Английская Википедия:Athanasios Rhousopoulos

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Good article Шаблон:Use British English Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Use shortened footnotes Шаблон:Infobox academic

Athanasios Sergiou Rhousopoulos (Шаблон:Lang-el) (1823 – Шаблон:OldStyleDateШаблон:Efn) was a Greek archaeologist, antiquities dealer and university professor. He has been described as "the most important Greek collector and dealer between the 1860s and 1890s",Шаблон:Sfn and as "a key figure in the early days of archaeology in Greece."Шаблон:Sfn

Born in 1823 in a region of northern Greece under the Ottoman Empire, Rhousopoulos was educated in Constantinople and Athens before receiving financial support from the antiquarian and philanthropist Konstantinos Bellios to pursue formal archaeological training in Germany. In 1853, he returned to Greece to work as a teacher, before being appointed to a post at the University of Athens in 1855. He wrote and translated numerous educational works concerning Greek history, culture and archaeology.

Rhousopoulos played a significant role in the foundation of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, and was a prominent member of the Archaeological Society of Athens, itself an important fixture in Greek archaeology during his lifetime. He excavated in Athens's Theatre of Dionysus as well as in the Kerameikos, where his 1863 discovery of the Grave Stele of Dexileos helped to confirm that the site was that of Athens's ancient cemetery. He attracted controversy in the early 1870s for his criticism of the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, and of Schliemann's claim to have found artefacts from the Trojan War at the site of Hisarlik.

Rhousopoulos was renowned for his collection of ancient artefacts, particularly coins, which was considered among the most impressive private collections in Greece. He was also a prominent dealer of antiquities, trading regularly with collectors, museums and society figures from around the world, and heavily involved in the illegal excavation and trafficking of ancient artefacts. From 1865, his activities came to increasing public and official attention, particularly that of the Ephor General, Panagiotis Efstratiadis; Rhousopoulos was fined after his illegal sale of the Aineta aryballos to the British Museum, and expelled from the Archaeological Society.

Dismissed from his academic post in 1884 for reasons that remain unclear, Rhousopoulos died in 1898. He made significant contributions to Greek epigraphy, and was a major source of artefacts for several of the world's largest museums. In the twenty-first century, study of his extensive correspondence, particularly with the British scholars George Rolleston and Arthur Evans, has provided important evidence for the practice of archaeology and antiquities trading in nineteenth-century Greece.

Early life and education

Athanasios Sergiou Rhousopoulos was born in 1823, in the village of Vogatsiko, near Kastoria in the northern Greek region of Macedonia, then part of the Ottoman Empire.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn He received his early education in Constantinople and Athens.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1846, Konstantinos Bellios, a wealthy Greek merchant and antiquarian then living in Vienna, funded Rhousopoulos to attend Leipzig UniversityШаблон:Sfn and the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin. He studied Greek literature and archaeology, before moving to the University of Göttingen, which awarded him a doctorate in 1852. Rhousopoulos wrote his thesis, entitled Шаблон:Lang (On Zalmoxis, According to the Authority of the Ancients), in Ancient Greek.Шаблон:Sfn It was the first doctoral dissertation ever written on Zalmoxis,Шаблон:Sfn a Thracian deity mentioned by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus.Шаблон:Sfn

Academic career

Scan of the front cover of a Greek archaeological journal.
The cover of the first edition of the 'new series' of the Archaeological Journal (Шаблон:Lang-el), edited by Rhousopoulos and dated Шаблон:OldStyleDate

In 1853, Rhousopoulos returned to Greece. From 1855 until 1858,Шаблон:Sfn he worked as a teacher in the First Gymnasium (secondary school) of Patras,Шаблон:Sfn in the northern Peloponnese. During his time in Patras, he translated the Danish philologist Шаблон:Ill Handbook of Greek Antiquity (Шаблон:Lang-de) into Greek for use as a school textbook.Шаблон:Sfn He also taught Greek for twenty-four years at the Rizarios Ecclesiastical School of Athens, and spent four years teaching ancient Greek civilisation at the Athens Polytechnic.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1855, he was appointed to a temporary professorship of Greek at the University of Athens.Шаблон:Sfn In the same year, he published Manual of Greek Archaeology, a textbook which has been situated within the early-nineteenth-century trend for archaeological works relying primarily on literary sources rather than material culture to reconstruct the past.Шаблон:Sfn In 1857, he constructed a house for himself on Lycabettus Street in central Athens, excavating in the process three hundred ancient tombs on the site.Шаблон:Sfn His professorship was made permanent in 1860.Шаблон:Sfn

The Archaeological Society of Athens, a learned society founded in 1837, had significant responsibility for archaeological work and heritage management in Greece throughout the 19th century.Шаблон:Sfn It had stagnated and all but disbanded between April 1854 and 1858,Шаблон:Sfn under pressure from its own financial troubles and a cholera outbreak that had killed its president, Georgios Gennadios.Шаблон:Sfn The society reformed in 1858: in 1859, Rhousopoulos was elected to its governing council, as the only member of the council with a background in archaeology rather than philology.Шаблон:Sfn In 1862, the society re-established the Archaeological Journal (Шаблон:Lang-el), which published news of excavations and of the activities of the society and of the Greek Archaeological Service.Шаблон:Sfn Rhousopoulos was the head of publications for its first twelve issues.Шаблон:Sfn His eleven articles in the Journal focused primarily on Greek literature and culture, with only a few on archaeology.Шаблон:Sfn

Photograph of an ancient Greek gravestone.
This grave stele, erected for the Athenian cavalryman Dexileos Шаблон:Circa,Шаблон:Sfn was excavated by Rhousopoulos in 1863 and helped to prove the location of the Kerameikos cemetery.

During the 1860s and 1870s, he was involved in the foundation of the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, which eventually opened in 1893.Шаблон:Sfn In 1864, he was selected by the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs to serve on a committee to identify a suitable location for what became the National Archaeological Museum, which included prominent archaeological figures such as Panagiotis Efstratiadis, Stefanos Koumanoudis and Alexandros Rizos Rangavis.Шаблон:Sfn Rhousopoulos worked on categorising the materials transferred to the new museum from other institutions around Greece.Шаблон:Sfn

Rhousopoulos's discovery in the spring of 1863 of the Grave Stele of Dexileos, alongside the contemporary excavation of the nearby funerary enclosure of Agathon, helped to identify the location of the ancient Athenian cemetery known as the Kerameikos.Шаблон:Refn In 1866, excavations conducted by Rhousopoulos and his fellow archaeologist Petros Pervanoglou near the Theatre of Dionysus on the slopes of the Acropolis of Athens uncovered a marble sphere, approximately Шаблон:Convert in circumference, inscribed with images of the god Helios and magical inscriptions.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1868, Rhousopoulos was moved from his professorship in Greek to one in archaeology at the University of Athens.Шаблон:Sfn He was unusual among Athens's early archaeological professors for not having worked for the Greek Archaeological Service.Шаблон:Sfn On Шаблон:OldStyleDate, Rhousopoulos was dismissed from his post. The reasons for his dismissal are uncertain: the Greek newspaper Шаблон:Ill (Шаблон:Lang) reported that he had left his post "on account of old age".Шаблон:Sfn The archaeologist and archaeological historian Yannis Galanakis has, however, suggested that Rhousopoulos was more likely dismissed on grounds of ill health, given that his age of 61 was relatively young, though little information about his health is available.Шаблон:Sfn

Relationship with Heinrich Schliemann

Rhousopoulos has been described as "a particularly vehement critic" of Heinrich Schliemann, the German archaeologist who excavated the site of Hisarlik (Troy) in various phases between 1871 and 1890.Шаблон:Sfn

On Шаблон:OldStyleDate, the German newspaper Шаблон:Ill published a report of a conversation between Rhousopoulos and a number of his friends while he had been visiting Hannover. The newspaper reported the comment that the so-called Treasure of Priam, which Schliemann had excavated in May of that year, was "undoubtedly one of the most important [finds] of its kind", but that the period to which it belonged was uncertain; separately, the article quoted the judgement that Schliemann's find had "self-evidently nothing to do with the Treasure of Priam."Шаблон:Sfn Although it was unclear from the Шаблон:Lang's report which, if any, of these remarks had been made by Rhousopoulos himself, as opposed to his conversation partners, the report attracted a bitter response from W. Gosrau, the court chaplain of George I of Greece, who accused Rhousopoulos of having "driven the learned gentlemen wild" out of "bread-envy" (Шаблон:Lang-de).Шаблон:Sfn In November, the Шаблон:Ill, a rival newspaper of the Шаблон:Lang, defended Rhousopoulos, pointing out that the alleged remarks could not be securely attributed to him, and accusing Gosrau of "a complete lack of tact" and "unwarranted arrogance."Шаблон:Sfn

During his first informal exhibition of the finds from Troy at his house on Mouson Street in Athens in 1873,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn Schliemann invited all of Athens to visit, so that they could, in his words, "convince themselves with their own eyes of the atrocious calumnies" of Rhousopoulos, to whom he referred as "that foul fiend."Шаблон:Sfn Modern scholarship considers Schliemann's 'Treasure of Priam' to date to the Early Bronze AgeШаблон:Sfn (Шаблон:CircaШаблон:Sfn), several centuries earlier than the putative date of the mythical Priam's reign as king of Troy (Шаблон:Circa).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn In 1879, Rhousopoulos examined a key that Schliemann had found at Troy, writing him what Schliemann described as "a valuable note" on its design and the symbolism of its decoration.Шаблон:Sfn

Antiquities collecting and trading

Galanakis has called Rhousopoulos "the most important Greek collector and dealer between the 1860s and 1890s".Шаблон:Sfn In 1873, his collection was described by the German scholar Friedrich Wieseler as among the most remarkable in Greece, second only to that of the Russian consul-general Peter Alexandrovich Saburov – which, according to the archaeological historian Angeliki Kokkou, "exceeded the limits and possibilities of a private collection".Шаблон:Sfn Rhousopoulos was particularly noted for his numismatic collection of ancient coins,Шаблон:Sfn which numbered over 6,000 objects by 1874.Шаблон:Sfn Saburov moved his collection to Berlin in 1880, and had sold it by 1884;Шаблон:Sfn in 1885, the Austrian consul in Corfu, Alexander von Warsberg, described Rhousopoulos's collection as the richest in Athens.Шаблон:Sfn

Antiquities dealership

Файл:Pyxis with lid MET LC-75 2 18ab.jpg
A Boeotian Шаблон:Transliteration excavated in Athens, sold by Rhousopoulos to Samuel G. Ward in 1874, who donated it to the Metropolitan Museum of ArtШаблон:Sfn

Rhousopoulos was registered as an art dealer until 1893, though it is unclear when he began to practise.Шаблон:Sfn By the early 1870s, his collection included 3,000 Neolithic stone tools, including two complete stone axes. Between 1873 and 1874, Rhousopoulos unsuccessfully tried to sell his stone artefacts for £120 (Шаблон:Inflation) to George Rolleston, professor of anatomy and physiology at Oxford University.Шаблон:Sfn Rolleston did, however, purchase an assemblage of bones and artefacts from Rhousopoulos in 1871, paying a total of 475 francs (around £19, Шаблон:Inflation). The assemblage included seven ancient skulls,Шаблон:Sfn which Rolleston wanted for his phrenological research into the ancestral links between the modern and ancient populations of Greece.Шаблон:Sfn Rolleston ordered another skull from Rhousopoulos in 1873, and donated all eight to Oxford University's Ashmolean Museum in 1874.Шаблон:Sfn Between these two purchases, Rhousopoulos and Rolleston maintained what Galanakis has called "an amicable correspondence". Rolleston travelled to Athens to view Rhousopoulos's antiquities in his home, and Rhousopoulos travelled to Oxford to visit Rolleston in his.Шаблон:Sfn

Rhousopoulos's collection and dealership made him a fixture of Athenian high society. An 1884 guidebook to Athens, produced by the British publisher John Murray, listed Rhousopoulos's collection as a must-see for archaeologically minded visitors to Athens. Rhousopoulos opened his house to invited viewers between 2pm and 5pm each day, and offered any item for sale, though commentators noted that his prices were considerably higher than those charged by other dealers in Athens, London and Paris.Шаблон:Sfn His home was often visited by high-status foreign travellers, including Emperor Pedro II of Brazil in 1876 and Empress Elisabeth of Austria in 1891.Шаблон:Sfn

Rhousopoulos sold several items to major European and American museums, including London's British Museum. In the early 1870s, he sold sixty-two gems, which he identified as "Graeco-Phoenician", for £240 (Шаблон:Inflation) to Charles Newton, then keeper of the museum's Greek and Roman antiquities. Later, in 1884, he sold four Tanagra figurines to the museum for a total of £760 (Шаблон:Inflation), two of which were later found to be forgeries.Шаблон:Efn The following year, having spent two years negotiating with Rhousopoulos over its price, the museum bought from him a mirror with a scene of the goddess Nike sacrificing a bull, paying 80,000 francs (around £320, Шаблон:Inflation).Шаблон:Sfn He may have played a significant role in the trade in ancient Шаблон:Transliteration (voting-plates),Шаблон:Sfn of which only a handful have survived to modern times.Шаблон:Sfn On Шаблон:OldStyleDate, he purchased one such Шаблон:Transliteration that had been illegally excavated from a tomb at Profitis Ilias, near the Panathenaic Stadium:Шаблон:Sfn Galanakis has suggested that Rhousopoulos may have been involved in the sale of many other Шаблон:Transliteration now found in European museum collections.Шаблон:Sfn

Rhousopoulos is the only Athenian art dealer who can be definitively placed as supplying Cretan seal-stones to Arthur Evans, keeper of the Ashmolean Museum,Шаблон:Sfn who collected these objects as part of his early studies into the Minoan writing systems later known as Cretan hieroglyphs and Linear A.Шаблон:Sfn Galanakis has suggested that Evans may have purchased further stones from Jean Lambros, a rival dealer to Rhousopoulos.Шаблон:Sfn In 1888, Rhousopoulos sold twenty-one vases, terracotta statues and bronze statues to the American philanthropist Jane Stanford, which would form part of the early collection of the Stanford University Museum of Art.Шаблон:Refn

Sale of Rhousopoulos's antiquities

Rhousopoulos died in Athens on Шаблон:OldStyleDate.Шаблон:Sfn His numismatic collection, described in 2008 by the numismatist Alan S. Walker as "truly encyclopaedic", was sold in 1905 by the Munich auctioneer Jacob Hirsch. Hirsch divided the collection into 4,627 individual lots, producing what Walker describes as "the largest and best illustrated auction catalogue to have appeared up to that time" to accompany the auction. Though Hirsch did not name Rhousopoulos as the previous owner of the coins, his identity was an open secret among many of the buyers.Шаблон:Sfn Other objects from Rhousopoulos's collection were purchased by collectors and museums around the world, including several potsherds – of minimal commercial value – which are, Шаблон:As of, held by the Шаблон:Ill of Heidelberg University.Шаблон:Sfn

Antiquities crime

The archaeological historian Nikolaos Papazarkadas has written that Rhousopoulos "was heavily involved in dubious transactions involving illegally-excavated antiquities."Шаблон:Sfn Rhousopoulos once opined, in 1861, that the Greek nation had "no need of new antiquities", but rather to catalogue and protect those "scattered in every corner of the city [of Athens]" – which, he claimed, were "wearing out, disappearing, and being stolen."Шаблон:Sfn The archaeologist Helen Hughes-Brock has written that Rhousopoulos had some connection with the illegal excavation of a chamber tomb at Kara on Mount Hymettus on Crete.Шаблон:Sfn Some time before 1896, he paid forty drachmae to Georgios Ghiouroukis, an excavator from the Cycladic island of Melos, to carry out an illegal excavation in the southwest part of the site of Phylakopi,Шаблон:Sfn searching for obsidian tools. The excavation was halted by the authorities after three days;Шаблон:Sfn Ghiouroukis later called this the "best day's pay that had ever been earned in Melos in the memory of man".Шаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn In a letter to Rolleston, Rhousopoulos boasted of being able to call upon "all the Athens grave-diggers (Шаблон:Lang-el)Шаблон:Efn who dig for tombs throughout Attica".Шаблон:Sfn

In 1896, the numismatist Ioannis Svoronos wrote a pamphlet, entitled Light upon Archaeological Scandals (Шаблон:Lang), in which he accused Rhousopoulos of being an "antiquities looter" (Шаблон:Lang-el);Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn as part of a broader set of accusations that the Ephor General, Panagiotis Kavvadias,Шаблон:Efn had failed to address antiquities crime and been inappropriately friendly towards archaeological criminals.Шаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn Rhousopoulos sued Svoronos for libel in response.Шаблон:Sfn

Sale of the Aineta aryballos

Photograph of an ancient Greek vase
The Aineta aryballos in the British Museum

In 1862, Rhousopoulos published an article in the journal of the Шаблон:Ill on a Corinthian aryballos, now known as the Aineta aryballos, which had been excavated in Athens.Шаблон:Refn This article was possibly the first on epigraphical matters written by any Greek in a foreign journal.Шаблон:Sfn Rhousopoulos sold the Шаблон:Transliteration to the British Museum for 1,000 drachmae in 1865,Шаблон:Refn via Charles Merlin, a British banker and diplomat resident in Athens who often acted as an intermediary for antiquities purchases. Charles Newton had previously selected the Шаблон:Transliteration for purchase, and subsequently received it from Merlin.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1865, Efstratiadis, by this point the Ephor General in charge of the Greek Archaeological Service,Шаблон:Efn had written in his diary of the size and richness of Rhousopoulos's antiquities collection, marking the first time that Rhousopoulos's activities had come to official attention.Шаблон:Sfn The main law governing antiquities was the Archaeological Law of Шаблон:OldStyleDate, which has been described as "loosely interpreted and even more loosely enforced".Шаблон:Sfn Under the 1834 law, private excavators – often known as "grave-robbers"Шаблон:Sfn – required the permission of the Ephor General to excavate, but he was required to grant that authorisation if the excavation took place on private land and had the landowner's consent.Шаблон:Sfn Furthermore, antiquities discovered in such excavations were considered the joint property of the state and the private excavators,Шаблон:Sfn and would be shared between the landowners and the excavators.Шаблон:Sfn Such artefacts could be sold overseas, provided that their owners secured the judgement of a state committee of three experts that the object was "useless" to Greek museums. Rhousopoulos failed to secure this permission, but wrote to defend himself in the newspaper Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang) on Шаблон:OldStyleDate, arguing that the Шаблон:Transliteration was "of no artistic value, the size of an apple, only valued for 25 drachmae".Шаблон:Sfn Efstratiadis, meanwhile, denounced Rhousopoulos as a "university professor; antiquities looter".Шаблон:Sfn

Efstratiadis's ability to respond to Rhousopoulos's breach of the law was limited: the state had limited financial, human and legal resources to address the illegal excavation and trade of antiquities, and his superiors in government had little political will to do so.Шаблон:Sfn He also needed to maintain good relations with Athens's art dealers, who undertook more excavations in this period than either the Archaeological Service or the closely-aligned Archaeological Society of Athens, and usually offered to sell the artefacts they uncovered to the state.Шаблон:Sfn Furthermore, Rhousopoulos was periodically a member of the appraising committee of three, and often acted as a consultant to it, further limiting Efstratiadis's ability to use the state's archaeological apparatus against him.Шаблон:Sfn

Rhousopoulos was, however, fined 1,000 drachmae (the same as the price for which he had sold the Шаблон:Transliteration) later in 1867 for exporting antiquities without the Ephor General's permission.Шаблон:Sfn His actions were condemned by the Minister for Education and Religious Affairs, who oversaw the Archaeological Service,Шаблон:Sfn and by the Archaeological Society of Athens, which expelled him at some point in the 1870s.Шаблон:Sfn According to Galanakis and the archaeological historian Magalosia Nowak-Kemp, Rhousopoulos subsequently "went to great lengths" to operate outside the knowledge and scrutiny of the state.Шаблон:Sfn For instance, he asked Evans, to whom he had sold numerous gems and seal-stonesШаблон:Refn over a period of years, to ensure that his name was not mentioned in any publication involving the objects or their excavation. When the presence of these artefacts in Oxford became known in 1894, the Greek newspaper Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang) expressed its bafflement as to how such objects had left Greece,Шаблон:Sfn and other parts of the Greek press criticised Evans for his purchases.Шаблон:Sfn

Personal life and family

Rhousopoulos married the German Louisa Murray, whom he had met while a student at Göttingen. Murray's family were of Scottish descent and may have migrated to Germany around the time of the 1707 Acts of Union between Scotland and England.Шаблон:Sfn They had nine children. One of their daughters died in 1897; they had four other daughters — Agnes, Sophia, Bertha and Martha — and four sons: Шаблон:Ill, Asterios, Roussos and Petros.Шаблон:Sfn According to Galanakis and Nowak-Kemp, Murray likely assisted Rhousopoulos in writing letters in English, which he did only rarely.Шаблон:Sfn

Black-and-white photograph of a bearded Greek man.
Stafanos Koumanoudis, who opposed Rhousopoulos's view of the desirability of selling ancient Greek antiquities overseas

Othon, born in 1856, became a chemist at the National Archaeological Museum, and has been credited as one of the most important figures in the early history of archaeological conservation.Шаблон:Sfn Roussos, meanwhile, was born in 1854 and became the Modern Greek tutor of Empress Elisabeth of Austria; he visited Corfu with her in 1889. In March 1891, Elisabeth appointed him as Professor of Greek Language at the Orientalischen Handelsakademie in Budapest, and he later became Professor of Greek at the University of Budapest, serving until the end of the First World War and dying in 1954.Шаблон:Sfn

After his death, Rhousopoulos became the father-in-law of the German classical archaeologist Ernst Pfuhl, who married Sophia Rhousopoulos in 1904.Шаблон:Refn The two met while Pfuhl was excavating on the Cycladic island of Thera.Шаблон:Sfn Sophia may also have sent impressions of some Cretan seal-stones to Arthur Evans, who received impressions of examples in her father's collection after Rhousopoulos's death.Шаблон:Sfn

Rhousopoulos was known to be cosmopolitan, multilingual and well-connected in European society, particularly in German-speaking countries.Шаблон:Sfn Stefanos Koumanoudis, his contemporary in the Archaeological Society of Athens, and fellow professor (of Latin) at the University of Athens, described Rhousopoulos in 1846 as "antiquities-mad" (Шаблон:Lang).Шаблон:Sfn Rhousopoulos defended his sale of Greek antiquities as a way of protecting Greek heritage and promoting its standing abroad – a view contested by the Archaeological Society and by Koumanoudis,Шаблон:Sfn who co-authored a pamphlet in 1872 with Philippos Ioannou, the society's president, calling on Greeks to use their "intelligence and patriotism" by refraining from looting or exporting antiquities.Шаблон:Refn

Honours and legacy

Rhousopoulos was elected as a member of the Académie Française, to whom he dedicated his book Treatise on an Icon of Antigone (Шаблон:Lang).Шаблон:Sfn

Papazarkadas has described Rhousopoulos as "a competent philologist" and judged that "his epigraphical publications were as good as any studies of the mid-nineteenth century."Шаблон:Sfn According to Galanakis and Nowak-Kemp, Rhousopoulos was unusual among Athenian art dealers of his time for his "academic approach", by which he attempted to impress the archaeological importance of his wares upon his potential buyers, using his knowledge of the archaeological literature and debates of the day.Шаблон:Sfn Hughes-Brock has described him as "a key figure in the early days of archaeology in Greece",Шаблон:Sfn while Galanakis has described him as a "founding father" of Athens's National Archaeological Museum.Шаблон:Sfn

Rhousopoulos's detailed notes on the excavations with which he was connected – often unpublished and unmentioned in the academic archaeological press, given their informal and often illegal nature – have allowed the reconstruction of several of these excavations, including early digs in the Kerameikos cemetery. His extensive correspondence, particularly with Rolleston, has also been used to reconstruct the networks and dynamics of the trade in and collection of ancient artefacts in late nineteenth-century Athens.Шаблон:Sfn

Selected publications

Шаблон:Commons category

Footnotes

Explanatory notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Sources

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Шаблон:Refend Шаблон:Authority control