Английская Википедия:Argentina
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Other uses Шаблон:Redirect Шаблон:Redirect Шаблон:Pp Шаблон:Pp-move Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox country
Argentina (Шаблон:IPA-es), officially the Argentine RepublicШаблон:Efn-ua (Шаблон:Lang-es), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of Шаблон:Convert,Шаблон:Efn-ua making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, the fourth-largest country in the Americas, and the eighth-largest country in the world. It shares the bulk of the Southern Cone with Chile to the west, and is also bordered by Bolivia and Paraguay to the north, Brazil to the northeast, Uruguay and the South Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Drake Passage to the south. Argentina is a federal state subdivided into twenty-three provinces, and one autonomous city, which is the federal capital and largest city of the nation, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system. Argentina claims sovereignty over the Falkland Islands, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, the Southern Patagonian Ice Field, and a part of Antarctica.
The earliest recorded human presence in modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period.Шаблон:Sfn The Inca Empire expanded to the northwest of the country in Pre-Columbian times. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century.Шаблон:Sfn Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata,Шаблон:Sfnm a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The declaration and fight for independence (1810–1818) was followed by an extended civil war that lasted until 1861, culminating in the country's reorganization as a federation. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with several waves of European immigration, mainly Italians and Spaniards, influencing its culture and demography.[1][2][3][4]
Following the death of President Juan Perón in 1974, his widow and vice president, Isabel Perón, ascended to the presidency, before being overthrown in 1976. The following military junta, which was supported by the United States, persecuted and murdered thousands of political critics, activists, and leftists in the Dirty War, a period of state terrorism and civil unrest that lasted until the election of Raúl Alfonsín as president in 1983.
Argentina is a regional power, and retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs.Шаблон:SfnmШаблон:SfnmШаблон:Sfnm A major non-NATO ally of the United States,[5] Argentina is a developing country with the second-highest HDI (human development index) in Latin America after Chile.[6] It maintains the second-largest economy in South America, and is a member of G-15 and G20. Argentina is also a founding member of the United Nations, World Bank, World Trade Organization, Mercosur, Community of Latin American and Caribbean States and the Organization of Ibero-American States.
Etymology
Шаблон:Main The description of the region by the word Argentina has been found on a Venetian map in 1536.[7]
In English, the name "Argentina" comes from the Spanish language; however, the naming itself is not Spanish, but Italian. Argentina (masculine argentino) means in Italian "(made) of silver, silver coloured", derived from the Latin argentum for silver. In Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said l'Argentina.
The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venetian and Genoese navigators, such as Giovanni Caboto. In Spanish and Portuguese, the words for "silver" are respectively plata and prata and "(made) of silver" is plateado and prateado, although "argento" for "silver" and "argentado" for "covered in silver" exist in Spanish. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin.Шаблон:Sfnm
The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina,Шаблон:Efn-ua a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region.Шаблон:Sfn Although "Argentina" was already in common usage by the 18th century, the country was formally named "Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata" by the Spanish Empire, and "United Provinces of the Río de la Plata" after independence.
The 1826 constitution included the first use of the name "Argentine Republic" in legal documents.Шаблон:Sfn The name "Argentine Confederation" was also commonly used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853.Шаблон:Sfn In 1860 a presidential decree settled the country's name as "Argentine Republic",Шаблон:Sfn and that year's constitutional amendment ruled all the names since 1810 as legally valid.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn-ua
In English, the country was traditionally called "the Argentine", mimicking the typical Spanish usage la Argentina[8] and perhaps resulting from a mistaken shortening of the fuller name 'Argentine Republic'. 'The Argentine' fell out of fashion during the mid-to-late 20th century, and now the country is referred to as "Argentina".
History
Pre-Columbian era
The earliest traces of human life in the area now known as Argentina are dated from the Paleolithic period, with further traces in the Mesolithic and Neolithic.Шаблон:Sfn Until the period of European colonization, Argentina was relatively sparsely populated by a wide number of diverse cultures with different social organizations,Шаблон:Sfn which can be divided into three main groups.Шаблон:Sfn
The first group are basic hunters and food gatherers without the development of pottery, such as the Selk'nam and Yaghan in the extreme south. The second group are advanced hunters and food gatherers which include the Puelche, Querandí and Serranos in the centre-east; and the Tehuelche in the south—all of them conquered by the Mapuche spreading from ChileШаблон:Sfn—and the Kom and Wichi in the north. The last group are farmers with pottery, like the Charrúa, Minuane and Guaraní in the northeast, with slash and burn semisedentary existence;Шаблон:Sfn the advanced Diaguita sedentary trading culture in the northwest, which was conquered by the Inca Empire around 1480; the Toconoté and Hênîa and Kâmîare in the country's centre, and the Huarpe in the centre-west, a culture that raised llama cattle and was strongly influenced by the Incas.Шаблон:Sfn
Colonial era
Europeans first arrived in the region with the 1502 voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. The Spanish navigators Juan Díaz de Solís and Sebastian Cabot visited the territory that is now Argentina in 1516 and 1526, respectively.Шаблон:Sfn In 1536 Pedro de Mendoza founded the small settlement of Buenos Aires, which was abandoned in 1541.Шаблон:Sfn
Further colonization efforts came from Paraguay—establishing the Governorate of the Río de la Plata—Peru and Chile.Шаблон:Sfn Francisco de Aguirre founded Santiago del Estero in 1553. Londres was founded in 1558; Mendoza, in 1561; San Juan, in 1562; San Miguel de Tucumán, in 1565.Шаблон:Sfn Juan de Garay founded Santa Fe in 1573 and the same year Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera set up Córdoba.Шаблон:Sfn Garay went further south to re-found Buenos Aires in 1580.Шаблон:Sfn San Luis was established in 1596.Шаблон:Sfn
The Spanish Empire subordinated the economic potential of the Argentine territory to the immediate wealth of the silver and gold mines in Bolivia and Peru, and as such it became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776 with Buenos Aires as its capital.Шаблон:Sfn
Buenos Aires repelled two ill-fated British invasions in 1806 and 1807.Шаблон:Sfn The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and the example of the first Atlantic Revolutions generated criticism of the absolutist monarchy that ruled the country. As in the rest of Spanish America, the overthrow of Ferdinand VII during the Peninsular War created great concern.Шаблон:Sfn
Independence and civil wars
Beginning a process from which Argentina was to emerge as successor state to the Viceroyalty,Шаблон:Sfnm the 1810 May Revolution replaced the viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros with the First Junta, a new government in Buenos Aires made up from locals.Шаблон:Sfn In the first clashes of the Independence War the Junta crushed a royalist counter-revolution in Córdoba,Шаблон:Sfn but failed to overcome those of the Banda Oriental, Upper Peru and Paraguay, which later became independent states.Шаблон:Sfn The French-Argentine Hippolyte Bouchard then brought his fleet to wage war against Spain overseas and attacked Spanish California, Spanish Peru and Spanish Philippines. He secured the allegiance of escaped Filipinos in San Blas who defected from the Spanish to join the Argentine navy, due to common Argentine and Philippine grievances against Spanish colonization.[10][11] Jose de San Martin's brother, Juan Fermín de San Martín, was already in the Philippines and drumming up revolutionary fervor prior to this.[12] At a later date, the Argentine sign of Inca origin, the Sun of May was adopted as a symbol by the Filipinos in the Philippine Revolution against Spain. He also secured the diplomatic recognition of Argentina from King Kamehameha I of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Historian Pacho O'Donnell affirms that Hawaii was the first state that recognized Argentina's independence.Шаблон:SfnHe was finally arrested in 1819 by Chilean patriots.
Revolutionaries split into two antagonist groups: the Centralists and the Federalists—a move that would define Argentina's first decades of independence.Шаблон:Sfn The Assembly of the Year XIII appointed Gervasio Antonio de Posadas as Argentina's first Supreme Director.Шаблон:Sfn
On 9 July 1816, the Congress of Tucumán formalized the Declaration of Independence,Шаблон:Sfnm which is now celebrated as Independence Day, a national holiday.[13] One year later General Martín Miguel de Güemes stopped royalists on the north, and General José de San Martín He joined Bernardo O'Higgins and they led a combined army across the Andes and secured the independence of Chile; then it was sent by O'Higgins orders to the Spanish stronghold of Lima and proclaimed the independence of Peru.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn-ua In 1819 Buenos Aires enacted a centralist constitution that was soon abrogated by federalists.Шаблон:Sfn
Some of the most important figures of Argentine independence made a proposal known as the Inca plan of 1816, which proposed that United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (Present Argentina) should be a monarchy, led by a descendant of the Inca. Juan Bautista Túpac Amaru (half-brother of Túpac Amaru II) was proposed as monarch.[14] Some examples of those who supported this proposal were Manuel Belgrano, José de San Martín and Martín Miguel de Güemes. The Congress of Tucumán finally decided to reject the Inca plan, creating instead a republican, centralist state.[15][16]
The 1820 Battle of Cepeda, fought between the Centralists and the Federalists, resulted in the end of the Supreme Director rule. In 1826 Buenos Aires enacted another centralist constitution, with Bernardino Rivadavia being appointed as the first president of the country. However, the interior provinces soon rose against him, forced his resignation and discarded the constitution.Шаблон:Sfn Centralists and Federalists resumed the civil war; the latter prevailed and formed the Argentine Confederation in 1831, led by Juan Manuel de Rosas.Шаблон:Sfn During his regime he faced a French blockade (1838–1840), the War of the Confederation (1836–1839), and an Anglo-French blockade (1845–1850), but remained undefeated and prevented further loss of national territory.Шаблон:Sfn His trade restriction policies, however, angered the interior provinces and in 1852 Justo José de Urquiza, another powerful caudillo, beat him out of power. As the new president of the Confederation, Urquiza enacted the liberal and federal 1853 Constitution. Buenos Aires seceded but was forced back into the Confederation after being defeated in the 1859 Battle of Cepeda.Шаблон:Sfn
Rise of the modern nation
Overpowering Urquiza in the 1861 Battle of Pavón, Bartolomé Mitre secured Buenos Aires' predominance and was elected as the first president of the reunified country. He was followed by Domingo Faustino Sarmiento and Nicolás Avellaneda; these three presidencies set up the basis of the modern Argentine State.Шаблон:Sfn
Starting with Julio Argentino Roca in 1880, ten consecutive federal governments emphasized liberal economic policies. The massive wave of European immigration they promoted—second only to the United States'—led to a near-reinvention of Argentine society and economy that by 1908 had placed the country as the seventh wealthiestШаблон:Sfn developed nationШаблон:Sfn in the world. Driven by this immigration wave and decreasing mortality, the Argentine population grew fivefold and the economy 15-fold:Шаблон:Sfn from 1870 to 1910 Argentina's wheat exports went from Шаблон:Convert per year, while frozen beef exports increased from Шаблон:Convert per year,Шаблон:Sfn placing Argentina as one of the world's top five exporters.Шаблон:Sfn Its railway mileage rose from Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Fostered by a new public, compulsory, free and secular education system, literacy quickly increased from 22% to 65%, a level higher than most Latin American nations would reach even fifty years later.Шаблон:Sfn Furthermore, real GDP grew so fast that despite the huge immigration influx, per capita income between 1862 and 1920 went from 67% of developed country levels to 100%:Шаблон:Sfn In 1865, Argentina was already one of the top 25 nations by per capita income. By 1908, it had surpassed Denmark, Canada and the Netherlands to reach 7th place—behind Switzerland, New Zealand, Australia, the United States, the United Kingdom and Belgium. Argentina's per capita income was 70% higher than Italy's, 90% higher than Spain's, 180% higher than Japan's and 400% higher than Brazil's.Шаблон:Sfn Despite these unique achievements, the country was slow to meet its original goals of industrialization:Шаблон:Sfn after the steep development of capital-intensive local industries in the 1920s, a significant part of the manufacturing sector remained labour-intensive in the 1930s.Шаблон:Sfn
Between 1878 and 1884 the so-called Conquest of the Desert occurred, with the purpose of tripling the Argentine territory by means of the constant confrontations between natives and Criollos in the border,[18] and the appropriation of the indigenous territories. The first conquest consisted of a series of military incursions into the Pampa and Patagonian territories dominated by the indigenous peoples,[19] distributing them among the members of the Sociedad Rural Argentina, financiers of the expeditions.[20] The conquest of Chaco lasted up to the end of the century,[21] since its full ownership of the national economic system only took place when the mere extraction of wood and tannin was replaced by the production of cotton.[22] The Argentine government considered indigenous people as inferior beings, without the same rights as Criollos and Europeans.[23]
In 1912, President Roque Sáenz Peña enacted universal and secret male suffrage, which allowed Hipólito Yrigoyen, leader of the Radical Civic Union (or UCR), to win the 1916 election. He enacted social and economic reforms and extended assistance to small farms and businesses. Argentina stayed neutral during World War I. The second administration of Yrigoyen faced an economic crisis, precipitated by the Great Depression.Шаблон:Sfn
In 1930, Yrigoyen was ousted from power by the military led by José Félix Uriburu. Although Argentina remained among the fifteen richest countries until mid-century,Шаблон:Sfn this coup d'état marks the start of the steady economic and social decline that pushed the country back into underdevelopment.[24]
Uriburu ruled for two years; then Agustín Pedro Justo was elected in a fraudulent election, and signed a controversial treaty with the United Kingdom. Argentina stayed neutral during World War II, a decision that had full British support but was rejected by the United States after the attack on Pearl Harbor. In 1943 a military coup d'état led by General Arturo Rawson toppled the democratically elected government of Ramón Castillo. Under pressure from the United States, later Argentina declared war on the Axis Powers (on 27 March 1945, roughly a month before the end of World War II in Europe).
During the Rawson dictatorship a relatively unknown military colonel named Juan Perón was named head of the Labour Department. Perón quickly managed to climb the political ladder, being named Minister of Defence by 1944. Being perceived as a political threat by rivals in the military and the conservative camp, he was forced to resign in 1945, and was arrested days later. He was finally released under mounting pressure from both his base and several allied unions.Шаблон:Sfn He would later become president after a landslide victory over the UCR in the 1946 general election as the Laborioust candidate.[25]
Peronist years
The Labour Party (later renamed Justicialist Party), the most powerful and influential party in Argentine history, came into power with the rise of Juan Perón to the presidency in 1946. He nationalized strategic industries and services, improved wages and working conditions, paid the full external debt and claimed he achieved nearly full employment. He pushed Congress to enact women's suffrage in 1947,Шаблон:Sfn and developed a system of social assistance for the most vulnerable sectors of society.Шаблон:Sfn The economy began to decline in 1950 due in part to government expenditures and the protectionist economic policies.[26]
He also engaged in a campaign of political suppression. Anyone who was perceived to be a political dissident or potential rival was subject to threats, physical violence and harassment. The Argentine intelligentsia, the middle-class, university students, and professors were seen as particularly troublesome. Perón fired over 2,000 university professors and faculty members from all major public education institutions.[27]
Perón tried to bring most trade and labour unions under his thumb, regularly resorting to violence when needed. For instance, the meat-packers union leader, Cipriano Reyes, organised strikes in protest against the government after elected labour movement officials were forcefully replaced by Peronist puppets from the Peronist Party. Reyes was soon arrested on charges of terrorism, though the allegations were never substantiated. Reyes, who was never formally charged, was tortured in prison for five years and only released after the regime's downfall in 1955.[28]
Perón managed to get re-elected in 1951. His wife Eva Perón, who played a critical role in the party, died of cancer in 1952. As the economy continued to tank, Perón started losing popular support, and came to be seen as a threat to the national process. The Navy took advantage of Perón's withering political power, and bombed the Plaza de Mayo in 1955. Perón survived the attack, but a few months later, during the Liberating Revolution coup, he was deposed and went into exile in Spain.Шаблон:Sfn
Revolución Libertadora
The new head of State, Pedro Eugenio Aramburu, proscribed Peronism and banned the party from any future elections. Arturo Frondizi from the UCR won the 1958 general election.Шаблон:Sfn He encouraged investment to achieve energetic and industrial self-sufficiency, reversed a chronic trade deficit and lifted the ban on Peronism; yet his efforts to stay on good terms with both the Peronists and the military earned him the rejection of both and a new coup forced him out.Шаблон:Sfn Amidst the political turmoil, Senate leader José María Guido reacted swiftly and applied anti-power vacuum legislation, ascending to the presidency himself; elections were repealed and Peronism was prohibited once again. Arturo Illia was elected in 1963 and led an increase in prosperity across the board; however he was overthrown in 1966 by another military coup d'état led by General Juan Carlos Onganía in the self-proclaimed Argentine Revolution, creating a new military government that sought to rule indefinitely.Шаблон:Sfn
Perón's return and death
Following several years of military rule, Alejandro Agustín Lanusse was appointed president by the military junta in 1971. Under increasing political pressure for the return of democracy, Lanusse called for elections in 1973. Perón was banned from running but the Peronist party was allowed to participate. The presidential elections were won by Perón's surrogate candidate, Hector Cámpora, a left-wing Peronist, who took office on 25 May 1973. A month later, in June, Perón returned from Spain. One of Cámpora's first presidential actions was to grant amnesty to members of organizations that had carried out political assassinations and terrorist attacks, and to those who had been tried and sentenced to prison by judges. Cámpora's months-long tenure in government was beset by political and social unrest. Over 600 social conflicts, strikes, and factory occupations took place within a single month.[29] Even though far-left terrorist organisations had suspended their armed struggle, their joining with the participatory democracy process was interpreted as a direct threat by the Peronist right-wing faction.[30]
Amid a state of political, social, and economic upheaval, Cámpora and Vice President Vicente Solano Lima resigned in July 1973, calling for new elections, but this time with Perón as the Justicialist Party nominee. Perón won the election with his wife Isabel Perón as vice president. Perón's third term was marked by escalating conflict between left and right-wing factions within the Peronist party, as well as the return of armed terror guerrilla groups like the Guevarist ERP, leftist Peronist Montoneros, and the state-backed far-right Triple A. After a series of heart attacks and signs of pneumonia in 1974, Perón's health deteriorated quickly. He suffered a final heart attack on Monday, 1 July 1974, and died at 13:15. He was 78 years old. After his death, Isabel Perón, his wife and vice president, succeeded him in office. During her presidency, a military junta, along with the Peronists' far-right fascist faction, once again became the de facto head of state. Isabel Perón served as President of Argentina from 1974 until 1976, when she was ousted by the military. Her short presidency was marked by the collapse of Argentine political and social systems, leading to a constitutional crisis that paved the way for a decade of instability, left-wing terrorist guerrilla attacks, and state-sponsored terrorism.[26][31][32]
National Reorganization Process
The "Dirty War" (Шаблон:Lang-es) was part of Operation Condor, which included the participation of other right-wing dictatorships in the Southern Cone. The Dirty War involved state terrorism in Argentina and elsewhere in the Southern Cone against political dissidents, with military and security forces employing urban and rural violence against left-wing guerrillas, political dissidents, and anyone believed to be associated with socialism or somehow contrary to the neoliberal economic policies of the regime.[33][34][35] Victims of the violence in Argentina alone included an estimated 15,000 to 30,000 left-wing activists and militants, including trade unionists, students, journalists, Marxists, Peronist guerrillas,[36] and alleged sympathizers. Most of the victims were casualties of state terrorism. The opposing guerrillas' victims numbered nearly 500–540 military and police officials[37] and up to 230 civilians.[38] Argentina received technical support and military aid from the United States government during the Johnson, Nixon, Ford, Carter, and Reagan administrations.
The exact chronology of the repression is still debated, yet the roots of the long political war may have started in 1969 when trade unionists were targeted for assassination by Peronist and Marxist paramilitaries. Individual cases of state-sponsored terrorism against Peronism and the left can be traced back even further to the Bombing of Plaza de Mayo in 1955. The Trelew massacre of 1972, the actions of the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance commencing in 1973, and Isabel Perón's "annihilation decrees" against left-wing guerrillas during Operativo Independencia (Operation Independence) in 1975, are also possible events signaling the beginning of the Dirty War.Шаблон:Efn-ua
Onganía shut down Congress, banned all political parties, and dismantled student and worker unions. In 1969, popular discontent led to two massive protests: the Cordobazo and the Rosariazo. The terrorist guerrilla organization Montoneros kidnapped and executed Aramburu.Шаблон:Sfn The newly chosen head of government, Alejandro Agustín Lanusse, seeking to ease the growing political pressure, allowed Héctor José Cámpora to become the Peronist candidate instead of Perón. Cámpora won the March 1973 election, issued pardons for condemned guerrilla members, and then secured Perón's return from his exile in Spain.Шаблон:Sfn
On the day Perón returned to Argentina, the clash between Peronist internal factions—right-wing union leaders and left-wing youth from the Montoneros—resulted in the Ezeiza Massacre. Overwhelmed by political violence, Cámpora resigned and Perón won the following September 1973 election with his third wife Isabel as vice-president. He expelled Montoneros from the partyШаблон:Sfn and they became once again a clandestine organization. José López Rega organized the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (AAA) to fight against them and the People's Revolutionary Army (ERP).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Perón died in July 1974 and was succeeded by his wife, who signed a secret decree empowering the military and the police to "annihilate" the left-wing subversion,Шаблон:Sfn stopping ERP's attempt to start a rural insurgence in Tucumán province.Шаблон:Sfn Isabel Perón was ousted one year later by a junta of the combined armed forces, led by army general Jorge Rafael Videla. They initiated the National Reorganization Process, often shortened to Proceso.Шаблон:Sfn
The Proceso shut down Congress, removed the judges on the Supreme Court, banned political parties and unions, and resorted to employing the forced disappearance of suspected guerrilla members including individuals suspected of being associated with the left-wing. By the end of 1976, the Montoneros had lost nearly 2,000 members and by 1977, the ERP was completely subdued. Nevertheless, the severely weakened Montoneros launched a counterattack in 1979, which was quickly put down, effectively ending the guerrilla threat and securing the junta's position in power.Шаблон:Citation needed
In 1977, Argentina set up a military base on the uninhabited British South Sandwich Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean. In March 1982, an Argentine force took control of the British territory of South Georgia and, on 2 April, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands. The United Kingdom quickly dispatched a task force to regain possession. After a short, bloody conflict, Argentina surrendered on 14 June and its forces were sent home. Street riots in Buenos Aires followed the humiliating defeat and the military leadership stood down.[39][40] Reynaldo Bignone replaced Galtieri and began to organize the transition to democratic governance.Шаблон:Sfn
Return to democracy
Raúl Alfonsín won the 1983 elections campaigning for the prosecution of those responsible for human rights violations during the Proceso: the Trial of the Juntas and other martial courts sentenced all the coup's leaders but, under military pressure, he also enacted the Full Stop and Due Obedience laws,[41][42] which halted prosecutions further down the chain of command. The worsening economic crisis and hyperinflation reduced his popular support and the Peronist Carlos Menem won the 1989 election. Soon after, riots forced Alfonsín to an early resignation.Шаблон:Sfn
Menem embraced and enacted neoliberal policies:Шаблон:Sfn a fixed exchange rate, business deregulation, privatizations, and the dismantling of protectionist barriers normalized the economy in the short term. He pardoned the officers who had been sentenced during Alfonsín's government. The 1994 Constitutional Amendment allowed Menem to be elected for a second term. With the economy beginning to decline in 1995, and with increasing unemployment and recession,Шаблон:Sfn the UCR, led by Fernando de la Rúa, returned to the presidency in the 1999 elections.Шаблон:Sfn
De la Rúa left Menem's economic plan in effect despite the worsening crisis, which led to growing social discontent.Шаблон:Sfn Massive capital flight from the country was responded to with a freezing of bank accounts, generating further turmoil. The December 2001 riots forced him to resign.Шаблон:Sfn Congress appointed Eduardo Duhalde as acting president, who revoked the fixed exchange rate established by Menem,Шаблон:Sfn causing many working- and middle-class Argentines to lose a significant portion of their savings. By late 2002, the economic crisis began to recede, but the assassination of two piqueteros by the police caused political unrest, prompting Duhalde to move elections forward.Шаблон:Sfn Néstor Kirchner was elected as the new president. On 26 May 2003, he was sworn in.[43]Шаблон:Sfn
Boosting the neo-Keynesian economic policiesШаблон:Sfn laid by Duhalde, Kirchner ended the economic crisis attaining significant fiscal and trade surpluses, and rapid GDP growth.Шаблон:Sfn Under his administration, Argentina restructured its defaulted debt with an unprecedented discount of about 70% on most bonds, paid off debts with the International Monetary Fund,Шаблон:Sfn purged the military of officers with dubious human rights records,Шаблон:Sfn nullified and voided the Full Stop and Due Obedience laws,[44]Шаблон:Efn-ua ruled them as unconstitutional, and resumed legal prosecution of the Junta's crimes. He did not run for reelection, promoting instead the candidacy of his wife, senator Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, who was elected in 2007Шаблон:Sfn and subsequently reelected in 2011. Fernández de Kirchner's administration established positive foreign relations with countries with questionable human rights records, including Venezuela, Iran, and Cuba, while at the same time relations with the United States and the United Kingdom became increasingly strained. By 2015, the Argentine GDP grew by 2.7%[45] and real incomes had risen over 50% since the post-Menem era.[46] Despite these economic gains and increased renewable energy production and subsidies, the overall economy had been sluggish since 2011.[47]
On 22 November 2015, after a tie in the first round of presidential elections on 25 October, center-right coalition candidate Mauricio Macri won the first ballotage in Argentina's history, beating Front for Victory candidate Daniel Scioli and becoming president-elect.[48] Macri was the first democratically elected non-peronist president since 1916 that managed to complete his term in office without being overthrown.[49] He took office on 10 December 2015 and inherited an economy with a high inflation rate and in a poor shape.[50] In April 2016, the Macri Government introduced neoliberal austerity measures intended to tackle inflation and overblown public deficits.[51] Under Macri's administration, economic recovery remained elusive with GDP shrinking 3.4%, inflation totaling 240%, billions of US dollars issued in sovereign debt, and mass poverty increasing by the end of his term.[52][53] He ran for re-election in 2019 but lost by nearly eight percentage points to Alberto Fernández, the Justicialist Party candidate.[54]
President Alberto Fernández and Vice President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner took office in December 2019,[55] just months before the COVID-19 pandemic hit Argentina and among accusations of corruption, bribery and misuse of public funds during Nestor and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner's presidencies.[56][57] On 14 November 2021, the center-left coalition of Argentina's ruling Peronist party, Frente de Todos (Front for Everyone), lost its majority in Congress, for the first time in almost 40 years, in midterm legislative elections. The election victory of the center-right coalition, Juntos por el Cambio (Together for Change) limited President Alberto Fernandez's power during his final two years in office. Losing control of the Senate made it difficult for him to make key appointments, including to the judiciary. It also forced him to negotiate with the opposition every initiative he sends to the legislature.[58][59]
In April 2023, President Alberto Fernandez announced that he will not seek re-election in the next presidential election.[60] The 19 November 2023 election run-off vote ended in a win for libertarian outsider Javier Milei with close to 56% of the vote against 44% of the ruling coalition candidate Sergio Massa.[61] On 10 December 2023, Javier Milei was sworn in as the new president of Argentina.[62]
Geography
With a mainland surface area of Шаблон:Convert,Шаблон:Efn-ua Argentina is located in southern South America, sharing land borders with Chile across the Andes to the west;[63] Bolivia and Paraguay to the north; Brazil to the northeast, Uruguay and the South Atlantic Ocean to the east;[64] and the Drake Passage to the south;Шаблон:Sfnm for an overall land border length of Шаблон:Convert. Its coastal border over the Río de la Plata and South Atlantic Ocean is Шаблон:Convert long.[64]
Argentina's highest point is Aconcagua in the Mendoza province (Шаблон:Convert above sea level),[65] also the highest point in the Southern and Western Hemispheres.Шаблон:Sfn The lowest point is Laguna del Carbón in the San Julián Great Depression Santa Cruz province (Шаблон:Convert below sea level,[65] also the lowest point in the Southern and Western Hemispheres, and the seventh lowest point on Earth)[66]
The northernmost point is at the confluence of the Grande de San Juan and Mojinete rivers in Jujuy province; the southernmost is Cape San Pío in Tierra del Fuego province; the easternmost is northeast of Bernardo de Irigoyen, Misiones and the westernmost is within Los Glaciares National Park in Santa Cruz province.[64] The maximum north–south distance is Шаблон:Convert, while the maximum east–west one is Шаблон:Convert.[64]
Some of the major rivers are the Paraná, Uruguay—which join to form the Río de la Plata, Paraguay, Salado, Negro, Santa Cruz, Pilcomayo, Bermejo and Colorado.Шаблон:Sfn These rivers are discharged into the Argentine Sea, the shallow area of the Atlantic Ocean over the Argentine Shelf, an unusually wide continental platform.Шаблон:Sfn Its waters are influenced by two major ocean currents: the warm Brazil Current and the cold Falklands Current.Шаблон:Sfn
Biodiversity
Argentina is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world[69] hosting one of the greatest ecosystem varieties in the world: 15 continental zones, 2 marine zones, and the Antarctic region are all represented in its territory.[69] This huge ecosystem variety has led to a biological diversity that is among the world's largest:[69][70] 9,372 cataloged vascular plant species (ranked 24th);Шаблон:Efn-ua 1,038 cataloged bird species (ranked 14th);Шаблон:Efn-ua 375 cataloged mammal species (ranked 12th);Шаблон:Efn-ua 338 cataloged reptilian species (ranked 16th); and 162 cataloged amphibian species (ranked 19th).
The original pampa had virtually no trees; some imported species like the American sycamore or eucalyptus are present along roads or in towns and country estates (estancias). The only tree-like plant native to the pampa is the evergreen Ombú. The surface soils of the pampa are a deep black color, primarily mollisols, known commonly as humus. This makes the region one of the most agriculturally productive on Earth; however, this is also responsible for decimating much of the original ecosystem, to make way for commercial agriculture.[71] The western pampas receive less rainfall, this dry pampa is a plain of short grasses or steppe.[72][73]
The National Parks of Argentina make up a network of 35 national parks in Argentina. The parks cover a very varied set of terrains and biotopes, from Baritú National Park on the northern border with Bolivia to Tierra del Fuego National Park in the far south of the continent. The Administración de Parques Nacionales (National Parks Administration) is the agency that preserves and manages these national parks along with Natural monuments and National Reserves within the country.[74] Argentina had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.21/10, ranking it 47th globally out of 172 countries.[75]
Climate
In general, Argentina has four main climate types: warm, moderate, arid, and cold, all determined by the expanse across latitude, range in altitude, and relief features.[76][77] Although the most populated areas are generally temperate, Argentina has an exceptional amount of climate diversity,[78] ranging from subtropical in the north to polar in the far south.[79] Consequently, there is a wide variety of biomes in the country, including subtropical rain forests, semi-arid and arid regions, temperate plains in the Pampas, and cold subantarctic in the south.[80] The average annual precipitation ranges from Шаблон:Convert in the driest parts of Patagonia to over Шаблон:Convert in the westernmost parts of Patagonia and the northeastern parts of the country.[78] Mean annual temperatures range from Шаблон:Convert in the far south to Шаблон:Convert in the north.[78]
Major wind currents include the cool Pampero Winds blowing on the flat plains of Patagonia and the Pampas; following the cold front, warm currents blow from the north in middle and late winter, creating mild conditions.Шаблон:Sfn The Sudestada usually moderates cold temperatures but brings very heavy rains, rough seas and coastal flooding. It is most common in late autumn and winter along the central coast and in the Río de la Plata estuary.Шаблон:Sfn The Zonda, a hot dry wind, affects Cuyo and the central Pampas. Squeezed of all moisture during the Шаблон:Convert descent from the Andes, Zonda winds can blow for hours with gusts up to Шаблон:Convert, fueling wildfires and causing damage; between June and November, when the Zonda blows, snowstorms and blizzard (viento blanco) conditions usually affect higher elevations.Шаблон:Sfn
Climate change in Argentina is predicted to have significant effects on the living conditions in Argentina.[81]Шаблон:Rp The climate of Argentina is changing with regards to precipitation patterns and temperatures. The highest increases in precipitation (from the period 1960–2010) have occurred in the eastern parts of the country. The increase in precipitation has led to more variability in precipitation from year to year in the northern parts of the country, with a higher risk of prolonged droughts, disfavoring agriculture in these regions.
Politics
In the 20th century, Argentina experienced significant political turmoil and democratic reversals.[82][83] Between 1930 and 1976, the armed forces overthrew six governments in Argentina;[83] and the country alternated periods of democracy (1912–1930, 1946–1955, and 1973–1976) with periods of restricted democracy and military rule.[82] Following a transition that began in 1983,[84] full-scale democracy in Argentina was reestablished.[82][83] Argentina's democracy endured through the 2001–02 crisis and to the present day; it is regarded as more robust than both its pre-1983 predecessors and other democracies in Latin America.[83] According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Argentina is 2023 the second most electoral democratic country in Latin America.[85]
Government
Argentina is a federal constitutional republic and representative democracy.Шаблон:Sfn The government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the Constitution of Argentina, the country's supreme legal document. The seat of government is the city of Buenos Aires, as designated by Congress.Шаблон:Sfn Suffrage is universal, equal, secret and mandatory.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn-ua
The federal government is composed of three branches. The Legislative branch consists of the bicameral Congress, made up of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The Congress makes federal law, declares war, approves treaties and has the power of the purse and of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the government.Шаблон:Sfn The Chamber of Deputies represents the people and has 257 voting members elected to a four-year term. Seats are apportioned among the provinces by population every tenth year.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:As of ten provinces have just five deputies while the Buenos Aires Province, being the most populous one, has 70. The Chamber of Senators represents the provinces, and has 72 members elected at-large to six-year terms, with each province having three seats; one-third of Senate seats are up for election every other year.Шаблон:Sfn At least one-third of the candidates presented by the parties must be women.
In the Executive branch, the President is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills before they become law—subject to Congressional override—and appoints the members of the Cabinet and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.Шаблон:Sfn The President is elected directly by the vote of the people, serves a four-year term and may be elected to office no more than twice in a row.Шаблон:Sfn
The Judicial branch includes the Supreme Court and lower federal courts interpret laws and overturn those they find unconstitutional.Шаблон:Sfn The Judicial is independent of the Executive and the Legislative. The Supreme Court has seven members appointed by the President—subject to Senate approval—who serve for life. The lower courts' judges are proposed by the Council of Magistracy (a secretariat composed of representatives of judges, lawyers, researchers, the Executive and the Legislative), and appointed by the president on Senate approval.Шаблон:Sfn
Provinces
Шаблон:Argentina imagemap with province names Шаблон:Main Argentina is a federation of twenty-three provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. Provinces are divided for administration purposes into departments and municipalities, except for Buenos Aires Province, which is divided into partidos. The City of Buenos Aires is divided into communes.
Provinces hold all the power that they chose not to delegate to the federal government;Шаблон:Sfn they must be representative republics and must not contradict the Constitution.Шаблон:Sfn Beyond this they are fully autonomous: they enact their own constitutions,Шаблон:Sfn freely organize their local governments,Шаблон:Sfn and own and manage their natural and financial resources.Шаблон:Sfn Some provinces have bicameral legislatures, while others have unicameral ones.Шаблон:Efn-ua
La Pampa and Chaco became provinces in 1951. Misiones did so in 1953, and Formosa, Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut and Santa Cruz, in 1955. The last national territory, Tierra del Fuego, became the Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur Province in 1990.Шаблон:Sfn It has three components, although two are nominal because they are not under Argentine sovereignty. The first is the Argentine part of Tierra del Fuego; the second is an area of Antarctica claimed by Argentina that overlaps with similar areas claimed by the UK and Chile; the third comprises the two disputed British Overseas Territories of the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.[86]
Foreign relations
Foreign policy is handled by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship, which answers to the President. The country is one of the G-15 and G-20 major economies of the world, and a founding member of the UN, WBG, WTO and OAS. In 2012 Argentina was elected again to a two-year non-permanent position on the United Nations Security Council and is participating in major peacekeeping operations in Haiti, Cyprus, Western Sahara and the Middle East.[87] Argentina is described as a middle power.Шаблон:Sfnm[88]
A prominent Latin AmericanШаблон:Sfnm and Southern ConeШаблон:Sfnm regional power, Argentina co-founded OEI and CELAC. It is also a founding member of the Mercosur block, having Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela as partners. Since 2002 the country has emphasized its key role in Latin American integration, and the block—which has some supranational legislative functions—is its first international priority.Шаблон:Sfn
Argentina claims Шаблон:Convert in Antarctica, where it has the world's oldest continuous state presence, since 1904.[89] This overlaps claims by Chile and the United Kingdom, though all such claims fall under the provisions of the 1961 Antarctic Treaty, of which Argentina is a founding signatory and permanent consulting member, with the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat being based in Buenos Aires.[90]
Argentina disputes sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Шаблон:Lang-es), and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands,Шаблон:Sfn which are administered by the United Kingdom as Overseas Territories. Argentina is a party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.[91] Argentina is a Major non-NATO ally since 1998 [5] and an OECD candidate country since January 2022.[92]
Armed forces
The president holds the title of commander-in-chief of the Argentine Armed Forces, as part of a legal framework that imposes a strict separation between national defense and internal security systems:[93][94] The National Defense System, an exclusive responsibility of the federal government,Шаблон:Sfn coordinated by the Ministry of Defense, and comprising the Army, the Navy and the Air Force.[95] Ruled and monitored by CongressШаблон:Sfn through the Houses' Defense Committees,[96] it is organized on the essential principle of legitimate self-defense: the repelling of any external military aggression in order to guarantee freedom of the people, national sovereignty, and territorial integrity.[96] Its secondary missions include committing to multinational operations within the framework of the United Nations, participating in internal support missions, assisting friendly countries, and establishing a sub-regional defense system.[96]
Military service is voluntary, with enlistment age between 18 and 24 years old and no conscription.[97] Argentina's defense has historically been one of the best equipped in the region, even managing its own weapon research facilities, shipyards, ordnance, tank and plane factories.Шаблон:Sfn However, real military expenditures declined steadily after the defeat in the Falklands/Malvinas War and the defense budget in 2011 was only about 0.74% of GDP, a historical minimum,[98] below the Latin American average. Within the defence budget itself, funding for training and even basic maintenance has been significantly cut, a factor contributing to the accidental loss of the Argentine submarine San Juan in 2017. With the United Kingdom also actively acting to restrict even modest Argentine military modernization efforts,[99] the result has been a steady erosion of Argentine military capabilities, with some arguing that Argentina had, by the end of the 2010s, ceased to be a capable military power.[100]
The Interior Security System is jointly administered by the federal and subscribing provincial governments.[94] At the federal level it is coordinated by the Interior, Security and Justice ministries, and monitored by Congress.[94] It is enforced by the Federal Police; the Prefecture, which fulfills coast guard duties; the Gendarmerie, which serves border guard tasks; and the Airport Security Police.[101] At the provincial level it is coordinated by the respective internal security ministries and enforced by local police agencies.[94]
Argentina was the only South American country to send warships and cargo planes in 1991 to the Gulf War under UN mandate and has remained involved in peacekeeping efforts in multiple locations like UNPROFOR in Croatia/Bosnia, Gulf of Fonseca, UNFICYP in Cyprus (where among Army and Marines troops the Air Force provided the UN Air contingent since 1994) and MINUSTAH in Haiti. Argentina is the only Latin American country to maintain troops in Kosovo during SFOR (and later EUFOR) operations where combat engineers of the Argentine Armed Forces are embedded in an Italian brigade.
In 2007, an Argentine contingent including helicopters, boats and water purification plants was sent to help Bolivia against their worst floods in decades.[102] In 2010 the Armed Forces were also involved in Haiti and Chile humanitarian responses after their respective earthquakes.
Economy
Benefiting from rich natural resources, a highly literate population, a diversified industrial base, and an export-oriented agricultural sector, the economy of Argentina is Latin America's third-largest,[103] and the second-largest in South America.[104] Argentina was one of the richest countries in the world, on the 20th century in 1913 it was one of the wealthiest countries in the world by GDP per capita[105] It has a "very high" rating on the Human Development Index[106] and ranks 66th by nominal GDP per capita,[107] with a considerable internal market size and a growing share of the high-tech sector. As a middle emerging economy and one of the world's top developing nations, it is a member of the G-20 major economies.[108]Шаблон:Efn-ua
Argentina is the largest producer in the world of yerba mate (due to the large domestic consumption of mate), one of the five largest producers in the world of soybeans, maize, sunflower seed, lemon and pear, one of the ten largest producers in the world of barley, grape, artichoke, tobacco and cotton, and one of the 15 largest producers in the world of wheat, sugarcane, sorghum and grapefruit. It is the largest producer in South America of wheat, sunflower seed, barley, lemon and pear.[110][111] In wine, Argentina is usually among the ten largest producers in the world.[112] Argentina is also a traditional meat exporter, having been, in 2019, the 4th world producer of beef, with a production of 3 million tons (only behind US, Brazil and China), the 4th world producer of honey, and the 10th world producer of wool, in addition to other relevant productions.[113][114]
The mining industry of Argentina is not as relevant as that of other countries. It stands out for being the fourth-largest producer of lithium,[115] 9th of silver[116] and 17th of gold[117] worldwide (based on 2019 data). The country stands out in the production of natural gas, being the largest producer in South America and the 18th-largest in the world, and has an average annual production close to 500 thousand barrels/day of petroleum, even with the under-utilization of the Vaca Muerta field, due to the country's technical and financial inability to extract these resources.[118][119]
Шаблон:As of, manufacturing accounted for 20.3% of GDP—the largest sector in the nation's economy.[120] Well-integrated into Argentine agriculture, half of the industrial exports have rural origin.[120] With a 6.5% production growth rate Шаблон:As of,[121] the diversified manufacturing sector rests on a steadily growing network of industrial parks (314 Шаблон:As of)[122][123] Шаблон:As of the leading sectors by volume were: food processing, beverages and tobacco products; motor vehicles and auto parts; textiles and leather; refinery products and biodiesel; chemicals and pharmaceuticals; steel, aluminum and iron; industrial and farm machinery; home appliances and furniture; plastics and tires; glass and cement; and recording and print media.[120] In addition, Argentina has since long been one of the top five wine-producing countries in the world.[120]
High inflation—a weakness of the Argentine economy for decades—has become a trouble once again,[124] with an annual rate of 24.8% in 2017.[125] In 2023 the inflation reached 102.5% among the highest inflation rates in the world.[126] Approximately 43% of the Argentina's population lives below the poverty line as of 2023.[127] To deter it and support the peso, the government imposed foreign currency control.[128] Income distribution, having improved since 2002, is classified as "medium", although it is still considerably unequal.[129]
Argentina ranks 85th out of 180 countries in the Transparency International's 2017 Corruption Perceptions Index,[130] an improvement of 22 positions over its 2014 rankings.[131] Argentina settled its long-standing debt default crisis in 2016 with the so-called vulture funds after the election of Mauricio Macri, allowing Argentina to enter capital markets for the first time in a decade.[132] The government of Argentina defaulted on 22 May 2020 by failing to pay a $500 million bill by its due date to its creditors. Negotiations for the restructuring of $66 billion of its debt continue.[133]
Tourism
The country had 5.57 million visitors in 2013, ranking in terms of international tourist arrivals as the top destination in South America, and second in Latin America after Mexico.[134] Revenues from international tourists reached Шаблон:USD billion in 2013, down from Шаблон:USD billion in 2012.[134] The country's capital city, Buenos Aires, is the most visited city in South America.[135] There are 30 National Parks of Argentina including many World Heritage Sites. Шаблон:Wide image
Transport
Шаблон:As of Buenos Aires, all provincial capitals except Ushuaia, and all medium-sized towns were interconnected by Шаблон:Convert of paved roads, out of a total road network of Шаблон:Convert.[136] In 2021, the country had about Шаблон:Convert of duplicated highways, most leaving the capital Buenos Aires, linking it with cities like Rosario and Córdoba, Santa Fe, Mar del Plata and Paso de los Libres (in border with Brazil), there are also duplicated highways leaving from Mendoza towards the capital, and between Córdoba and Santa Fé, among other locations.[137] Nevertheless, this road infrastructure is still inadequate and cannot handle the sharply growing demand caused by deterioration of the railway system.[138]
Argentina has the largest railway system in Latin America, with Шаблон:Convert of operating lines Шаблон:As of, out of a full network of almost Шаблон:Convert.[139] This system links all 23 provinces plus Buenos Aires City, and connects with all neighbouring countries.[138] There are four incompatible gauges in use; this forces virtually all interregional freight traffic to pass through Buenos Aires.[138] The system has been in decline since the 1940s: regularly running up large budgetary deficits, by 1991 it was transporting 1,400 times less goods than it did in 1973.[138] However, in recent years the system has experienced a greater degree of investment from the state, in both commuter rail lines and long-distance lines, renewing rolling stock and infrastructure.[140][141] In April 2015, by overwhelming majority the Argentine Senate passed a law which re-created Ferrocarriles Argentinos (2015), effectively re-nationalising the country's railways, a move which saw support from all major political parties on both sides of the political spectrum.[142][143][144]
Шаблон:As of there were about Шаблон:Convert of waterways,[145] mostly comprising the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers, with Buenos Aires, Zárate, Campana, Rosario, San Lorenzo, Santa Fe, Barranqueras and San Nicolas de los Arroyos as the main fluvial ports. Some of the largest sea ports are La Plata–Ensenada, Bahía Blanca, Mar del Plata, Quequén–Necochea, Comodoro Rivadavia, Puerto Deseado, Puerto Madryn, Ushuaia and San Antonio Oeste. Buenos Aires has historically been the most important port; however since the 1990s the Up-River port region has become dominant: stretching along Шаблон:Convert of the Paraná river shore in Santa Fe province, it includes 17 ports and Шаблон:As of accounted for 50% of all exports.
Шаблон:As of there were 161 airports with paved runways[146] out of more than a thousand.[138] The Ezeiza International Airport, about Шаблон:Convert from downtown Buenos Aires,Шаблон:Sfn is the largest in the country, followed by Cataratas del Iguazú in Misiones, and El Plumerillo in Mendoza.[138] Aeroparque, in the city of Buenos Aires, is the most important domestic airport.Шаблон:Sfn
Energy
In 2020, more than 60% of Argentina's electricity came from non-renewable sources such as natural gas, oil and coal. 27% came from hydropower, 7.3% from wind and solar energy and 4.4% from nuclear energy.[148] At the end of 2021 Argentina was the 21st country in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW), the 26th country in the world in terms of installed wind energy (3.2 GW) and the 43rd country in the world in terms of installed solar energy (1.0 GW).[149]
The wind potential of the Patagonia region is considered gigantic, with estimates that the area could provide enough electricity to sustain the consumption of a country like Brazil alone. However, Argentina has infrastructural deficiencies to carry out the transmission of electricity from uninhabited areas with a lot of wind to the great centers of the country.[150]
In 1974 it was the first country in Latin America to put in-line a commercial nuclear power plant, Atucha I. Although the Argentine-built parts for that station amounted to 10% of the total, the nuclear fuel it uses are since entirely built in the country. Later nuclear power stations employed a higher percentage of Argentine-built components; Embalse, finished in 1983, a 30% and the 2011 Atucha II reactor a 40%.[151]
Science and technology
Argentines have received three Nobel Prizes in the Sciences. Bernardo Houssay, the first Latin American recipient, discovered the role of pituitary hormones in regulating glucose in animals, and shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947. Luis Leloir discovered how organisms store energy converting glucose into glycogen and the compounds which are fundamental in metabolizing carbohydrates, receiving the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1970. César Milstein did extensive research in antibodies, sharing the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1984. Argentine research has led to treatments for heart diseases and several forms of cancer. Domingo Liotta designed and developed the first artificial heart that was successfully implanted in a human being in 1969. René Favaloro developed the techniques and performed the world's first coronary bypass surgery.
Argentina's nuclear programme has been highly successful. In 1957 Argentina was the first country in Latin America to design and build a research reactor with homegrown technology, the RA-1 Enrico Fermi. This reliance on the development of its own nuclear-related technologies, instead of buying them abroad, was a constant of Argentina's nuclear programme conducted by the civilian National Atomic Energy Commission (CNEA). Nuclear facilities with Argentine technology have been built in Peru, Algeria, Australia and Egypt. In 1983, the country admitted having the capability of producing weapon-grade uranium, a major step needed to assemble nuclear weapons; since then, however, Argentina has pledged to use nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.[152] As a member of the Board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Argentina has been a strong voice in support of nuclear non-proliferation efforts[153] and is highly committed to global nuclear security.[154]
Despite its modest budget and numerous setbacks, academics and the sciences in Argentina have enjoyed international respect since the turn of the 1900s, when Luis Agote devised the first safe and effective means of blood transfusion as well as René Favaloro, who was a pioneer in the improvement of the coronary artery bypass surgery. Argentine scientists are still on the cutting edge in fields such as nanotechnology, physics, computer sciences, molecular biology, oncology, ecology and cardiology. Juan Maldacena, an Argentine-American scientist, is a leading figure in string theory.
Space research has also become increasingly active in Argentina. Argentine-built satellites include LUSAT-1 (1990), Víctor-1 (1996), PEHUENSAT-1 (2007),[155] and those developed by CONAE, the Argentine space agency, of the SAC series.[156] Argentina has its own satellite programme, nuclear power station designs (4th generation) and public nuclear energy company INVAP, which provides several countries with nuclear reactors.[157] Established in 1991, the CONAE has since launched two satellites successfully and,[158] in June 2009, secured an agreement with the European Space Agency for the installation of a 35-m diameter antenna and other mission support facilities at the Pierre Auger Observatory, the world's foremost cosmic ray observatory.[159] The facility will contribute to numerous ESA space probes, as well as CONAE's own, domestic research projects. Chosen from 20 potential sites and one of only three such ESA installations in the world, the new antenna will create a triangulation which will allow the ESA to ensure mission coverage around the clock[160] Argentina was ranked 73rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[161][162]
Demographics
The 2010 census counted 40,117,096 inhabitants, up from 36,260,130 in 2001.[163][164] Argentina ranks third in South America in total population, fourth in Latin America and 33rd globally. Its population density of 15 persons per square kilometer of land area is well below the world average of 50 persons. The population growth rate in 2010 was an estimated 1.03% annually, with a birth rate of 17.7 live births per 1,000 inhabitants and a mortality rate of 7.4 deaths per 1,000 inhabitants. Since 2010, the crude net migration rate has ranged from below zero to up to four immigrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year.[165]
Argentina is in the midst of a demographic transition to an older and slower-growing population. The proportion of people under 15 is 25.6%, a little below the world average of 28%, and the proportion of people 65 and older is relatively high at 10.8%. In Latin America, this is second only to Uruguay and well above the world average, which is currently 7%. Argentina has a comparatively low infant mortality rate. Its birth rate of 2.3 children per woman is considerably below the high of 7.0 children born per woman in 1895,[166] though still nearly twice as high as in Spain or Italy, which are culturally and demographically similar.[167][168] The median age is 31.9 years and life expectancy at birth is 77.14 years.[169]
Attitudes towards LGBT people are generally positive within Argentina.[170] In 2010, Argentina became the first country in Latin America, the second in the Americas, and the tenth worldwide to legalize same-sex marriage.[171][172]
Ethnography
Argentina is considered a country of immigrants.[173][174][175] Argentines usually refer to the country as a crisol de razas (crucible of races, or melting pot). A 2010 study conducted on 218 individuals by the Argentine geneticist Daniel Corach established that the average genetic ancestry of Argentines is 79% European (mainly Italian and Spanish), 18% indigenous and 4.3% African; 63.6% of the tested group had at least one ancestor who was Indigenous.[176][177] The majority of Argentines descend from multiple European ethnic groups, primarily of Italian and Spanish descent, with over 25 million Argentines (almost 60% of the population) having some partial Italian origins.[178]
Argentina is also home to a notable Asian population, the majority of whom are descended from either West Asians (namely Lebanese and Syrians)[179] or East Asians (such as the Chinese,[180] Koreans, and the Japanese).[181] The latter of whom number around 180,000 individuals. The total number of Arab Argentines (most of whom are of Lebanese or Syrian origin) is estimated to be 1.3 to 3.5 million. Many immigrated from various Asian countries to Argentina during the 19th century (especially during the latter half of the century) and the first half of the 20th century.[182][183] Most Arab Argentines belong to the Catholic Church (including both the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches) or the Eastern Orthodox Church. A minority are Muslims.
From the 1970s, immigration has mostly been coming from Bolivia, Paraguay and Peru, with smaller numbers from the Dominican Republic, Ecuador and Romania.[184] The Argentine government estimates that 750,000 inhabitants lack official documents and has launched a program[185] to encourage illegal immigrants to declare their status in return for two-year residence visas—so far over 670,000 applications have been processed under the program.[186] As of July 2023, more than 18,500 Russians have come to Argentina after the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.[187]
Languages
The de factoШаблон:Efn-ua official language is Spanish, spoken by almost all Argentines.Шаблон:Sfn The country is the largest Spanish-speaking society that universally employs Шаблон:Lang, the use of the pronoun vos instead of tú ("you"), which imposes the use of alternative verb forms as well. Owing to the extensive Argentine geography, Spanish has a strong variation among regions, although the prevalent dialect is Rioplatense, primarily spoken in the Pampean and Patagonian regions and accented similarly to the Neapolitan language.Шаблон:Sfn Italian and other European immigrants influenced Lunfardo—the regional slang—permeating the vernacular vocabulary of other Latin American countries as well.
There are several second-languages in widespread use among the Argentine population: English taught since elementary school; 42.3% of Argentines claim to speak it, with 15.4% of them claiming to have a high level of language comprehension.Шаблон:Citation needed); Italian (by 1.5 million people);Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn-ua Arabic (specially its Northern Levantine dialect, by one million people);Шаблон:Sfn Standard German (by 200,000 people);Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn-ua Guaraní (by 200,000 people,Шаблон:Sfn mostly in Corrientes and Misiones);[188] Catalan (by 174,000 people);Шаблон:Sfn Quechua (by 65,000 people, mostly in the Northwest);Шаблон:Sfn Wichí (by 53,700 people, mainly in ChacoШаблон:Sfn where, along with Kom and Moqoit, it is official de jure);[189] Vlax Romani (by 52,000 people);Шаблон:Sfn Albanian (by 40,000 people);[190] Japanese (by 32,000 people);Шаблон:Sfn Aymara (by 30,000 people, mostly in the Northwest);Шаблон:Sfn Ukrainian (by 27,000 people);Шаблон:Sfn
Religion
Christianity is the largest religion in Argentina. The Constitution guarantees freedom of religion.Шаблон:Sfn Although it enforces neither an official nor a state faith,Шаблон:Sfnm it gives Roman Catholicism a preferential status.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn-ua
According to a 2008 CONICET poll, Argentines were 76.5% Catholic, 11.3% Agnostics and Atheists, 9% Evangelical Protestants, 1.2% Jehovah's Witnesses, and 0.9% Mormons, while 1.2% followed other religions, including Islam, Judaism and Buddhism.Шаблон:Sfn These figures appear to have changed quite significantly in recent years: data recorded in 2017 indicated that Catholics made up 66% of the population, indicating a drop of 10.5% in nine years, and the nonreligious in the country standing at 21% of the population, indicating an almost doubling over the same period.[191]
The country is home to both one of the largest Muslim[192] and largest Jewish communities in Latin America, the latter being the seventh most populous in the world.Шаблон:Sfn Argentina is a member of the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance.[192]
Argentines show high individualization and de-institutionalization of religious beliefs;Шаблон:Sfn 23.8% claim to always attend religious services; 49.1% seldom do and 26.8% never do.Шаблон:Sfn
On 13 March 2013, Argentine Jorge Mario Bergoglio, the Cardinal Archbishop of Buenos Aires, was elected Bishop of Rome and Supreme Pontiff of the Catholic Church. He took the name "Francis", and he became the first Pope from either the Americas or from the Southern Hemisphere; he is the first Pope born outside of Europe since the election of Pope Gregory III (who was Syrian) in 741.[193]
Health
Health care is provided through a combination of employer and labour union-sponsored plans (Obras Sociales), government insurance plans, public hospitals and clinics and through private health insurance plans. Health care cooperatives number over 300 (of which 200 are related to labour unions) and provide health care for half the population; the national INSSJP (popularly known as PAMI) covers nearly all of the five million senior citizens.[194]
There are more than 153,000 hospital beds, 121,000 physicians and 37,000 dentists (ratios comparable to developed nations).[195][196] The relatively high access to medical care has historically resulted in mortality patterns and trends similar to developed nations': from 1953 to 2005, deaths from cardiovascular disease increased from 20% to 23% of the total, those from tumors from 14% to 20%, respiratory problems from 7% to 14%, digestive maladies (non-infectious) from 7% to 11%, strokes a steady 7%, injuries, 6%, and infectious diseases, 4%. Causes related to senility led to many of the rest. Infant deaths have fallen from 19% of all deaths in 1953 to 3% in 2005.[195][197]
The availability of health care has also reduced infant mortality from 70 per 1000 live births in 1948[198] to 12.1 in 2009[195] and raised life expectancy at birth from 60 years to 76.[198] Though these figures compare favorably with global averages, they fall short of levels in developed nations and in 2006, Argentina ranked fourth in Latin America.[196]
Education
The Argentine education system consists of four levels.[199] An initial level for children between 45 days to 5 years old, with the last two years[200] being compulsory. An elementary or lower school mandatory level lasting 6 or 7 years.Шаблон:Efn-ua Шаблон:As of the literacy rate was 98.07%.[201] A secondary or high school mandatory level lasting 5 or 6 years.Шаблон:Efn-ua Шаблон:As of 38.5% of people over age 20 had completed secondary school.[202] A higher level, divided in tertiary, university and post-graduate sub-levels. Шаблон:As of there were 47 national public universities across the country, as well as 46 private ones.[203]
Шаблон:As of 7.1% of people over age 20 had graduated from university.[202] The public universities of Buenos Aires, Córdoba, La Plata, Rosario, and the National Technological University are some of the most important. The Argentine state guarantees universal, secular and free-of-charge public education for all levels.Шаблон:Efn-ua Responsibility for educational supervision is organized at the federal and individual provincial states. In the last decades the role of the private sector has grown across all educational stages.
Urbanization
Шаблон:See also Argentina is highly urbanized, with 92% of its population living in cities:[204] the ten largest metropolitan areas account for half of the population. About 3 million people live in the city of Buenos Aires, and including the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area it totals around 13 million, making it one of the largest urban areas in the world.[205] The metropolitan areas of Córdoba and Rosario have around 1.3 million inhabitants each.[205] Mendoza, San Miguel de Tucumán, La Plata, Mar del Plata, Salta and Santa Fe have at least half a million people each.[205]
The population is unequally distributed: about 60% live in the Pampas region (21% of the total area), including 15 million people in Buenos Aires province. The provinces of Córdoba and Santa Fe, and the city of Buenos Aires have 3 million each. Seven other provinces have over one million people each: Mendoza, Tucumán, Entre Ríos, Salta, Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones. With Шаблон:Convert, Tucumán is the only Argentine province more densely populated than the world average; by contrast, the southern province of Santa Cruz has around Шаблон:Convert.[206] Шаблон:Largest cities of Argentina
Culture
Argentina is a multicultural country with significant European influences. Modern Argentine culture has been largely influenced by Italian, Spanish and other European immigration from France, Russia, United Kingdom, among others. Its cities are largely characterized by both the prevalence of people of European descent, and of conscious imitation of American and European styles in fashion, architecture and design.[207] Museums, cinemas, and galleries are abundant in all the large urban centres, as well as traditional establishments such as literary bars, or bars offering live music of a variety of genres although there are lesser elements of Amerindian and African influences, particularly in the fields of music and art. Шаблон:Sfn The other big influence is the gauchos and their traditional country lifestyle of self-reliance.Шаблон:Sfn Finally, indigenous American traditions have been absorbed into the general cultural milieu. Argentine writer Ernesto Sabato has reflected on the nature of the culture of Argentina as follows: Шаблон:Blockquote
Literature
Although Argentina's rich literary history began around 1550,Шаблон:Sfn it reached full independence with Esteban Echeverría's El Matadero, a romantic landmark that played a significant role in the development of 19th century's Argentine narrative,Шаблон:Sfn split by the ideological divide between the popular, federalist epic of José Hernández' Martín Fierro and the elitist and cultured discourse of Sarmiento's masterpiece, Facundo.Шаблон:Sfnm
The Modernist movement advanced into the 20th century including exponents such as Leopoldo Lugones and poet Alfonsina Storni;Шаблон:Sfn it was followed by Vanguardism, with Ricardo Güiraldes's Don Segundo Sombra as an important reference.Шаблон:Sfnm
Jorge Luis Borges, Argentina's most acclaimed writer and one of the foremost figures in the history of literature,Шаблон:Sfn found new ways of looking at the modern world in metaphor and philosophical debate and his influence has extended to authors all over the globe. Short stories such as Ficciones and The Aleph are among his most famous works. He was a friend and collaborator of Adolfo Bioy Casares, who wrote one of the most praised science fiction novels, The Invention of Morel.Шаблон:Sfn Julio Cortázar, one of the leading members of the Latin American Boom and a major name in 20th century literature,Шаблон:Sfn influenced an entire generation of writers in the Americas and Europe.Шаблон:Sfn
A remarkable episode in Argentine literary history is the social and literarial dialectica between the so-called Florida Group, named this way because its members used to meet together at the Richmond Cafeteria at Florida street and published in the Martin Fierro magazine, like Jorge Luis Borges, Leopoldo Marechal, Antonio Berni (artist), among others; versus the Boedo Group of Roberto Arlt, Cesar Tiempo, Homero Manzi (tango composer), that used to meet at the Japanese Cafe and published their works with the Editorial Claridad, with both the cafe and the publisher located at Boedo Avenue.
Other highly regarded Argentine writers, poets and essayists include Estanislao del Campo, Eugenio Cambaceres, Pedro Bonifacio Palacios, Hugo Wast, Benito Lynch, Enrique Banchs, Oliverio Girondo, Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, Victoria Ocampo, Leopoldo Marechal, Silvina Ocampo, Roberto Arlt, Eduardo Mallea, Manuel Mujica Láinez, Ernesto Sábato, Silvina Bullrich, Rodolfo Walsh, María Elena Walsh, Tomás Eloy Martínez, Manuel Puig, Alejandra Pizarnik, and Osvaldo Soriano.Шаблон:Sfnm
Music
Tango, a Rioplatense musical genre with European and African influences,Шаблон:Sfn is one of Argentina's international cultural symbols.Шаблон:Sfn The golden age of tango (1930 to mid-1950s) mirrored that of jazz and swing in the United States, featuring large orchestras like those of Osvaldo Pugliese, Aníbal Troilo, Francisco Canaro, Julio de Caro and Juan d'Arienzo.Шаблон:Sfn After 1955, virtuoso Astor Piazzolla popularized Nuevo tango, a subtler and more intellectual trend for the genre.Шаблон:Sfn Tango enjoys worldwide popularity nowadays with groups like Gotan Project, Bajofondo and Tanghetto.
Argentina developed strong classical music and dance scenes that gave rise to renowned artists such as Alberto Ginastera, composer; Alberto Lysy, violinist; Martha Argerich and Eduardo Delgado, pianists; Daniel Barenboim, pianist and symphonic orchestra director; José Cura and Marcelo Álvarez, tenors; and to ballet dancers Jorge Donn, José Neglia, Norma Fontenla, Maximiliano Guerra, Paloma Herrera, Marianela Núñez, Iñaki Urlezaga and Julio Bocca.Шаблон:Sfn
A national Argentine folk style emerged in the 1930s from dozens of regional musical genres and went on to influence the entirety of Latin American music. Some of its interpreters, like Atahualpa Yupanqui and Mercedes Sosa, achieved worldwide acclaim. The romantic ballad genre included singers of international fame such as Sandro de América. Tenor saxophonist Leandro "Gato" Barbieri and composer and big band conductor Lalo Schifrin are among the most internationally successful Argentine jazz musicians.
Argentine rock developed as a distinct musical style in the mid-1960s, when Buenos Aires and Rosario became cradles of aspiring musicians. Founding bands like Los Gatos, Sui Generis, Almendra and Manal were followed by Seru Giran, Los Abuelos de la Nada, Soda Stereo and Patricio Rey y sus Redonditos de Ricota, with prominent artists including Gustavo Cerati, Litto Nebbia, Andrés Calamaro, Luis Alberto Spinetta, Charly García, Fito Páez and León Gieco.Шаблон:Sfn
A dance and a musical genre popular at present is Cachengue, a subgenre of Argentine cumbia and reggaeton spreading in popularity in nearby countries such as Uruguay, Chile, Paraguay, and Bolivia.[208]
Theatre and cinema
Buenos Aires is one of the great theatre capitals of the world,[211] with a scene of international caliber centered on Corrientes Avenue, "the street that never sleeps", sometimes referred to as an intellectual Broadway in Buenos Aires.Шаблон:Sfn Teatro Colón is a global landmark for opera and classical performances; its acoustics are considered among the world's top five.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn-ua
The Argentine film industry has historically been one of the three most developed in Latin American cinema, along with those produced in Mexico and Brazil.[212][213] Started in 1896; by the early 1930s it had already become Latin America's leading film producer, a place it kept until the early 1950s.Шаблон:Sfn The world's first animated feature films were made and released in Argentina, by cartoonist Quirino Cristiani, in 1917 and 1918.[214]
Argentine films have achieved worldwide recognition: the country has won two Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film, for The Official Story (1985) and The Secret in Their Eyes (2009). In addition, Argentine composers Luis Enrique Bacalov and Gustavo Santaolalla have been honored with Academy Awards for Best Original Score, and Armando Bó and Nicolás Giacobone shared in the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for 2014. Also, the Argentine French actress Bérénice Bejo received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in 2011 and won the César Award for Best Actress and won the Best Actress award in the Cannes Film Festival for her role in the film The Past.[215] Argentina also has won seventeen Goya Awards for Best Spanish Language Foreign Film, being by far the most awarded country in Latin America with twenty-four nominations. Many other Argentine films also have been acclaimed by international critique. Шаблон:As of about 100 full-length motion pictures were being created annually.[216]
Visual arts and architecture
Some of the best-known Argentine painters are Cándido López and Florencio Molina Campos (Naïve style); Ernesto de la Cárcova and Eduardo Sívori (Realism); Fernando Fader (Impressionism); Pío Collivadino, Atilio Malinverno and Cesáreo Bernaldo de Quirós (Postimpressionism); Emilio Pettoruti (Cubism); Julio Barragán (Concretism and Cubism) Antonio Berni (Neofigurativism); Roberto Aizenberg and Xul Solar (Surrealism); Gyula Košice (Constructivism); Eduardo Mac Entyre (Generative art); Luis Seoane, Carlos Torrallardona, Luis Aquino, Alfredo Gramajo Gutiérrez (Modernism); Lucio Fontana (Spatialism); Tomás Maldonado, Guillermo Kuitca (Abstract art); León Ferrari, Marta Minujín (Conceptual art); Gustavo Cabral (Fantasy art), and Fabián Pérez (Neoemotionalism).Шаблон:Vague
In 1946 Gyula Košice and others created The Madí Movement in Argentina, which then spread to Europe and the United States, where it had a significant impact.[217] Tomás Maldonado was one of the main theorists of the Ulm Model of design education, still highly influential globally. Other Argentine artists of worldwide fame include Adolfo Bellocq, whose lithographs have been influential since the 1920s, and Benito Quinquela Martín, the quintessential port painter, inspired by the immigrant-bound La Boca neighbourhood. Internationally laureate sculptors Erminio Blotta, Lola Mora and Rogelio Yrurtia authored many of the classical evocative monuments of the Argentine cityscape.Шаблон:Citation needed
The colonization brought the Spanish Baroque architecture, which can still be appreciated in its simpler Rioplatense style in the reduction of San Ignacio Miní, the Cathedral of Córdoba, and the Cabildo of Luján. Italian and French influences increased at the beginning of the 19th century with strong eclectic overtones that gave the local architecture a unique feeling.[218]
Mass media
The print media industry is highly developed in Argentina, with more than two hundred newspapers. The major national ones include Шаблон:Lang (centrist, Latin America's best-seller and the second most widely circulated in the Spanish-speaking world), La Nación (centre-right, published since 1870), Página/12 (leftist, founded in 1987), La Voz del Interior (centre, founded in 1904),Шаблон:Sfn and the Argentinisches Tageblatt (German weekly, liberal, published since 1878).Шаблон:Sfn
Argentina began the world's first regular radio broadcasting on 27 August 1920, when Richard Wagner's Parsifal was aired by a team of medical students led by Enrique Telémaco Susini in Buenos Aires' Teatro Coliseo.[219] Шаблон:As of there were 260 AM and 1150 FM registered radio stations in the country.[220]
The Argentine television industry is large, diverse and popular across Latin America, with many productions and TV formats having been exported abroad. Since 1999 Argentines enjoy the highest availability of cable and satellite television in Latin America,[221] Шаблон:As of totaling 87.4% of the country's households, a rate similar to those in the United States, Canada and Europe.[222]
Шаблон:As of Argentina also had the highest coverage of networked telecommunications among Latin American powers: about 67% of its population had internet access and the ratio of mobile phone subscriptions to population was 137.2%.[223]Шаблон:Better source needed
Cuisine
Besides many of the pasta, sausage and dessert dishes common to continental Europe, Argentines enjoy a wide variety of Indigenous and Criollo creations, including empanadas (a small stuffed pastry), locro (a mixture of corn, beans, meat, bacon, onion, and gourd), humita and mate.Шаблон:Sfn In various localities of Argentina, this dish is consumed as a beefmelt.
The country has the highest consumption of red meat in the world,[224] traditionally prepared as asado, the Argentine barbecue. It is made with various types of meats, often including chorizo, sweetbread, chitterlings, and blood sausage.Шаблон:Sfn
Common desserts include facturas (Viennese-style pastry), cakes and pancakes filled with dulce de leche (a sort of milk caramel jam), alfajores (shortbread cookies sandwiched together with chocolate, dulce de leche or a fruit paste), and tortas fritas (fried cakes)Шаблон:Sfnm
Argentine wine, one of the world's finest,[225] is an integral part of the local menu. Malbec, Torrontés, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and Chardonnay are some of the most sought-after varieties.Шаблон:Sfn
Sport
Pato is the national sport,[226] an ancient horseback game locally originated in the early 1600s and predecessor of horseball.Шаблон:Sfn[227] The most popular sport is football. Along with Brazil and France, the men's national team is the only one to have won the most important international triplet: World Cup, Confederations Cup, and the Olympic Gold Medal. It has also won 15 Copas América, 7 Pan American Gold Medals and many other trophies.Шаблон:Sfn Alfredo Di Stéfano, Diego Maradona and Lionel Messi are among the best players in the game's history.Шаблон:Sfn
The country's women's field hockey team Las Leonas, is one of the world's most successful with four Olympic medals, two World Cups, a World League and seven Champions Trophy.Шаблон:Sfn Luciana Aymar is recognized as the best female player in the history of the sport,[228] being the only player to have received the FIH Player of the Year Award eight times.[229]
Basketball is a very popular sport. The men's national team is the only one in the FIBA Americas zone that has won the quintuplet crown: World Championship, Olympic Gold Medal, Diamond Ball, Americas Championship, and Pan American Gold Medal. It has also conquered 13 South American Championships, and many other tournaments.[230] Emanuel Ginóbili, Luis Scola, Andrés Nocioni, Fabricio Oberto, Pablo Prigioni, Carlos Delfino and Juan Ignacio Sánchez are a few of the country's most acclaimed players, all of them part of the NBA.Шаблон:Sfn Argentina hosted the Basketball World Cup in 1950 and 1990.
Rugby is another popular sport in Argentina. Шаблон:As of, the men's national team, known as 'Los Pumas' has competed at the Rugby World Cup each time it has been held, achieving their highest-ever result in 2007 when they came third. Since 2012, the Los Pumas have competed against Australia, New Zealand & South Africa in The Rugby Championship, the premier international Rugby competition in the Southern Hemisphere. Since 2009 the secondary men's national team known as the 'Jaguares' has competed against the US, Canada, and Uruguay first teams in the Americas Rugby Championship, which Los Jaguares have won six out of eight times it has taken place.
Argentina has produced some of the most formidable champions for boxing, including Carlos Monzón, the best middleweight in history;[231] Pascual Pérez, one of the most decorated flyweight boxers of all times; Horacio Accavallo, the former WBA and WBC world flyweight champion; Víctor Galíndez, Шаблон:As of, record holder for consecutive world light heavyweight title defenses and Nicolino Locche, nicknamed "The Untouchable" for his masterful defense; they are all inductees into the International Boxing Hall of Fame.Шаблон:Sfn
Tennis has been quite popular among people of all ages. Guillermo Vilas is the greatest Latin American player of the Open Era,Шаблон:Sfn while Gabriela Sabatini is the most accomplished Argentine female player of all time—having reached number 3 in the WTA ranking,Шаблон:Sfn are both inductees into the International Tennis Hall of Fame.[232] Argentina has won the World Team Cup four times, in 1980, 2002, 2007 and 2010 and has reached the semifinals of the Davis Cup 7 times in the last 10 years, losing the finals against Russia in 2006 and Spain in 2008 and 2011; the Argentine team also played the final in 1981, where they lost against the United States. The national squad won the 2016 Davis Cup.
Argentina reigns undisputed in polo, having won more international championships than any other country and been seldom beaten since the 1930s.Шаблон:Sfn The Argentine Polo Championship is the sport's most important international team trophy. The country is home to most of the world's top players, among them Adolfo Cambiaso, the best in Polo history.Шаблон:Sfn
Historically, Argentina has had a strong showing within auto racing. Juan Manuel Fangio was a five-time Formula One world champion under four different teams, winning 102 of his 184 international races, and is widely ranked as the greatest driver of all time.Шаблон:Sfnm Other distinguished racers were Oscar Alfredo Gálvez, Juan Gálvez, José Froilán González and Carlos Reutemann.Шаблон:Sfnm
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Legal documents
Articles
- Шаблон:Cite journal
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Books
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Further reading
- Шаблон:Cite book
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- Шаблон:Cite EB1911
- Шаблон:Cite book
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External links
- National Institute of Tourism Promotion
- Argentina. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Шаблон:Curlie
- Argentina at the Latin American Network Information Center
- Argentina at the University Libraries – University of Colorado Boulder
- Key Development Forecasts for Argentina at International Futures
- Шаблон:Osmrelation-inline
- Шаблон:Wikiatlas
Шаблон:Argentina topics Шаблон:Navboxes Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ O.N.I. – Department of Education of Argentina Шаблон:Webarchive
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ The name Argentine (Spanish) El nombre de Argentina Шаблон:Webarchive
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ John Lynch, San Martin: Argentine Soldier, American Hero (2009)
- ↑ Delgado de Cantú, Gloria M. (2006). Historia de México. México, D. F.: Pearson Educación.
- ↑ Mercene, Manila men, p. 52.
- ↑ Sus padres y hermanos – Por José A. Torre Revell (1893–1964)Шаблон:Webarchive Instituto Nacional Sanmartiniano
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Douglas A. Richmond, "Julio Argentino Roca" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 4 p. 583. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
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- ↑ Alexander, Robert Jackson. A History of Organized Labor in Argentina. Westport, Conn. : Praeger, 2003.
- ↑ 26,0 26,1 Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Manuel Justo Gaggero, "El general en su laberinto" Шаблон:Webarchive, Pagina/12, 19 February 2007
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Political Violence and Trauma in Argentina, Antonius C. G. M. Robben, p. 145, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007
- ↑ Revolutionizing Motherhood: The Mothers of the Plaza De Mayo, Marguerite Guzmán Bouvard, p. 22, Rowman & Littlefield, 1994
- ↑ "Argentina's Guerrillas Still Intent On Socialism" Шаблон:Webarchive, Sarasota Herald-Tribune, 7 March 1976
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Gambini, Hugo (2008). Historia del peronismo. La violencia (1956–1983). Buenos Aires: Javier Vergara Editor. pp. 198/208.
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- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb: "The Andes Mountains form the "backbone" of Argentina along the western border with Chile."
- ↑ 64,0 64,1 64,2 64,3 Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Cooper AF (1997) Niche Diplomacy – Middle Powers after the Cold War Шаблон:Webarchive, palgrave
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<ref>; для сносокUNHDRне указан текст - ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ H. Johnson & J. Robinson The World Atlas of Wine pg 300–301 Mitchell Beazley Publishing 2005 Шаблон:ISBN
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