Английская Википедия:Asobi (ancient Japan)

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Шаблон:Italic title Шаблон:Nihongo (also sometimes known as 遊部, asobi-be) were Shinto priestesses devoted to the goddess Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto during the Heian period (794–1185) in Japan. Originating as performers of shamanistic rituals performed to appease the souls of the dead, Шаблон:Transliteration originally functioned as priestesses designed to deal with death. Though they played a role in conducting royal funerals, with the introduction of Buddhism and Confucianism in the 700s, the place of Шаблон:Transliteration in royal funerals disappeared, and they instead became known for their Шаблон:Transliteration songs. In combination with receiving gifts for sexual favors, Шаблон:Transliteration became the source of wealth for Шаблон:Transliteration.

After the Taihō Reform Code in 701 and the Yōrō code of 718, the public began to develop unsavory views toward the practices of Шаблон:Transliteration. Though they conducted business similarly to prostitutes, they were considered to be performers because of their musical talents. Шаблон:Transliteration being the term for prostitute, the Шаблон:Transliteration dictionary Шаблон:Transliteration (compiled by Minamoto no Shitagō in the 930s) describes the difference as follows: "Those who wander about in the daytime are called Шаблон:Transliteration, while those who wait until nighttime and then engage in wanton sex (Шаблон:Transliteration) are called Шаблон:Transliteration." Шаблон:Transliteration were sometimes disparagingly referred to as Шаблон:Transliteration, by one of their similar successors' names:Шаблон:Clarify Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration, and Шаблон:Transliteration, or referred to under the umbrella term for prostitutes of Шаблон:Transliteration.

History of the term

Шаблон:Transliteration priestesses worshipped the goddess Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto and believed themselves to be her descendants. The term Шаблон:Transliteration is said to come from a myth about the goddess Ame-no-Uzume on the origins of the Japanese nation recorded in the Шаблон:Transliteration (Record of Ancient Matters). The myth is as follows:

Amaterasu had a brother by the name of Susano-no-Mikoto. He repeatedly pranked Amaterasu which drove her to hide away in a rock cave. Her retreat brought darkness to the celestial realm and gods gathered at the cave. Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto danced in front of the gathered gods. Divinely possessed, she became half-naked and exposed her breasts and lower body to the crowd. This made the gods burst into laughter. Upon hearing the commotion, Amaterasu peeked out of the cave to quell her curiosity.

Ame-no-Uzume's actions are labeled in the Kojiki as Шаблон:Transliteration, which directly translates to "play". Ame-no-Uzume's actions were essentially a shamanistic ritual now interpreted as the archetypal funerary ritual performed to appease the soul of the dead. Before changes in the early 700s, Шаблон:Transliteration functioned as priestesses designed to deal with death and the relief of society from potential chaos and communal paralysis. They brought collective renewal in times of loss through transformational magic. From the myth as well as their social function, the archetypal image of Шаблон:Transliteration became that of a priestess and entertainer who mediated the worlds of light and darkness, or life and death.

Шаблон:Transliteration

The special lineage group who served the royal morticians were called the Шаблон:Transliteration. Шаблон:Transliteration lineage was succeeded by female clan members, but included some male members who worked as assistants. The Шаблон:Transliteration had exclusive access to royal coffins during enshrinement. They performed ritual dances and incantations that were passed down secretly through generations. Their rituals were considered crucial for deaths in the imperial court so they were granted immunity from conscript labor and taxes. They also had a distinct naming practice. In contrast to the standard convention during the Heian period, which identified both men and women in name by their parents, office, status, or court occupation, Шаблон:Transliteration used personal names. Somewhat similar to stage names, this naming practice indicated Шаблон:Transliteration occupied a position outside the hierarchy of the court and patriarchal family.

After the introduction of the Taihō Reform Code of 701 and the Yōrō Code of 718, unsavory views of Шаблон:Transliteration emerged. These codes adopted the legal and administrative system of China in attempts to consolidate central government power. Much of China's system was based on Confucianism, and as such many areas of Japan enforced the Confucian ethic of hard work, with a large shift in focus to agriculture production. Since Шаблон:Transliteration were exempt from conscripted labor, they did not contribute to agrarian processes and were viewed as non-productive. A section of the Yōrō code describes Шаблон:Transliteration as such:

Шаблон:Transliteration services began to carry a negative implication and the Шаблон:Transliteration as a whole became an expendable component of society. As the Taihō reforms became more entrenched in society, Buddhism took root. Buddhist priests, which consisted of mostly males, took over imperial funerary operations and the Шаблон:Transliteration lost their status. Once the center of the religious sphere, Шаблон:Transliteration became a part of periphery society.

After being pushed out of their role in funerary proceedings, Шаблон:Transliteration women were forced to find a new way to survive which led them to use their traditional dances and songs to survive. This, however, did not provide them enough funds to survive, leading them to turn to prostitution. Despite taking part in sexually explicit acts, societally Шаблон:Transliteration were not considered prostitutes as they did not solicit money, only accept gifts. At the time there was no legislation on prostitution in Japan, making it hard to distinguish between prostitutes and sexual partners who received gifts.

Шаблон:Transliteration – music and prostitution

After having been forced out of their profession's original focus, Шаблон:Transliteration had begun to take up permanent domiciles by the late 11th century. The most fabled Шаблон:Transliteration colonies concentrated at Eguchi along the Yodo River. The river served as the main passageway of travel from the inland sea to the capital of Heian-kyō. As the ports became busier with an increase in trade, Шаблон:Transliteration performances became more popular. Additionally alongside the river, there were many shrines that people pilgrimaged to, many of these pilgrims took part in and supported the Шаблон:Transliteration women. They became so popular that the Шаблон:Nihongo3 describes their quarters as lining the doors of Kanzaki and Kanishima in the Settsu Province. Шаблон:Transliteration sometimes visited the homes of patrons but customers could be entertained at dwellings similar to travelers inns located along highways called Шаблон:Transliteration. Some Шаблон:Transliteration even became landowners, a privilege held only by the upper echelons of Heian society.

Шаблон:Transliteration were trained in performing songs of the Шаблон:Transliteration genre. Шаблон:Transliteration songs had a wide variety of topics that appealed to all audiences: Buddhist doctrines, Buddha and his disciples, Buddhist saints, mountain ascetics, woodcutters, fishermen, gamblers, potters, barrier-keepers, Shinto shrine priestesses, trees, birds, snails, dragonflies, grasshoppers, and clothing. Some of the lyrics of the Шаблон:Transliteration come directly from sutras or vignettes of everyday life. The Шаблон:Transliteration were sung to the beat of a small drum, but as all that remains of them is their lyrics, little is known of their rhythm or melody. The Шаблон:Transliteration became a popular form of music in the Heian courts, which attracted many aristocratic men.

Шаблон:Transliteration had an internal structure, headed by a headmistress called a Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration, or Шаблон:Transliteration. The headmistress would have achieved her status through superior Шаблон:Transliteration skills and immense personal charm. She could also be chosen based on wealth or personal connections, as some Шаблон:Transliteration came from prominent families who had fallen from power. This role was often passed down hereditarily through mother and daughter. The mistress would work to protect the group members from exploitative customers, maintain group order, and distribute goods as needed amongst members.

Most Шаблон:Transliteration transactions were conducted on the water. The average Шаблон:Transliteration boat carried at least three members: one principal Шаблон:Transliteration who sang while beating a small drum; an apprentice Шаблон:Transliteration who looked after her mistress and held a large parasol; and an elderly, retired Шаблон:Transliteration in charge of rowing the boat. The reason Шаблон:Transliteration could openly solicit to their customers during broad daylight in front of onlookers was because they were considered talented performing artists. Without their musical qualifications, they would have been considered Шаблон:Transliteration and had to conduct business according to certain rules. Their talent and magnetism also meant that high-level aristocrats were not afraid to admit they enjoyed the company of Шаблон:Transliteration, and it was not unheard of for Шаблон:Transliteration to marry into noble families.

It is also said that the Шаблон:Transliteration in their post-Buddhist form were not only entertainers, but retained some of their previous shamanistic elements. Having sexual intercourse with an Шаблон:Transliteration could be seen as a sacred act, as the Шаблон:Transliteration replicated the performance of a wife. One example of this is found within Fujiwara no Akihira's portraits of a lieutenant's family:

Changes in societal perspectives

In the Kamakura period (1185–1333), many ideas changed about the ethics revolving around Шаблон:Transliteration women. Two documents from 1261 by officials at the Kasuga shrine complained that some priests had participated in sexual relations with female pilgrims; these actions were described as evil, and, in 1285, Emperor Go-Uda prohibited men and women from mixing during worship and prevented them from staying overnight. Buddhists however were unwilling to brand women as wrongdoers, instead focusing on the trade resulting in them offering solutions for their pain. In some tales, the Шаблон:Transliteration would take vows and achieve rebirth in paradise where others portray Шаблон:Transliteration as incarnations of Bodhisattvas. Buddhists began to spread the idea that Шаблон:Transliteration would violate men's control over their sexuality and therefore prevent their perusal of enlightenment. There are many testimonies from this time period that speak out against the Шаблон:Transliteration women, one example being Prince Genji from The Tale of Genji:

Another example of the changing opinions of the Шаблон:Transliteration comes from the poet Saigyō in Senjūshō:

This is held in direct opposition to the prior description of Шаблон:Transliteration women by Fujiwara no Akihira in Shinsarugakuki:

Шаблон:Transliteration and other female entertainers

Шаблон:Transliteration

Шаблон:Transliteration are often conflated with the Шаблон:Transliteration, but these are two separate groups of women who despite similarities are not the same. Шаблон:Transliteration women were a part of a nomadic group that included both men and women. The men of this group worked at home while the women sang Шаблон:Transliteration and practiced prostitution like the Шаблон:Transliteration women. Шаблон:Transliteration women practiced in different environments than the Шаблон:Transliteration working mostly in interior walkways in Aohaka, Sunomata, and Nogami. One of the most well-known men from this group is Ōe no Masafusa (1041–1111), an advisor to Emperor Go-Sanjō (1032–1073) who has one of the best descriptions of Шаблон:Transliteration women in his essay Шаблон:Transliteration:

Шаблон:Transliteration

During the late Heian period the Шаблон:Transliteration and Шаблон:Transliteration were joined by the Шаблон:Transliteration, who sang Шаблон:Transl and performed a unique dance using swords. This dance was first performed in male dress. Along with other female performers, these women quickly grew patronage from elite men in the courts, one of the most famous being Emperor Go-Toba, who, during the Kamakura period, invited many women on excursions and made many of these women his concubines. In many ways, the Шаблон:Transliteration gained more popularity than the Шаблон:Transliteration, as the poet Fujiwara no Teika's diary Шаблон:Transliteration says:

Changes in religious beliefs

In order to ensure business prosperity, Шаблон:Transliteration beganШаблон:When worshipping the god Hyukudaifu (also called Hyakudayu or Momodayu), generally represented in male form. Hyakudaifu worship is a phallic cult with objects of veneration represented by male genitalia made of wood, paper, or stone. Шаблон:Transliteration records say Шаблон:Transliteration women kept thousands of these objects. The cultic practice comes from the belief that praying to these objects and honoring Hyakudaifu would ensure continued success in drawing in male customers. This practice of worship, however, went beyond private observance, and Шаблон:Transliteration often took pilgrimages to shrines famous for Hyakudaifu practices, like the Hirota Shrine and the Sumiyoshi Shrine. Coincidentally, these shrines also were popular religious destinations for aristocrats from the capital. These chance encounters led to more business for the Шаблон:Transliteration and the beneficial results promoted the effectiveness of the Hyakudaifu cult among Шаблон:Transliteration. This led to more offerings for the shrines and economic support for the Шаблон:Transliteration.

Go-Shirakawa

Emperor Go-Shirakawa (1127–1192) was absorbed with the art of Шаблон:Transliteration since he was a young child. During his reign, he fell in love with an Шаблон:Transliteration named Tamba-no-tsubone, who became one of his secondary wives. They had a prince and she makes appearances in his memoirs. He is known for his integral connections to the Шаблон:Transliteration art form, spending years cultivating his Шаблон:Transliteration skills before and through his reign. It was not unusual for him to forego sleep and endure physical discomforts to master the art. His infatuation caused him to be seen as an anomaly of the court and gave him an unsavory reputation; however, this did not deter him, and he summoned Шаблон:Transliteration singers of low social status to the imperial residence, especially Шаблон:Transliteration, to teach them their art form. Some of these women took part in critical discussions of the Шаблон:Transliteration art form, showing pride in their profession. This created a dialogue between the upper and lower class and helped restore some status to the Шаблон:Transliteration community.

One such woman by the name of Kane was the lady-in-waiting for his mother. In the year 1157, he invited an Шаблон:Transliteration expert by the name of Otomae, an elderly woman in her 70s, to his court. She came from the most authentic Шаблон:Transliteration lineage, and the emperor dedicated his time to relearning the art in its entirety. She taught him for over a decade and then made him the successor of her school of Шаблон:Transliteration. Every year after Otomae's passing, the emperor would hold a memorial service and sing at the anniversary of her death.

Go-Shirakawa compiled the largest Шаблон:Transliteration lyric collection into a book inspired by Otomae: Шаблон:Nihongo3. The book took him two decades to compile, completing the work in 1179. The Шаблон:Transliteration is an important document in analyzing ancient culture in Japan. Шаблон:Transliteration lyrics are one of the few resources that exists to this day that not only show the viewpoint of elite women, but also allow lower-class women their chance to express themselves and the world around them. The songs speak on the lives of the Шаблон:Transliteration women and their thoughts on their profession, the people they meet, and the ideas about gender that surround them daily through stereotypes and prejudices.

Notable historical figures recorded as interacting with Шаблон:Transliteration

• Emperor Ichijō (Шаблон:Abbr 986–1011)
• Emperor Go-Sanjō (Шаблон:Abbr 1068–1072)
• Emperor Fujiwara Michinaga (966–1027): Gave favor to an Шаблон:Transliteration named Kokannon at Eguchi in the year 1000.
• Yorimichi (992–1074): Fell in love with an Шаблон:Transliteration named Nakanogimi at Eguchi in the year 1031.
• Emperor Go-Shirakawa (1127–1192)
• Minamoto Yoritomo (1147–1199)
• Fujiwara Akihira (989–1066)

See also

• Prostitution in Japan
• Шаблон:Transliteration