Английская Википедия:Avoirdupois

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Файл:200 - gram balance scales.jpg

Finely crafted pan balance or scales with boxed set of standardized gram weights sequenced in units of mass. Such scales are used to make the most accurate of fine measurements, such as in the needs of empirical chemistry.

Avoirdupois (Шаблон:IPAc-en; abbreviated avdp.) is a measurement system of weights that uses pounds and ounces as units. It was first commonly used in the 13th century AD and was updated in 1959.

In 1959, by international agreement, the definitions of the pound and ounce became standardized in countries which use the pound as a unit of mass. The International Avoirdupois Pound was then created. It is the everyday system of weights used in the United States. It is still used, in varying degrees, in everyday life in the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and some other former British colonies, despite their official adoption of the metric system.

The avoirdupois weight system's general attributes were originally developed for the international wool trade in the Late Middle Ages, when trade was in recovery. It was historically based on a physical standardized pound or "prototype weight" that could be divided into 16 ounces.Шаблон:Efn There were a number of competing measures of mass, and the fact that the avoirdupois pound had three even numbers as divisors (half and half and half again) may have been a cause of much of its popularity, so that the system won out over systems with 12 or 10 or 15 subdivisions. The use of this unofficial system gradually stabilizedШаблон:Efn and evolved, with only slight changes in the reference standard or in the prototype's actual mass.

Файл:Bascule décimale, musée André Voulgre.jpg

Robust weights like these hexagonal decimal-scaled antiques were used for trade into the late 20th century.

Over time, the desire not to use too many different systems of measurement allowed the establishment of "value relationships", with other commodities metered and sold by weight measurements such as bulk goods (grains, ores, flax) and smelted metals; so the avoirdupois system gradually became an accepted standard through much of Europe.

In England, Henry VII authorized its use as a standard, and Queen Elizabeth I acted three times to enforce a common standard, thus establishing what became the Imperial system of weights and measures. Late in the 19th century various governments acted to redefine their base standards on a scientific basis and establish ratios between local avoirdupois measurements and international SI metric system standards. The legal actions of these various governments were independently conceived, and so did not always pick the same ratios to metric units for each avoirdupois unit. The result of this was, after these standardisations, measurements of the same name often had marginally different recognised values in different regions (although the pound generally remained very similar). In the modern day, this is evident in the small difference between United States customary and British Imperial pounds.

An alternative system of mass, the troy system, is generally used for precious materials. The modern definition of the avoirdupois pound (1 lb) is exactly Шаблон:Val kilograms.

Etymology

Шаблон:Nowrap is from Anglo-Norman French Шаблон:Lang (later Шаблон:Lang), literally "goods of weight" (Old French Шаблон:Lang, as verb meaning "to have" and as noun meaning "property, goods", comes from the Latin Шаблон:Lang, "to have, to hold, to possess something"; Шаблон:Lang = "from"/"of", cf. Latin; Шаблон:Lang = "weight", from Latin Шаблон:Lang).Шаблон:Sfn This term originally referred to a class of merchandise: Шаблон:Lang, "goods of weight", things that were sold in bulk and were weighed on large steelyards or balances.

Only later did the term become identified with a particular system of units used to weigh such merchandise. Inconsistent orthography throughout history has left many variants of the term, such as Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang. (The Norman Шаблон:Lang became the Parisian Шаблон:Lang. In the 17th century Шаблон:Lang was replaced with Шаблон:Lang.)

The current spelling of the last word is Шаблон:Lang in the current standard French orthography, but the spelling avoirdupois remained as is in the anglosphere.

History

Файл:Europe mediterranean 1190.jpg

The units first became used by wool traders in the Kingdom of England and the Low Countries during the end of the High Middle Ages, as population growth and the Renaissance gave rise to an increasingly numerous town population and a newly established middle class.

The rise in use of the measurement system corresponds to the regrowth of trade during the High Middle Ages after the early crusades, when Europe experienced a growth in towns, turned from the chaos of warlordism to long-distance trade, and began annual fairs, tournaments and commerce, by land and sea. There are two major hypotheses regarding the origins of the avoirdupois system. The older hypothesis is that it originated in France.Шаблон:Sfn A newer hypothesis is that it is based on the weight system of Florence.

The avoirdupois weight system is thought to have come into use in England around 1300.Шаблон:Fact It was originally used for weighing wool. In the early 14th century several other specialized weight systems were used, including the weight system of the Hanseatic League with a [[Pound (mass)#London pound|16-ounce pound of Шаблон:Val grains]] and an 8-ounce mark.Шаблон:Fact However, the main weight system, used for coinage and for everyday use, was based on the 12-ounce tower pound of Шаблон:Val grains.Шаблон:Fact From the 14th century until the late 16th century, the system's basis and the prototype for today's international pound, the avoirdupois pound, was also known as the wool pound or the avoirdupois wool pound.

The earliest known version of the avoirdupois weight system had the following units: a pound of Шаблон:Val grains, a stone of 14 pounds, a woolsack of 26 stone, an ounce of Шаблон:Frac pound, and finally, the ounce was divided into 16 "parts".Шаблон:Sfn

The earliest known occurrence of the word "avoirdupois" (or some variant thereof) in England is from a document entitled Tractatus de Ponderibus et Mensuris ("Treatise on Weights and Measures"). This document is listed in early statute books under the heading 31 Edward I dated 2 February 1303. More recent statute books list it among statutes of uncertain date. Scholars nowadays believe that it was probably written between 1266 and 1303.Шаблон:Sfn Initially a royal memorandum, it eventually took on the force of law and was recognized as a statute by King Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth I.

It was repealed by the Weights and Measures Act 1824. In the Tractatus, the word "avoirdupois" refers not to a weight system, but to a class of goods, specifically heavy goods sold by weight, as opposed to goods sold by volume, count, or some other method. Since it is written in Anglo-Norman French, this document is not the first occurrence of the word in the English language.Шаблон:Sfn

Файл:Comparison of pounds.svg Comparison of the relative sizes of avoirdupois, Troy, tower, merchant and London pounds.

Toward a uniformity of measures

Three major developments occurred during the reign of Edward III (r. 1327–1377). First, a statute cited as 14 Edw 3 Stat. 1 c. 12 (1340) "Bushels and Weights shall be made and sent into every County."Шаблон:Sfn

The second major development is the statute 25 Edw 3 Stat. 5 c. 9 (1350) "The Auncel Weight shall be put out, and Weighing shall be by equal Balance."Шаблон:Sfn

The third development is a set of 14th-century bronze weights at the Westgate Museum in Winchester, England. The weights are in denominations of 7 pounds (corresponding to a unit known as the clip or wool-clip), 14 pounds (stone), 56 pounds (4 stone) and 91 pounds (Шаблон:Frac sack or woolsack). The 91-pound weight is thought to have been commissioned by Edward III in conjunction with the statute of 1350, while the other weights are thought to have been commissioned in conjunction with the statutes of 1340. The 56-pound weight was used as a reference standard as late as 1588.Шаблон:Sfn

A statute of Henry VIII (24 Hen 8 c. 3) made avoirdupois weights mandatory.

In 1588 Queen Elizabeth increased the weight of the avoirdupois pound to Шаблон:Val grains and added the troy grain to the avoirdupois weight system. Prior to 1588, the "part" (Шаблон:Frac) was the smallest unit in the avoirdupois weight system. In the 18th century, the "part" was renamed "drachm".

Original forms

These are the units in their original Anglo-Norman French forms:Шаблон:Sfn

Table of mass units

Unit	Relative value	Notes
"part"	Шаблон:Frac	Шаблон:Frac Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang (ounce)	Шаблон:Frac
Шаблон:Lang (pound)	1
Шаблон:Lang (stone)	14
Шаблон:Lang (woolsack)	364	26 Шаблон:Lang

Post-Elizabethan units

In the United Kingdom, 14 avoirdupois pounds equal one stone. The quarter, hundredweight, and ton equal respectively, 28 lb, 112 lb, and 2,240 lb in order for masses to be easily converted between them and stone. The following are the units in the British or imperial version of the avoirdupois system:

Table of mass units

Unit	Relative value	Metric value	Notes
dram or drachm (dr)	Шаблон:Frac	≈ Шаблон:Convert	Шаблон:Nowrap
ounce (oz)	Шаблон:Frac	≈ Шаблон:Convert	16 dr
pound (lb)	1	≈ Шаблон:Convert	16 oz
stone (st)	14	Шаблон:Nowrap	Шаблон:Frac qr
quarter (qr)	28	≈ Шаблон:Convert	2 st
long hundredweight (cwt)	112	≈ Шаблон:Convert	4 qr
ton (t) or long ton	Шаблон:Val	≈ Шаблон:Convert	20 cwt

Note: The plural form of the unit stone is either stone or stones, but stone is most frequently used.

American customary system

Шаблон:Main The thirteen British colonies in North America used the avoirdupois system, but continued to use the British system as it was, without the evolution that was occurring in Britain in the use of the stone unit. In 1824 there was landmark new weights and measures legislation in the United Kingdom that the United States did not adopt.

In the United States, quarters, hundredweights, and tons remain defined as 25, 100, and Шаблон:Val respectively. The quarter is now virtually unused, as is the hundredweight outside of agriculture and commodities. If disambiguation is required, then they are referred to as the smaller "short" units in the United States, as opposed to the larger British "long" units. Grains are used worldwide for measuring gunpowder and smokeless powder charges. Historically, the dram (Шаблон:Frac grains; not to be mixed up with the apothecaries' dram of 60 grains) has also been used worldwide for measuring gunpowder charges, particularly for shotguns and large black-powder rifles.

Table of mass units

Unit	Relative value	Metric value	Notes
grain (gr)	Шаблон:Frac	Шаблон:Nowrap	Шаблон:Frac lb
dram (dr)	Шаблон:Frac	≈ Шаблон:Convert	Шаблон:Frac oz
ounce (oz)	Шаблон:Frac	≈ Шаблон:Convert	16 dr
pound (lb)	1	≈ Шаблон:Convert	16 oz
quarter (qr)	25	≈ Шаблон:Convert	25 lb
short hundredweight (cwt)	100	≈ Шаблон:Convert	4 qr
ton (t) or short ton	Шаблон:Val	≈ Шаблон:Convert	20 cwt

See also

• Apothecaries' system
• Units of measurement in France
• Imperial units
• Troy weight
• United States customary units
• Weighing scales

References

Sources

• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite book

External links

• Шаблон:Cite EB1911
• A bronze Edward III standard weight of 14lb (1327-1377)
• A bronze Edward III standard weight of 91lb (1/4 sack) (1327-1377)