a half-line of the Шаблон:Transl metre (Шаблон:Transl, | u – x | u – x – | u – x | u – u – |) is analysed as PK PKK PK PKK.[15] A complete line of poetry usually consists of either six or eight feet, but sometimes shorter lines are found.
When analysing a verse, an Arab prosodist begins by rewriting the line phonetically, that is, as it is actually pronounced. Doubled letters are written twice and silent letters, such as the Шаблон:Transl of the article when it follows a vowel, are omitted. Thus the word Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Transl in Шаблон:Transl writing is written phonetically as "Шаблон:Lang". In a word like Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang, pronounced Шаблон:Transl, meaning "the sun"), where the "l" of the article is assimilated to the first consonant of the noun, the actual sound is written instead; so in Шаблон:Transl writing, this is written Шаблон:Lang (ššms).[16] Then each mobile letter is represented by a vertical line (ا), known as Шаблон:Transl, and each quiescent letter by a small circle (ه), known as Шаблон:Transl. Thus a Шаблон:Transl will be represented in the scansion by two Шаблон:Transl symbols and one Шаблон:Transl.
A line of poetry, known as a Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang "tent"), is composed of two half-lines or hemistichs, each of which is known as a Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang "door-flap"). The first half-line is called the Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang, literally "forepart"), and the other is called the Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang, literally "rear"). The Шаблон:Transl and the Шаблон:Transl have two parts each:
- The last word of the Шаблон:Transl is called the Шаблон:Transl ("central pole of a tent")[17] and the rest of it is called Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang, meaning "the filling of the forepart")
- The last word of the Шаблон:Transl is called the Шаблон:Transl (literally "the hitting (of the tent-peg)") and the rest of it is called Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang, meaning "the filling of the rear").
The last consonant of the Шаблон:Transl and the vowel that comes after it are called the Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang) and its last two Шаблон:Transls, all the Шаблон:Transl letters that are in between, and the last Шаблон:Transl before them, is called the Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang) or 'rhyme'.
Al-Khalil's circles
Khalil noticed that the metres can be divided into different groups. If a meter is written out in a circle, then by starting in different places on the circle it is possible to derive the other meters of the same group. Expressed in terms of syllables rather than Khalil's silent and moving letters, the different circles can be tabulated as follows.[18] The columns marked P are the "pegs" (awtād), while between each peg and the next are either one or two "cords" (asbāb). The order of metres is the one traditionally used by poets such as Al-Maʿarri, who arranged his poems not only by rhyme by also metrically.[19]
| Circle | Meter | P | P | P | P | P | P | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Ṭawīl Madīd Basīṭ |
u – |
x x |
u – u – |
x x x x x x |
u – u – u – |
x x x |
u – u – u – |
x x x x x x |
u – u – |
x |
u – |
|
| 2 | Wāfir Kāmil |
u – |
xx x xx x |
u – u – |
xx x xx x |
u – u – |
xx x xx x |
u – u – |
xx x xx x |
u – |
|||
| 3 | Hazaj Rajaz Ramal |
u – |
x x x x x |
u – u – u – |
x x x x x x |
u – u – u – |
x x x x x x |
u – u – u – |
x x x x x x |
u – u – |
x |
||
| 4 | Sarīʿ Munsariħ Khafīf *Muḍāriʿ *Muqtaḍab Mujtathth |
x x |
u – |
x x x x x |
u – u – u – u – |
x x x x x x x x x x x |
– u – u – u – u – u – u |
x x x x x x x x x x |
u – u – u – u – u – |
x x x x x x x |
u – u – |
x | |
| 5 | Mutaqārib *Mutadārik |
u – |
x x |
u – u – |
x x |
u – u – |
x x |
u – u – |
x x |
u – |
Meters in the same circle have similar features. For example, the meters in circle 1 all make use of feet of 3 syllables alternating with feet of 4 syllables. Both meters in circle 2 make use of biceps elements, in which a pair of short syllables can be replaced by a long one (uu); meters of circle 4 all have one place in the hemistich (half-line) where the watid is a trochee (– u) instead of an iamb (u –); the meters of circle 5 have short feet of PK PK or KP KP.
The above meters are given in their tetrameter form, but some (such as the madīd) are generally found with only three feet per hemistich.[20]
As Stoetzer (1982) points out, the anceps syllables (x) in tables such as the above are in many cases not really anceps, but merely an abstraction to make it seem that two different meters belong to the same circle. For example, the penultimate syllable of the Ṭawīl (the 13th) in practice is always short, while the corresponding syllable in Basīṭ (the 8th) is always long.[21]
Variations
Variations of these meters can be found. Some exist in shorter or longer forms, for example with either three or four feet in each half-line (known as trimeter and tetrameter respectively). Some meters have a catalectic variation, in which the end of the line is shortened by one syllable.
A whole series of Arabic technical terms exists to describe these variations. Minor variations which affect the cords only are known as Шаблон:Transl (singular: Шаблон:Transl); major variations which affect the beginning or end of a line are known as Шаблон:Transl (singular Шаблон:Transl). There are 14 possible Шаблон:Transl and 34 possible Шаблон:Transl.[22]
For example, if the foot Шаблон:Transl (– – u –) is replaced by Шаблон:Transl (u – u –), it is said to be Шаблон:Transl, that is, it has undergone the Шаблон:Transl known as Шаблон:Transl "hemming" or "shortening".
If the line-ending Шаблон:Transl (– – u –) is replaced by Шаблон:Transl (– – –) that is, if the line is catalectic, the meter is said to be Шаблон:Transl, that is, it has undergone the Шаблон:Transl known as Шаблон:Transl "cutting" or "curtailment".
A full description of all the Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl is given in Elwell-Sutton (1976), pp. 13–39.
Minor rules of prosody
There are a number of prosodic conventions which are observed in writing and scanning Arabic poetry, of which the following are the most important:[23]
- The case endings -u (Nominative), -a (Accusative), -i (Genitive), known as ʾiʿrāb, which in prose are always omitted in pronunciation at the end of a clause or sentence, are usually pronounced in poetry, even at the end of a sentence.
- At the end of a line (and sometimes at the end of the first hemistich), any vowel is considered long. in this position a short -i can rhyme with a long one. The vowel fatḥa (a) at the end of a line is written with an alif, as if it were a long vowel.
- The -n on the indefinite case endings -un, -an, -in is dropped at the end of a line, making -ū, -ā, -ī. (This does not apply at the end of the first half-line, however.)
- The ending -hu "his" is frequently pronounced with a long vowel: -hū. The pronoun anā "I" can also be scanned as ana.
- A long ī can occasionally rhyme with a long ū;[24] for example, Шаблон:Transl "the Nile" can rhyme with Шаблон:Transl "acceptable".[25]
- Although the two halves of a bayt are usually separate, it is not uncommon to find lines where there is no break between them, and a word continues across the division in the middle of the line.
See also
References
Bibliography
- Abdel-Malek, Zaki N. (2019)Towards a New Theory of Arabic Prosody (5th edition).
- Alnagdawi, M., et al. (2013). "Finding Arabic Poem Meter using Context Free Grammar". J. of Commun. and Comput. Eng. 3.1.52-59
- Elwell-Sutton, L.P. (1976).The Persian Metres. Cambridge University Press.
- Frolov, Dmitry (1996). "The Circles of al-Khalil and the structure of Luzumiyyat of Abu 'l-'Ala' al-Ma'arri". Studies in Near Eastern Languages and Literatures. Memorial Volume of Karel Petraček, Praha, 1996, 223-236.
- Golston, Chris & Riad, Tomas (1997). "The Phonology of classical Arabic meter". Linguistics 35 (1997), 111-132.
- Maling, J.M. (1973). The Theory of Classical Arabic Metrics. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. PhD Thesis.
- McCarus, Ernest N. (1983). "Identifying the Meters of Arabic Poetry", Al-'Arabiyya vol 16. no. 1/2, pp. 57–83. (Georgetown University Press).
- Scott, Hazel (2009). "Pegs, Cords, and Ghuls: Meter of Classical Arabic Poetry". Swarthmore College.
- Stoetzer, Willem (1982). "Some Observations on Quantity in Arabic Metrics". Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 13 (1982), pp. 66–75. (JSTOR)
- Stoetzer, W.F.G.J. (1989), Theory and Practice in Arabic Metrics, Het Oosters Instituut, Leiden.
- Weil, Gotthold (1958), Grundriss und System der altarabischen Metren (Wiesbaden).
- Wright, W. (1951). A Grammar of the Arabic Language, vol. II, Cambridge University Press, pp. 350–390.
- ↑ Elwell-Sutton (1976), p. 42.
- ↑ Elwell-Sutton (1976), p. 3; Scott (2009), p. 8.
- ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 Golston & Riad, pp. 120-121.
- ↑ Scott (2009), p. 7
- ↑ Frolov (1996), p. 4.
- ↑ The translations are from Elwell-Sutton (1976), p. 40.
- ↑ Also known as Khabab (Шаблон:Lang) "ambling" or Muḥdath (Шаблон:Lang) "innovated" (Arabic Wikipedia)
- ↑ McCarus (1983), p. 78.
- ↑ Sir Richard Burton, The Arabian Nights, vol. 10, terminal essay.
- ↑ Frolov (1996), p. 4.
- ↑ Scott (2009), pp. 8-9.
- ↑ Maling (1973), pp. 26-7.
- ↑ Elwell-Sutton, (1976), p. 3.
- ↑ Lane, Arabic Dictionary".
- ↑ Maling (1973), p. 29; Scott (2009), p. 10.
- ↑ See for example Alnagdawi (2013).
- ↑ Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon p. 2010.
- ↑ Adapted from L.P. Elwell-Sutton (1975), "The Foundations of Persian Prosody and Metrics", Iran, Vol. 13 (1975), pp. 75-97; p. 80 (based on Weil 1958); see also Scott (2009), p. 10.
- ↑ Frolov (1996).
- ↑ cf. M. ben Cheleb, "Madīd", Encyclopaedia of Islam, First Edition (1913-1936) (Brill).
- ↑ Stoetzer (1982), p. 75.
- ↑ Elwell-Sutton (1982), p. 14.
- ↑ McCarus (1983), p. 81-82.
- ↑ Wright (1896), A Grammar of the Arabic Language, vol. 2, p. 253.
- ↑ Arberry (1965). Arabic Poetry: A Primer for Students, p. 133.
