Английская Википедия:Asherah
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:For Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox deity Шаблон:Fertile Crescent myth (Levantine)Шаблон:Middle Eastern deities
Asherah (Шаблон:IPAc-en;[1] Шаблон:Lang-he; Шаблон:Lang-uga; Шаблон:Lang-akk;[2] Qatabanian: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration)[3] is the great goddess in ancient Semitic religion. She also appears in Hittite writings as Ašerdu(s) or Ašertu(s) (Шаблон:Lang-hit).[4] Her name was Aṯeratum to the Amorites,[5][6] and Athiratu in Ugarit. Significantly, Yahweh and Asherah were a consort pair in ancient Israel and Judah.Шаблон:Sfn[7][8][9]
Name
Etymology
Some have sought a common-noun meaning of her name, especially in Ugaritic appellation rabat athirat yam. But a homophone's meaning to an Ugaritian doesn't equate an etymon, especially if the name is older than the Ugaritic language. There is no hypothesis for rabat athirat yam without significant issues, and if Asherah were a word from Ugarit it would be pronounced differently.Шаблон:Sfn The title rabat athirat yam is only found in the Baal cycle.
The common NW Semitic meaning of šr is "king, prince, ruler."[10] The NW Semitic[11] root ʾṯr (arabic Шаблон:Script/Arabic) means "tread".
Grammar
The -ot ending "Asherot" is found three times in the Tanakh,[12] with -im "Asherim" making up the great majority.Шаблон:Sfn The significance is unclear, as the interaction of gender and number in Hebrew is not robustly understood.[13] Not all scholars find HB references with final t plural. Archaic suffixes like –atu/a/i became Northwest Semitic -at or -ā latter written -ah in transcription. That is, merely terminally alternate spellings like Asherat and Asherah reflect contextual rather than existential variation.[14]
Title
Her titles often include qdš "holy", or elat, ba'alat, or rabat,Шаблон:Sfn all meaning Lady or goddess, qnyt ỉlm, "creator of the gods."[15]Шаблон:Sfn
Goddess or symbol
The Asherah in question is sometimes called a mere cultic object,[16] but de Vaux says "both,"[11] and Winter says the goddess and her symbol should not be distinguished.Шаблон:Sfn
Interpretation
Beside the obvious connections between goddesses who sometimes can't be distinguished, some scholars have found an early link between Asherah and Eve, based upon the coincidence of their common title as "the mother of all living" in Genesis 3:20Шаблон:Sfn through the identification with the Hurrian mother goddess, Hebat.[20][21] Olyan says Eve (hawwa) is an attested epithet of Tannit/Asherah in the first millennium BCE.Шаблон:Sfn[22] Hebrew chwwh is related to Aramaic chwyh and Phoenician chwt "snake".[23] A more Phoenician pronunciation Ḥawwat is Eve in the Punica tabella defixionis.
There is further speculation that the Shekhinah as a feminine aspect of Yahweh may be a cultural memory or devolution of Asherah.[24] Another such aspect is seen in the feminine (grammatically or otherwise) treatment of the Holy Spirit or Sophia.Шаблон:Sfn Goddess "aspect creep" can even lap upon male figures like Jacob[25] or Jesus.[26]
Iconography
Шаблон:Research paper There are many symbols associated, but the symbols equivalent to the Goddess have been taken for some time to be the sacred tree and the pubic triangle.Шаблон:Sfn
Small figures
Symbolism
Cakes
The cakes baked for the Queen of Heaven in Jeremiah are called Kawwanim.[27] It's likely a loan word from the Akkadian kamanu, "cake." Some have suggested the cakes were made "in her image" by use of molds, like the buxom and hippy clay molds found at Mari.[28] Ugaritic and Hebrew dblt means a similar fig and sometimes raisin cake.[29]
Snakes
Snakes are associated with transformation, completeness, immortality, ocracles,Шаблон:Sfn as well as water, the abyss, "bitter" poison, and healing. Mentions go together in places including Ugarit[30][31] and Papyrus Amherst 63.[32]
See also "Sinai" below.
Yoni
Vaginal symbols are often used in goddess art.[34]Шаблон:Sfn The ubiquitous pubic triangle indicates Asherah and depicts hair. Pubic hair is often indicated by concentrations of dots or dashes.Шаблон:Sfn Sometimes a triangle is portrayed polysemically as a grape cluster or the yoni shape as the wings of a soaring eagle. See photo with gold jewelry. Some call it omega: "It is possible that the Ω... symbolized the womb."[16]Шаблон:RpШаблон:Sfn But the womb could be a nutrix symbol, as animals are often shown feeding directly if a bit abstractly from a pubic triangle.Шаблон:Sfn
Palm
An especially common Asherah tree in visual art is the date palm, a reliable producer of nutrition through the year. Some expect living trees, but Olyan sees a stylized, non-living palm or poleШаблон:SfnШаблон:Page needed.
Oak
Trees inconsistently translated as oak, terebinth, poplar contain the divine name El (elah, elim, elon, allah) and are sometimes utterly homophonous with 'Elat.[35] There is a plausible etymological relationship between ʾElat and אלה terebinth.Шаблон:Sfn[36]
Almond
Like the oak, almonds have an etymology with a possible goddess link by homophony. "Two strains grow in Israel: amygdalus communis var. dulcis, which has pink blossoms and sweet fruit, and amygdalus communis var. amara, with white blossoms and bitter fruit.[37] Yarden points out that the name itself is curious. The Latin name amygdala probably derives from a Semitic root, meaning ’great mother’, which was in Mesopotamian amagallu, and in Sumerian Шаблон:Smallcaps. In Hebrew it would have been ’em gedola."Шаблон:Sfn The almond may have its fertile association from its early blooming, which also gave it its other Hebrew name shaqed or vigilant/watcher. (A note on the word is here.[38]) The name "luz" means both almond and Betyl.
Other Trees
Some sacred trees may have been left to archaeology.[39]
Joan Taylor says the trees of the Lachish ewer may be Asherim.
The imagery of Asherah poles also inspired the design of the menorah and the burning bush narrative, as described in the Book of Exodus.[40]
Pottery
As further proof, Hestrin noted[41] that in a group of other pottery vessels found in the Fosse Temple the usual depiction of the sacred tree flanked by ibexes or birds is in one goblet replaced by a pubic triangle flanked by ibexes. The interchange between the tree and the pubic triangle prove, according to Hestrin, that the tree symbolizes the fertility goddess Asherah. Hestrin draws parallels between this and representations of Hathor as the sycamore tree goddess in Egypt, and suggests that during the period of Egyptian rule in Palestine the Hathor cult penetrated the region so extensively that Hathor became identified with Asherah. Other motifs in the ewer such as a lion, fallow deer and ibexes seem to have a close relationship with the iconography associated with her. Moreover, the numerous clay images of a goddess, often called ’Astarte figurines’, found in Israelite levels of many sites are representative of Asherah as a tree. These figurines have bodies which resemble tree trunks.Шаблон:Sfn
Mistress of animals
The Master of animals and mistress of lions motifs are "almost undoubtedly depictions of the goddess Asherah."Шаблон:Sfn The lioness made a ubiquitous symbol for goddesses of the ancient Middle East that was similar to the doveШаблон:Sfn and the tree. Lionesses figure prominently in Asherah's iconography, including the tenth-century BC Ta'anach cult stand, which also includes the tree motif. A Hebrew arrowhead from the eleventh century BC bears the inscription "Servant of the Lion Lady".Шаблон:Sfn
The symbols around Asherah are so many (8+ pointed star, caprids and the like, along with lunisolar, arboreal, florid, serpentine) that a listing would approach meaninglessness as it neared exhaustiveness. Frevel's 1000-page dissertation ends enigmatically with the pronouncement "Es gibt keine genuine Ascheraikonographie."Шаблон:ClarifyШаблон:Sfn[42]
By region
Sumer
A limestone slab for Hammu-rapi was dedicatted to the goddess Ashratum, wife of Mardu/Amurrum in Sippar. He complements her mountain connection as lord of the mountain or bel shadī. Ashratum's name is cognate with Ugaritic ʾAṯirat. Hammu-rapi presages similar use with words like voluptuousness, joy, tender, patient, mercy to commemorate setting up a "protective genius" (font?) for her in her temple.[43] Necessity alone corroborates that this was a different goddess from the more familiar versions as Sumerian hegemony was quite early.
Akkad
In Akkadian texts, Asherah appears as Aširatu; though her exact role in the pantheon is unclear; as a separate goddess, Antu, was considered the wife of Anu, the god of Heaven. In contrast, ʿAshtart is believed to be linked to the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar who is sometimes portrayed as the daughter of Anu.[44]
Points of reference in Akkadian epigraphy are collocated and heterographic Amarna Letters 60 and 61's Asheratic personal name. Within them is found a king of the Amorites by the 14th-century name of Abdi-Ashirta, "servant of Asherah".[45]
| * EA 60 ii | um-ma IÌR-daš-ra-tum |
| * EA 61 ii | [um-]ma IÌR-a-ši-ir-te ÌR-[-ka4 |
Each is on line ii within the letter's opening or greeting sentiment. Some may transcribe Aširatu or Ašratu.[44]
Ugarit
In Ugaritic texts, Asherah appears as ʾṯrt[46] (Ugaritic: 𐎀𐎘𐎗𐎚), anglicised ʾAṯirat or Athirat. She is called ʾElat,Шаблон:Efn "goddess", the feminine form of ʾEl (compare Allāt); she is also called Qodeš, "holiness",.Шаблон:Efn There is reference to a šr. ‘ṯtrt.[47] Gibson says sources from before 1200 BC almost always credit Athirat with her full title rbt ʾṯrt ym (or rbt ʾṯrt).[48]Шаблон:Efn However, Rahmouni's indexing of Ugaritic epithets states the phrase occurs in only the Baʿal Epic.Шаблон:Sfn Apparently of Akkadian origin, rabat means "lady" (literally "female great one").Шаблон:Sfn She appears to champion her son, Yam, god of the sea, in his struggle against Baʾal. (Yam's ascription as god of the sea may mislead; Yam is the deified sea itself rather than a deity who holds dominion over it.) So some say Athirat's title can be translated as "Lady ʾAṯirat of the Sea",Шаблон:Sfn alternatively, "she who walks on the sea",Шаблон:Sfn or even "the Great Lady-who-tramples-Yam."Шаблон:Sfn This invites relation to a Chaoskampf in which neither she nor Yam is otherwise implicated. One scholar suggested in 2010 that the name Athirat might be derived from a passive participle form, referring to the "one followed by (the gods)", that is, "progenitress or originatress", which would correspond to Asherah's image as the "mother of the gods" in Ugaritic literature.Шаблон:Sfn This solution was a response to and variation of B. Margalit's of her following in Yahweh's literal footsteps, a less generous estimation nonetheless supported by DШаблон:Sc's use of the Ugaritian word in an ordinary sense. Binger finds some of these risibly imaginative, and unhappily falls back on the still-problematic interpretation that Ym may also mean day, so "Lady Asherah of the day", or, more simply, "Lady Day".Шаблон:Sfn The common Semitic root ywm (for reconstructed Proto-Semitic *yawm-),[49] from which derives (Шаблон:Lang-he), meaning "day", appears in several instances in the Masoretic Texts with the second-root letter (-w-) having been dropped, and in a select few cases, replaced with an A-class vowel of the Niqqud,[50] resulting in the word becoming y(a)m. Such occurrences, as well as the fact that the plural, "days", can be read as both yōmîm and yāmîm (Шаблон:Lang-he), gives credence to this alternate translation.
ṯr is Ugaritic for bull.[51] Another primary epithet of Athirat was qnyt ʾilm,Шаблон:Efn[52] which may be translated as "the creator of the deities".[48] In those texts, Athirat is the consort of the god ʾEl; there is one reference to the 70 sons of Athirat, presumably the same as the 70 sons of ʾEl. Among the Hittites this goddess appears as Ašerdu(s) or Ašertu(s), the consort of Elkunirsa ("El, the Creator of Earth") and mother of either 77 or 88 sons.
In Israel and Judah
The conception of Asherah as the partner of Yahweh has stirred a lot of debate.Шаблон:Sfn[53][54] Many scholars have written at length about the possibility, and the majority conclude that Yahweh and Asherah were indeed a consort pair among the ancient Israelites.Шаблон:Sfn[7][8][55]
Prime evidence for worship includes an iconography and inscriptions at two locations in use in the 8-9th century. The first was in a cave at Khirbet el-Qom.Шаблон:Sfn
The second was at Kuntillet Ajrud.[58][59][60] In the latter, a jar shows bovid-anthropomorphic figures and several inscriptionsШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn that refer to "Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah" and "Yahweh of Teman and his Asherah."[61]
In one potsherd there appear a large and small bovine.Шаблон:Sfn This "oral fixation" motif has diverse examples, see figs 413-419 in Winter.Шаблон:Sfn In fact, already Flinders Petrie in the 1930s was referring to Davies on the memorable stereotype.[62]Шаблон:Full citation needed It's such a common motif in Syrian and Phoenician ivories that the Arslan Tash horde had at least four; they can be seen in the Louvre.
Early scholarship emphasized somewhat mutually-negating possibilities of holy prostitution, hieros gamos, and orgiastic rites.Шаблон:Sfn It has been suggested by several scholars[63][64] that there is a relationship between the position of the gəḇīrā in the royal court and the worship (orthodox or not) of Asherah.[65] The Hebrew Bible frequently and graphically associates goddess worship with prostitution ("whoredom") in material written after the reforms of Josiah. Jeremiah, and Ezekiel blame the goddess religion for making Yahweh "jealous", and cite his jealousy as the reason Yahweh allowed the destruction of Jerusalem. As for sexual and fertility rites, it is likely that once they were held in honor in Israel, as they were throughout the ancient world. Although their nature remains uncertain, sexual rites typically revolved around women of power and influence, such as Maacah. The Hebrew term qadishtu, formerly translated as "temple prostitutes" or "shrine prostitutes", literally means "priestesses" or "consecrated women" from qds meaning "holy".[66] However, there is a growing scholarly consensus that sacred prostitution never existed, and that sex acts within the temple were strictly limited to yearly sacred fertility rites aimed at assuring an abundant harvest.Шаблон:Sfn
In the canon
There are references to the worship of numerous deities throughout the Books of Kings: Solomon builds temples to many deities and Josiah is reported as cutting down the statues of Asherah in the temple Solomon built for Yahweh (2 Kings 23:14). Josiah's grandfather Manasseh had erected one such statue (2 Kings 21:7).[68]
The name Asherah appears forty times in the Hebrew Bible, but it is much reduced in English translations. The word ʾăšērâ is translated in Greek as Шаблон:Lang-el (grove; plural: ἄλση) in every instance apart from Isaiah 17:8; 27:9 and 2 Chronicles 15:16; 24:18, with Шаблон:Lang-el (trees) being used for the former, and, peculiarly, Ἀστάρτη (Astarte) for the latter. The Vulgate in Latin provided lucus or nemus, a grove or a wood. From the Vulgate, the King James translation of the Bible uses grove or groves instead of Asherah's name. Non-scholarly English language readers of the Bible would not have read her name for more than 400 years afterward.[69] The association of Asherah with trees in the Hebrew Bible is very strong. For example, she is found under trees (1 Kings 14:23; 2 Kings 17:10) and is made of wood by human beings (1 Kings 14:15, 2 Kings 16:3–4). The farther from the time of Josiah's reforms, the broader the perception of an Asherah became. Trees described in later Jewish texts as being an asherah or part of an asherah include grapevines, pomegranates, walnuts, myrtles, and willows.[70] Eventually, monotheistic leaders and the culture would begin failing to distinguish a precious or suspicious tree from an Asherah.
Asherah was patronized by female royals such as the Queen Mother Maacah (1 Kings 15:13). The women of Jerusalem attested, "When we burned incense to the Queen of Heaven and poured out drink offerings to her, did not our husbands know that we were making cakes impressed with her image and pouring out drink offerings to her?" Another raisin-cake reference is found in Hosea. (Jeremiah 44:19 and Hosea 3:1). This passage corroborates a number of archaeological excavations showing altar spaces in Hebrew homes.
Deuteronomy 12 has Yahweh commanding the destruction of her shrines so as to maintain purity of his worship.[71] Jezebel brought hundreds of prophets for Baal and Asherah with her into the Israelite court.[72]
William Dever's book discusses female pillar figurines, the queen of heaven name, and the cakes. Dever also points to the temple at Tel Arad, the famous archaeological site with cannabanoids and massebot. Dever notes: "The only goddess whose name is well attested in the Hebrew Bible (or in ancient Israel generally) is Asherah."Шаблон:Sfn
In Egyptian sources
Beginning during the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt, a Semitic goddess named Qetesh ("holiness", sometimes reconstructed as Qudshu) appears prominently. That dynasty follows expulsion of occupying foreigners from an intermediary period. René Dussard suggested a connection to Asherah in 1941. Subsequent studies tried to find further evidence for equivalence of Qetesh and Asherah, although Wiggins does not.[74] His hesitance didn't dissuade additionally subsequent scholars from equating Asherah and Egyptian qds.Шаблон:Sfn
In Egypt the imprecise term "tree goddess" might find some coherence, as in art the tree form was sometimes primary, unlike in the Levant. In Egypt, famous art shows a teat coming from a tree.[75] (This is Goldwasser's goddess category IVa.)Шаблон:Sfn In Revadim (Revadim Asherah) or Ugarit, in contrast, a small tree branch is seen on the thigh or belly. (This is Shai's "pubis of life."Шаблон:Sfn) In each, the alternate aspect is subsumed emblematically.Шаблон:Sfn
A certain (PNs) Ashera and a Haya-Wr (Eve-Light) are mentioned in the Papyrus Brooklyn.
Sinai
Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions distinguish Asherah from Hat·hor. Albright '69 says Asherah seems to be identified with a Nubian serpent goddess. The inscriptions, in fact the moments of the invention of the alphabet, almost all invoke Ba‘alat.Шаблон:Sfn Goldwasser says Asherah and Hat·hor were identified rather than distinguished here, however.Шаблон:Sfn
In Arabia
As ʾAṯirat (Qatabanian: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration) she was attested in pre-Islamic south Arabia as the consort of the moon-god ʿAmm.[76]
One of the Tema stones (CIS II 113) discovered by Charles Huber in 1883 in the ancient oasis of Tema, northwestern Arabia, and now located at the Louvre, believed to date to the time of Nabonidus's retirement there in 549 BC, bears an inscription in Aramaic that mentions Ṣelem of Maḥram (Шаблон:Script/Hebrew), Šingalāʾ (Шаблон:Script/Hebrew), and ʾAšîrāʾ (Шаблон:Script/Hebrew) as the deities of Tema. This ʾAšîrāʾ may be Asherah. It is unclear whether the name would be an Aramaic vocalisation of the Ugaritic ʾAṯirat or a later borrowing of the Hebrew ʾĂšērāh or similar form. In any event, Watkins says the root of both names is a Proto-Semitic *ʾṯrt.[77]
The Arabic root ʾṯr (as in Шаблон:Script/Arabic ʾaṯar, "trace") is similar in meaning to the Hebrew ʾāšar, indicating "to tread", used as a basis to explain Asherah's epithet "of the sea" as "she who treads the ym (sea).[78]"[79]
Asherah survived late in remote South Arabia as seen in some common era Qatabanian and Maʕinian inscriptions.[80]
See also
Deities
Шаблон:Columns-list Шаблон:Portalbar
Notes
References
Bibliography
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External links
Asherah
- Asphodel P. Long, The Goddess in Judaism – An Historical Perspective
- Asherah, the Tree of Life and the Menorah
- Jewish Encyclopedia: Asherah
- Rabbi Jill Hammer, An Altar of Earth: Reflections on Jews, Goddesses and the Zohar
- University of Birmingham: Deryn Guest: Asherah at Archive.org
- Lilinah biti-Anat, Qadash Kinahnu Deity Temple "Room One, Major Canaanite Deities"
Kuntillet ʿAjrud inscriptions
- Jacques Berlinerblau, "Official religion and popular religion in pre-Exilic ancient Israel" (Commentary on Yahweh's Asherah.)
- ANE: Kuntillet bibliography
- Jeffrey H. Tigay, "A Second Temple Parallel to the Blessings from Kuntillet Ajrud" (University of Pennsylvania) (This equates Asherah with an asherah.)
Israelite
Шаблон:Middle Eastern mythologyШаблон:Authority control
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- ↑ Day, John. "Asherah in the Hebrew Bible and Northwest Semitic Literature." Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 105, no. 3, 1986, pp. 385–408. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3260509. Accessed 5 Aug. 2021.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 'Asertu, tablet concordance KUB XXXVI 35 - CTH 342 Шаблон:Webarchive', Hittite Collection, Hatice Gonnet-Bağana; Koç University.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ aṯrt (II) DN; El's wife (cf il (I); Hb ʔšrh, HALOT 99; DNWSI 129; Amor. ʔaš(i)ra(tum) Gelb CAAA 14 is how it's transliterated in DULAT.
- ↑ 7,0 7,1 Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Pardee, COS I, p 277, DAWN AND DUSK
- ↑ 11,0 11,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Judg. 3.7, 2 Chron. 19.3 and 3.3
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Auth cites KTU 1.3 I 23 "etc"
- ↑ 16,0 16,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Die kykladische Sonnengöttin hatte eine ägäische Schwester, die Schlangengöttin Altkretas. Von ihr ist sogar der Name überliefert, der nach seiner Schreibung in Linear A als A−sa−sa−ra zu lesen ist.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 4 See KAT 89.1, rbt hwt “It, *rabbat hawwat ’ilat, “The Lady Hawwah, Elat,’” who is likely Asherah/Elat/Tannit. Elat is a well known epithet of Asherah both in the Bronze and Iron Ages. “The Lady” (rbt) is used frequently of Tannit in the Punic world. For another Punic attestation of hwt, see M. Lidzbarski, Ephemeris fuer semitische Epigraphik (GieBen: Topelmann, 1915) 3:285.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Col XVI
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvp: Shai fig 5a.
- ↑ It is interesting that the Hathor coiffe resembles the Ω symbol, it symbolized the womb.
- ↑ Шаблон:JewishEncyclopedia
- ↑ Shai refers to Шаблон:Harvp.
- ↑ EncJud II col 666
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- ↑ Aschera & der Ausschliesslichkeitsanspruch YHWH's, Frevel, 1995.
- ↑ Context of Scripture II 2.107D, pg = II:257 (No author named; only ref: Sollberger and Kupper 1971: 219; Frayne 1990: 359-360).
- ↑ 44,0 44,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ DULAT I p 128
- ↑ the administrative text (KTU2 4.168: 4) https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jorient/55/2/55_53/_article/-char/en
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- ↑ see KTU 1.4 I 23.
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- ↑ see KEEL and UEHLINGER 1998: 40, fig. 31a, and lately ORNAN 2005: 160–163 bibliography.
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- ↑ 1 NEWBERRY Beni Hasan i Pl xiii register 4 Cf PETRIE Deshasheh Pl v register 3 there is a very example in DAVIES Ptahhetep ii Pl xvii https://books.google.com/books/content?id=wkdFAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA19&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U11u8CT1WFcJ4vxFrwiXWvAs8n4_A&ci=101%2C1013%2C391%2C57&edge=0 https://books.google.com/books?id=wkdFAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=licking%20her%20sucking&f=false
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- ↑ 1 Kings Шаблон:Bibleverse-nb; Шаблон:Bibleverse-nb, Шаблон:Bibleverse
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- ↑ Deuteronomy 12: 3–4
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- ↑ Due Uralte Sykomore & andere Erscheinung der Hathor. MOFTAH, RAMSES. Zeitschrift fuer Aegyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde #1-2. Fig 6 / Abb 6. Pg 45
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ (the Arabic root Шаблон:Script/Arabic yamm also means "sea")
- ↑ Lucy Goodison and Christine E. Morris, Ancient Goddesses: Myths and Evidence (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998), 79.
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvp: lists dates from 5th C BCE to 6th C AD.
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