Английская Википедия:Arapaho language

The Arapaho (Arapahoe) language (Шаблон:Lang)Шаблон:Sfn is one of the Plains Algonquian languages, closely related to Gros Ventre and other Arapahoan languages. It is spoken by the Arapaho of Wyoming and Oklahoma. Speakers of Arapaho primarily live on the Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming, though some have affiliation with the Cheyenne living in western Oklahoma.

Classification

Arapaho is an Algonquian language of the Algic family.^[1]

History

By the 1850s, Arapaho bands formed two tribes: the Northern Arapaho and Southern Arapaho. Since 1878 the Northern Arapaho have lived with the Eastern Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming and are federally recognized as the Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation. The Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma. Together their members are enrolled as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes.

After World War II, the Northern Arapaho tribe tended to use English, not Arapaho, when raising their children. However, Arapaho speakers within the tribe still primarily speak Arapaho amongst each other. The Northern Arapaho additionally have had relatively less intermingling with other tribes and non-Native Americans compared to the Southern Arapaho who live amongst a predominantly non-Native American population.Шаблон:Sfn

Current status

The exact number of Arapaho speakers is not precisely known; however it has been estimated that the language currently retains between 250 Шаблон:Sfn and 1,000^[1] active users. Arapaho has limited development outside of the home; however, it is used in some films^[1] and the Bible was translated into the language in 1903.^[1] According to one source, under 300 people over the age of 50 speak the language in Wyoming, and in Oklahoma the language is used by "only a handful of people . . . all near eighty or older".Шаблон:Sfn As of 1996, there were approximately 1,000 speakers among the Northern Arapaho.Шаблон:Sfn As of 2008, the authors of a newly published grammar estimated that there were slightly over 250 fluent speakers, plus "quite a few near-fluent passive understanders".Шаблон:Sfn In 2008, it was reported that a school had been opened to teach the language to children.Шаблон:Sfn Arapaho language camps were held in Summer 2015 at Wind River Tribal College and in St. Stephens, Wyoming.^[2] Currently, the language may be acquired by children, for a population estimate as recent as 2007 lists an increase to 1,000 speakers and notes that the language is in use in schools, bilingual education efforts begun on Wind River Reservation in the 1980s and the Arapaho Language Lodge, a successful immersion program, was established in 1993.^[1] "The Arapaho Project" is an effort made by the Arapaho people to promote and restore their traditional language and culture.^[3] Despite hope for the language, its relatively few active users and the fact that it has seen recent population decreases render Arapaho an endangered language. Ethnologue deems it "moribund".^[1]

Dialects

Шаблон:Unreferenced section Besawunena, only attested from a wordlist collected by Kroeber, differs only slightly from Arapaho, though a few of its sound changes resemble those seen in Gros Ventre. It had speakers among the Northern Arapaho as recently as the late 1920s.

Phonology

Among the sound changes in the evolution from Proto-Algonquian to Arapaho are the loss of Proto-Algonquian *k, followed by *p becoming either Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA; the two Proto-Algonquian semivowels merging to either Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA; the change from *s to Шаблон:IPA in word-initial position, and *m becoming Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA depending on the following vowel. Arapaho is unusual among Algonquian languages in retaining the contrast between the reconstructed phonemes *r and *θ (generally as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively).Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn These and other changes serve to give Arapaho a phonological system very divergent from that of Proto-Algonquian and other Algonquian languages, and even from languages spoken in the adjacent Great Basin. Some examples comparing Arapaho words with their cognates in Proto-Algonquian can illustrate this:Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn

Proto-Algonquian	Arapaho	Translation
Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:IPA	'man'
Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:IPA	'hare'
Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:IPA	'water'
Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:IPA	'(his) liver'
Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:IPA	'leg'
Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:IPA	'river'
Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:IPA	'mosquito' > 'fly'
Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:IPA	'blanket, robe'
Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:IPA	'raven' > 'crow'
Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:IPA	'dog'

Vowels

At the level of pronunciation, Arapaho words cannot begin with a vowel, so where the underlying form of a word begins with a vowel, a prothetic Шаблон:IPA is added.Шаблон:Sfn

Arapaho has a series of four short vowels Шаблон:IPA (pronounced Шаблон:IPA) and four long vowels Шаблон:IPA (customarily written Шаблон:Angle bracket and pronounced Шаблон:IPA). The difference in length is phonemically distinctive: compare Шаблон:Lang, 'tick' with Шаблон:Lang, 'day', and Шаблон:Lang, 'steak' with Шаблон:Lang, 'devil'.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are mostly in complementary distribution, as, with very few exceptions, the former does not occur after velar consonants, and the latter only occurs after them. Шаблон:IPA does have some exceptions as in the free variants Шаблон:Lang ~ Шаблон:Lang, 'gun'; Шаблон:Lang ~ Шаблон:Lang, 'for no reason'; and Шаблон:Lang ~ Шаблон:Lang, 'Found in the Grass' (a mythological character). There is only one minimal pair to illustrate the contrast in distribution: Шаблон:Lang, 'this' versus Шаблон:Lang, 'X was done with Y', in which Шаблон:Lang only occurs in bound form.Шаблон:Sfn

Remarkably, unlike more than 98% of the world's languages, Arapaho has no low vowels, such as Шаблон:IPA.^[4]

In addition, there are four diphthongs, Шаблон:IPA, and several triphthongs, Шаблон:IPA as well as extended sequences of vowels such as Шаблон:IPA with stress on either the first or the last vowel in the combination.Шаблон:Sfn

Type	Front	Back
High	Шаблон:IPAlink ⟨i⟩	Шаблон:IPAlink ⟨u⟩
Mid	Шаблон:IPAlink ⟨e⟩	Шаблон:IPAlink ⟨o⟩

Consonants

The consonant inventory of Arapaho is given in the table below. When writing Arapaho, Шаблон:IPA is normally transcribed as Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:IPA as Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:IPA as Шаблон:Angle bracket, and Шаблон:IPA as Шаблон:Angle bracket.

Type	Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal			Шаблон:IPAlink
Plosive	Шаблон:IPAlink		Шаблон:IPAlink	Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:Grapheme	Шаблон:IPAlink	Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:Grapheme
Fricative		Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:Grapheme	Шаблон:IPAlink		Шаблон:IPAlink	Шаблон:IPAlink
Approximant				Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:Grapheme	Шаблон:IPAlink

Allophony

The phoneme Шаблон:IPA (the voiced bilabial stop) has a voiceless allophone [p] that occurs before other consonants or at the end of a word. The plosives Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA are pronounced without aspiration in most environments, but are aspirated before other consonants or at the end of a word, or when preceding a syllable-final sequence of short vowel + Шаблон:IPA. In this same environment Шаблон:IPA is aspirated and devoiced. For example, the grammatical prefix Шаблон:Lang is pronounced Шаблон:IPA, the grammatical prefix Шаблон:Lang is pronounced Шаблон:IPA, and the word Шаблон:Lang, 'I will turn out the lights' is Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang}.Шаблон:Sfn

Syllable structures

Syllables tend to have the structure CV(C), where the final consonant, if it is present, is either a single consonant, or Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfn In general, consonant clusters in Arapaho can only be two consonants long. Consonant clusters do not occur word initially, and Шаблон:IPA is the only that occurs word finally. The only consonant cluster that is "base generated" (exists in the most underlying representation of words) is Шаблон:IPA. At the "surface" (at the level of actual pronunciation), other clusters arise by phonological processes including vowel syncope, or by juxtaposition of morphemes.Шаблон:Citation needed

Vowel-initial, onset-less syllables, however, can occur due to partitioning of vowel clusters. An example of partitioning a cluster of 3 identical vowels into syllables is Шаблон:Lang, 'tepee'. The vowel cluster is not always split into short vowel followed by long vowel; the location of the partition depends on Arapaho's complex pitch accent system. For example, another word with a sequence of three vowels, but with a different partitioning of vowels into syllables is Шаблон:Lang 'bed'.Шаблон:Sfn

However, sometimes the vowel cluster does not divide and the whole cluster becomes the nucleus of the syllable. One example is Шаблон:Lang, 'his/her aunt (obviative)'.Шаблон:Sfn

Prosody

Arapaho is a pitch accent language. There are two phonemic tones: high (marked with an acute accent) or "normal" (unmarked). The contrast can be illustrated with the pair Шаблон:Lang, 'it is fancy' and Шаблон:Lang, 'it is raining'. Long vowels and vowel sequences can carry a contour tone from high to low, as in Шаблон:Lang, 'to hang' (where the first syllable has a normal tone) versus Шаблон:Lang, "to float" (where the first syllable has a high+normal, or falling, tone). Although tonal contrasts are distinctive in Arapaho, minimal pairs such as those listed above are rare.Шаблон:Sfn

Orthography

Arapaho alphabetШаблон:Sfn
b	c	e	h	i	k	n	o	s	З	t	u	w	y	’

Morphology

Arapaho is highly synthetic; verbs in particular take a large number of grammatical and semantic morphemes.Шаблон:Sfn

Inflectional

Nouns

Animacy

Nouns in Arapaho come in two classes: animate and inanimate. Which category a noun belongs to is part of the lexicon. Being animate does not necessitate "aliveness" (but aliveness does mean animate): doors, planets, ghosts, etc. are considered animate. Some nouns can also be both animate and inanimate, but in these situations, the animate version is more "active" (e.g. a log is inanimate, but a rolling log is animate).Шаблон:Sfn

Obviation

Animate nouns can be made obviative or proximate.Шаблон:Sfn

When the underlying noun is consonant final, two general patterns can occur. One pattern occurs for the class of nouns that have Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA (depending on vowel harmony) as their plural marker. These nouns reuse the plural marker to mark obviative singular and both obviative and proximate plural. For example, Шаблон:IPA, a stem meaning 'elk,' is Шаблон:Lang in the proximate singular, but becomes Шаблон:Lang in obviative singular, proximate plural, and obviative plural.Шаблон:Sfn

The other pattern occurs for most other consonant final noun stems and is summarized in the table below. C denotes the final consonant and the bracketed [C] denotes either consonant mutation of C or deletion of some number of stem-final phonemes. Шаблон:IPA is 'duck'.Шаблон:Sfn

Type	Proximate	Obviative
Singular	[C] (Шаблон:Lang)	C (Шаблон:Lang)
Plural	C-o' (Шаблон:Lang)	C-o (Шаблон:Lang)

For vowel-final stems, the general pattern is a variation of the first consonant final pattern. Namely, a single marker is used to mark all plural forms and the obviative singular form. For example, Шаблон:IPA, a stem meaning 'sheep, bighorn sheep,' becomes Шаблон:Lang in proximate singular but Шаблон:Lang in both plural forms and the obviative singular.Шаблон:Sfn

Verbs

Verb categorization

Verbs are divided into classes depending on the transitivity and animacy of their argument(s). Transitivity of a verb affects how many arguments are affixed to the verb. Notice in the examples below the usage of the transitive form requires the addition of INAN, the inanimate marker for the object (the shoes). Verbal inflection also depends on "orders" like imperative.Шаблон:Sfn

Intransitive, Animate Subject (AI)Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Interlinear

Transitive, Inanimate Object (TI)Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Interlinear

Initial change

Initial change (IC) can mark tense and aspect (in particular, "present tense and ongoing aspect or present perfect tense and aspect") under affirmative and conjunct orders.Шаблон:Sfn Differing phonological changes occur depending on the first vowel of the stem. If the vowel is short, it is lengthened. For example, Шаблон:Lang 'to be red' becomes Шаблон:Lang 'it is red'.Шаблон:Sfn Otherwise, an infix is placed before the first vowel. The infix is either Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA and is determined based on harmony with the long vowel. For example, Шаблон:Lang ('to walk downward') becomes Шаблон:Lang ('I am walking downward').Шаблон:Sfn

If the first vowel is short and is followed by an Шаблон:IPA, some speakers treat the Шаблон:IPA as a vowel and use the infix Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA to mark initial change. Other speakers treat the Шаблон:IPA as a consonant and perform the vowel lengthening process instead.Шаблон:Sfn

An irregular form of initial change affects some vowel-initial preverbs by appending an Шаблон:IPA before the first vowel, rather than the ordinary Шаблон:IPA that would be prepended to avoid a vowel-initial word. For example, the imperfective Шаблон:IPA morpheme becomes Шаблон:Lang instead of the expected Шаблон:Lang when prefixing verbs that would undergo initial change.Шаблон:Sfn

Agreement

In sentences with an explicit noun phrase, separate from the verb, the verb agrees with the noun in terms of animacy, number, and whether the noun is proximate or obviative. The grammatical category, including person, of the noun also needs to agree with the verb.Шаблон:Sfn Note that the categories of subject and object do not affect agreement inflection.Шаблон:Sfn As an example of animacy agreement, the intransitive verb for 'to fall' has a form that takes an inanimate subject, Шаблон:Lang (PAST-on top-fall(II)-0S)Шаблон:Sfn and a form that takes an animate subject, Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Interlinear

If a verb has a single noun argument that is composed of two different types of noun, most speakers default to the obviative (over proximate) and inanimate (over animate) forms to refer to the composite noun argument in case of conflict. This can be seen in the example below where 'walk' takes an argument that is composed of a composite proximate and obviative noun. Both nouns are animate, but there is conflict regarding proximate or obviative. The verb thus defaults to the obviative plural (4PL). Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Interlinear

Derivational

Nouns

Arapaho has a number of derivational affixes and processes. Some operate on nouns to form verb-like clauses. For example, the morpheme Шаблон:IPA can prefix a noun to ask 'what kind of <noun>'. A specific example is Шаблон:Lang ('meat') when prefixed becomes Шаблон:Lang ('What kind of meat is this?')Шаблон:Sfn

Verbs

Derivational morphology on verbs can be grouped into abstract and concrete. Abstract morphemes mark transitivity and the animacy of subject/object for the verb. For example, the basic root Шаблон:IPA 'red' can be marked with abstract morphemes as followsШаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:IPA 'to be red', intransitive and takes an inanimate subject
Шаблон:IPA 'to be red', intransitive and takes an animate subject

Concrete morphemes tend to add three types of meanings to the verb.Шаблон:Sfn

patients and undergoers; attach particularly common nouns after a verb with a transitive meaning to give it an object, resulting in an intransitive verb
- Example: to add Шаблон:IPA 'wood' as an object, transform it to Шаблон:IPA before appending to verb such as Шаблон:IPA ('haul wood here') and Шаблон:IPA ('haul wood along')Шаблон:Sfn
topics concerning nouns that lack volition; examples include body parts, weather and nature, sensations
- Example: the underlying noun Шаблон:Lang ('neck') becomes Шаблон:IPA before attaching to a verb such as Шаблон:IPA ('have a long neck')Шаблон:Sfn
methods of achieving action; examples include tools, means of transportation, non-manmade forces such as wind
- Example: Шаблон:IPA ('walking') can be added to create an AI (animate subject, intransitive) verb such as Шаблон:Lang ('to arrive on foot') and Шаблон:Lang ('to descend on foot')Шаблон:Sfn

Reduplication

Reduplication is prefixal and is formed by taking the first consonant (if there is one) and the first vowel and then adding Шаблон:IPA, where the colon indicates that the preceding vowel is elongated. The Шаблон:IPA is deleted in the presence of a subsequent consonant.Шаблон:Sfn For example, Шаблон:Lang ('to walk past') after reduplication becomes Шаблон:Lang ('to walk back and forth past').Шаблон:Sfn

There are multiple usages of reduplication in Arapaho including pluralizing implied, secondary, and inanimate objects of (di)transitive verbs; indicating repeating and habitual action (extend the space and time a verb occurs in general), and intensifying. One example of marking repeating action is as follows Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Interlinear

There can be multiple reduplications in compound words, where each reduplication can have an independent effect. Some verbs appear to be only in a reduplicated form; these verbs tend to describe repeating, iterative action.Шаблон:Sfn

Syntax

Arapaho has no canonical word order. Some sentences/clauses consist of only the verb like below. Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Interlinear

Single noun phrase

When a sentence contains a verb and a single noun phrase, the noun phrase can either precede or follow the verb. Preposing the noun phrase, however, gives it more importance and salience. Some instances where noun phrases are preposed include introducing a new referent (or reintroducing one that was inactive) and creating contrast.Шаблон:Sfn

V-NP orderШаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Interlinear

NP-V orderШаблон:Sfn (additional context: a new referent, "stone monuments," is being introduced)

Шаблон:Interlinear

Two noun phrases

For a basic sentence with a single verb that takes two noun phrases as arguments, all orderings are possible, but having the verb final is less common.Шаблон:Sfn

Noun phrase hierarchy

A hierarchy exists in determining which noun phrase goes in which position. In the listing below, the first in the pair is treated as "higher" in the hierarchy and tends therefore to be the leftmost NP.Шаблон:Sfn

Subject-verb-object orderШаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Interlinear

Verb-subject-(implied) object orderШаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Interlinear

Saliency

Saliency determines whether a noun phrase can precede its corresponding verb. Noun phrases are deemed salient if they are referring to something new, something that is being reintroduced, something contrastive, or something that is being emphasized.Шаблон:Sfn

Preposed NPШаблон:Sfn (here, the noun phrase meaning 'where the attack was taking place' precedes the verb 'see' to create emphasis)

Шаблон:InterlinearBoth NPs preceding Verb (uncommon)Шаблон:Sfn (additional context: occurs under "contrastive focus")

Шаблон:Interlinear

Syntax of noun/verb phrases

Modifying nouns

Generally, noun modifiers occur before the noun. These modifiers additionally tend to occur in a particular order relative each other. For example, in the example below, note that the presentative 'here is' occurs before the demonstrative 'this'Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Interlinear

Particles and verb stems

Some particles are more closely linked to verbs; these particles generally precede the verb and are often neighboring the corresponding verb.Шаблон:Sfn

Particle expressing potentialШаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Interlinear

Particle expressing recent pastШаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Interlinear

Adverbials

Adverbials are a type of particle. Unlike other particles in Arapaho, however, they are not a closed class and are instead derived from or composed of other morphemes. One purpose of adverbial construction is to emphasize a morpheme by extracting it from a verb and having it stand alone. Another purpose is to convey meaning outside of what can normally be attached to a verb.Шаблон:Sfn

Adverbials are constructed by appending Шаблон:IPA (which can become Шаблон:IPA after vowel harmony) to the end of the root.Шаблон:Sfn

A common usage of adverbials is to modify verbs. Adverbials can also act like prepositions and modify noun phrases; such adverbials can occur before or after the noun phrase and are thus exceptions to the rule that nominal modifiers prepose the noun (see example below).Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Interlinear

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

References

Шаблон:Cite book
Шаблон:Cite web
Шаблон:Cite book
Шаблон:Cite book
Шаблон:Cite book
Шаблон:Cite news
Шаблон:Cite journal
Шаблон:Cite book
Шаблон:Cite book
Шаблон:Cite book
Шаблон:Cite book
Шаблон:Cite book
Шаблон:Cite book
Salzmann, Zdeněk and The Northern Arapaho Tribe and Anderson, Jeffrey. 1998.Шаблон:Cite web

External links

Шаблон:Wiktionarycat Шаблон:Incubator Шаблон:Wikibooks Шаблон:OldWikisource

The Arapaho Language (U. of Colo. Arapaho Project)
Arapaho Language Archives (U. of Colo. Arapaho Project), with many dialogues and narratives in Arapaho with glosses
Nun-na-a-in-ah Ve-vith-ha Hin-nen-nau Hin-nen-it-dah-need (1895) Portions of the Book of Common Prayer in Arapaho
OLAC resources in and about the Arapaho language
Let's Learn Arapaho
Constantine Scollen
Arapaho Text Corpus
Dictionary of the Arapaho Language , 2012, 4th Edition, by Andrew Cowell, Alonzo Moss Sr., William and Wayne C'Hair, Arapahoe Immersion School, and the elders of the Northern Arapaho Tribe, Ethete, Wyoming
Arapaho DoReCo corpus compiled by Andrew Cowell. Audio recordings of narrative texts with transcriptions time-aligned at the phone level, translations, and time-aligned morphological annotations.

Шаблон:Languages of Oklahoma Шаблон:Algonquian languages Шаблон:Authority control

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Английская Википедия:Arapaho language

Classification

History

Current status

Dialects

Phonology

Vowels

Consonants

Allophony

Syllable structures

Prosody

Orthography

Morphology

Inflectional

Nouns

Animacy

Obviation

Verbs

Verb categorization

Initial change

Agreement

Derivational

Nouns

Verbs

Reduplication

Syntax

Single noun phrase

Two noun phrases

Noun phrase hierarchy

Saliency

Syntax of noun/verb phrases

Modifying nouns

Particles and verb stems

Adverbials

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Навигация

Поиск