Английская Википедия : Battle of Passchendaele

Файл:EasternFront1917.jpg

Файл:USMA - Third Battle of Ypres.jpg

The Russian army conducted the Kerensky Offensive in Galicia, to honour the agreement struck with the Allies at the Chantilly meeting of 15 to 16 November 1916. After a brief period of success from 1 to 19 July, the Russian offensive was contained by the German and Austro-Hungarian armies, which counter-attacked and forced the Russian armies to retreat. On the Baltic coast from 1 to 5 September 1917, the Germans attacked with their strategic reserve of six divisions and captured Riga. In Operation Albion (September–October 1917), the Germans took the islands at the mouth of the Gulf of Riga. The British and French commanders on the Western Front had to reckon on the German western army (Шаблон:Lang) being strengthened by reinforcements from the Шаблон:Lang on the Eastern Front by late 1917.Шаблон:Sfn Haig wished to exploit the diversion of German forces in Russia for as long as it continued and urged the British War Cabinet to commit the maximum amount of manpower and munitions to the battle in Flanders.Шаблон:Sfn

Prelude

Ypres salient

Ypres is overlooked by Kemmel Hill in the south-west and from the east by a line of low hills running south-west to north-east. Wytschaete (Wijtschate) and Hill 60 are to the east of Verbrandenmolen, Hooge, Polygon Wood and Passchendaele (Passendale). The high point of the ridge is at Wytschaete, Шаблон:Cvt from Ypres, while at Hollebeke the ridge is Шаблон:Cvt distant and recedes to Шаблон:Cvt at Polygon Wood. Wytschaete is about Шаблон:Cvt above the plain; on the Ypres–Menin road at Hooge, the elevation is about Шаблон:Cvt and Шаблон:Cvt at Passchendaele. The rises are slight, apart from the vicinity of Zonnebeke, which has a gradient of Шаблон:Nowrap From Hooge and further east, the slope is Шаблон:Nowrap near Hollebeke, it is Шаблон:Nowrap heights are subtle and resemble a saucer lip around the city. The main ridge has spurs sloping east and one is particularly noticeable at Wytschaete, which runs Шаблон:Cvt south-east to Messines (Mesen) with a gentle slope on the east side and a Шаблон:Nowrap westwards. Further south, is the muddy valley of the River Douve, Ploegsteert Wood (Plugstreet to the British) and Hill 63. West of Messines Ridge is the parallel Wulverghem (Spanbroekmolen) Spur and on the east side, the Oosttaverne Spur, which is also parallel to the main ridge. The general aspect south and east of Ypres, is one of low ridges and dips, gradually flattening northwards beyond Passchendaele, into a featureless plain.Шаблон:Sfn

Possession of the higher ground to the south and east of Ypres, gives an army ample scope for ground observation, enfilade fire and converging artillery bombardments. An occupier also has the advantage that artillery deployments and the movement of reinforcements, supplies and stores can be screened from view. The ridge had woods from Wytschaete to Zonnebeke giving good cover, some being of notable size, like Polygon Wood and those later named Battle Wood, Shrewsbury Forest and Sanctuary Wood. In 1914, the woods usually had undergrowth but by 1917, artillery bombardments had reduced the woods to tree stumps, shattered tree trunks tangled with barbed wire and more wire festooning the ground, which was full of shell-holes; fields in the gaps between the woods were Шаблон:Cvt wide and devoid of cover. The main road to Ypres from Poperinge to Vlamertinge is in a defile, easily observed from the ridge. Roads in the area were unpaved, except for the main ones from Ypres, with occasional villages and houses dotted along them. The lowland west of the ridge was a mixture of meadows and fields, with high hedgerows dotted with trees, cut by streams and a network of drainage ditches emptying into canals.Шаблон:Sfn

Topography

In Flanders, sands, gravels and marls predominate, covered by silts in places. The coastal strip is sandy but a short way into the hinterland, the ground rises towards the Vale of Ypres, which before 1914 was a flourishing market garden.Шаблон:Sfn Ypres is Шаблон:Cvt above sea level; Bixschoote Шаблон:Cvt to the north is at Шаблон:Cvt. To the east the land is at Шаблон:Cvt for several miles, with the Steenbeek river at Шаблон:Cvt near St Julien. There is a low ridge from Messines, Шаблон:Cvt at its highest point, running north-east past Clapham Junction at the west end of Gheluvelt plateau (Шаблон:Frac miles from Ypres at Шаблон:Cvt and Gheluvelt, above Шаблон:Cvt to Passchendaele, (Шаблон:Frac miles from Ypres at Шаблон:Cvt declining from there to a plain further north. Gradients vary from negligible, to Шаблон:Nowrap at Hooge and Шаблон:Nowrap at Zonnebeke.Шаблон:Sfn

Underneath the soil is London clay, sand and silt; according to the Commonwealth War Graves Commission categories of sand, sandy soils and well-balanced soils, Messines ridge is well-balanced soil and the ground around Ypres is sandy soil.Шаблон:Sfn The ground is drained by many streams, canals and ditches, which need regular maintenance. Since 1914 much of the drainage had been destroyed, though some parts were restored by land drainage companies from England. The British considered the area drier than Loos, Givenchy and Plugstreet Wood further south.Шаблон:Sfn A study of weather data recorded at Lille, Шаблон:Cvt from Ypres from Шаблон:Nowrap published in 1989, showed that August was more often dry than wet, that there was a trend towards dry autumns (September–November) and that average rainfall in October had decreased since the 1860s.Шаблон:Sfn

British plans

Preparations for operations in Flanders began in 1915, with the doubling of the Hazebrouck–Ypres rail line and the building of a new line from Bergues to Proven, which was doubled in early 1917. Progress on roads, rail lines, railheads and spurs in the Second Army zone was continuous and by mid-1917, gave the area the most efficient supply system of the BEF.Шаблон:Sfn Several plans and memoranda for a Flanders offensive were produced between January 1916 and May 1917, in which the writers tried to relate the offensive resources available to the terrain and the likely German defence. In early 1916, the importance of the capture of the Gheluvelt plateau for an advance further north was emphasised by Haig and the army commanders.Шаблон:Sfn On 14 February 1917, Colonel Norman MacMullen of GHQ proposed that the plateau be taken by a massed tank attack, reducing the need for artillery; in April a reconnaissance by Captain Giffard LeQuesne Martel found that the area was unsuitable for tanks.Шаблон:Sfn

On 9 February, Rawlinson, commander of the Fourth Army, suggested that Messines Ridge could be taken in one day and that the capture of the Gheluvelt plateau should be fundamental to the attack further north. He suggested that the southern attack from St Yves to Mont Sorrel should come first and that Mont Sorrel to Steenstraat should be attacked within Шаблон:Nowrap After discussions with Rawlinson and Plumer and the incorporation of Haig's changes, Macmullen submitted his memorandum on 14 February. With amendments the memorandum became the GHQ 1917 plan.Шаблон:Sfn A week after the Battle of Messines Ridge, Haig gave his objectives to his army commanders, the wearing out of the enemy, securing the Belgian coast and connecting with the Dutch frontier by capturing Passchendaele ridge, followed by an advance on Roulers and Operation Hush, an attack along the coast with a combined amphibious landing. If manpower and artillery were insufficient, only the first part of the plan might be fulfilled. On 30 April, Haig told Gough, the Fifth Army commander, that he would lead the Northern Operation and the coastal force, although Cabinet approval for the offensive was not granted until 21 June.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Efn

German defences

Файл:German defences east of Ypres mid-1917.jpg

The British front line and the German defences in the area east of Ypres, mid-1917

The 4th Army held a front of Шаблон:Cvt with three Шаблон:Lang, composed of a corps headquarters and a varying complement of divisions; Group Staden, based on the headquarters of the Guards Reserve Corps was added later. Group Dixmude held Шаблон:Cvt with four front divisions and two Шаблон:Lang divisions, Group Ypres held Шаблон:Cvt from Pilckem to Menin Road with three front divisions and two Шаблон:Lang divisions and Group Шаблон:Lang held a similar length of front south of the Menin road, with three front divisions and three Шаблон:Lang divisions. The Шаблон:Lang divisions were stationed behind the Menin and Passchendaele ridges. About Шаблон:Cvt further back, were four more Шаблон:Lang divisions and Шаблон:Cvt beyond them, another two in OHL reserve.Шаблон:Sfn

The Germans were anxious that the British would attempt to exploit the victory of the Battle of Messines, with an advance to the Tower Hamlets spur beyond the north end of Messines Ridge. On 9 June, Crown Prince Rupprecht proposed a withdrawal to the Шаблон:Lang line east of Messines. Construction of defences began but was terminated after Fritz von Loßberg was appointed Chief of Staff of the 4th Army.Шаблон:Sfn Loßberg rejected the proposed withdrawal to the Шаблон:Lang line and ordered that the front line east of the Oosttaverne line be held rigidly. The Шаблон:Lang (Flanders Position) along Passchendaele Ridge, in front of the Шаблон:Lang line, would become Шаблон:Lang and a new position, Шаблон:Lang, would run west of Menin, northwards to Passchendaele. Construction of a Шаблон:Lang east of Menin northwards to Moorslede was also begun. From July 1917, the area east of Ypres was defended by the front position, the Шаблон:Lang (second position), Шаблон:Lang (third position), Шаблон:Lang (fourth position), Шаблон:Lang (fifth position) and Шаблон:Lang, the sixth position (incomplete). Between the German defences lay villages such as Zonnebeke and Passchendaele, which were fortified and prepared for all-round defence.Шаблон:Sfn

On 25 June, Erich Ludendorff, the First Quartermaster General, suggested to Crown Prince Rupprecht that Group Ypres should withdraw to the Шаблон:Lang, leaving only outposts in the Шаблон:Lang. On 30 June, the army group Chief of Staff, General von Kuhl, suggested a withdrawal to the Шаблон:Lang along Passchendaele ridge, meeting the old front line in the north near Langemarck and Armentières in the south. Such a withdrawal would avoid a hasty retreat from Pilckem Ridge and force the British into a time-consuming redeployment. Loßberg disagreed, believing that the British would launch a broad front offensive, that the ground east of the Шаблон:Lang was easy to defend and that the Menin road ridge could be held if it was made the Шаблон:Lang (point of main effort) of the German defensive system. Pilckem Ridge deprived the British of ground observation over the Steenbeek Valley, while the Germans could see the area from Passchendaele Ridge, allowing German infantry to be supported by observed artillery-fire. Loßberg's judgement was accepted and no withdrawal was made.Шаблон:Sfn

Battle of Messines

Файл:NLS Haig - Smashed up German trench on Messines Ridge with dead (cropped).jpg

The first stage in the British plan was a preparatory attack on the German positions south of Ypres at Messines Ridge. The Germans on the ridge had observation over Ypres and unless it was captured, observed enfilade artillery-fire could be fired against a British attack from the salient further north.Шаблон:Sfn Since mid-1915, the British had been mining under the German positions on the ridge and by June 1917, 21 mines had been filled with nearly Шаблон:Cvt of explosives.Шаблон:Sfn The Germans knew the British were mining and had taken counter-measures but they were surprised at the extent of the British effort.Шаблон:Sfn Two of the mines failed to detonate but Шаблон:Nowrap off on 7 June, at Шаблон:Nowrap British Summer Time. The final objectives were largely gained before dark and the British had fewer losses than the expected Шаблон:Nowrap the initial attack. As the infantry advanced over the far edge of the ridge, German artillery and machine-guns east of the ridge opened fire and the British artillery was less able to suppress them.Шаблон:Sfn The attack removed the Germans from the dominating ground on the southern face of the Ypres salient, which the 4th Army had held since the First Battle of Ypres in 1914.Шаблон:Sfn

Battles

JulyШаблон:NdashAugust

Файл:18pdrBoesinghe31July1917.jpg

Haig selected Gough to command the offensive on 30 April, and on 10 June Gough and the Fifth Army headquarters took over the Ypres salient north of Messines Ridge. Gough planned an offensive based on the GHQ 1917 plan and the instructions he had received from Haig.Шаблон:Sfn Gough held meetings with his corps commanders on 6 and 16 June, where the third objective, which included the Шаблон:Lang (third line), a second-day objective in earlier plans, was added to the two objectives due to be taken on the first day. A fourth objective, the red line was also given for the first day, to be attempted by fresh troops, at the discretion of divisional and corps commanders, in places where the German defence had collapsed.Шаблон:Sfn The attack was not planned as a breakthrough operation and Шаблон:Lang, the fourth German defensive position, lay Шаблон:Cvt behind the front line and was not an objective on the first day.Шаблон:Sfn

The Fifth Army plan was more ambitious than the plans devised by Rawlinson and Plumer, which had involved an advance of Шаблон:Cvt on the first day, by compressing their first three attacks into one day instead of three.Шаблон:Sfn Major-General John Davidson, Director of Operations at GHQ, wrote in a memorandum that there was "ambiguity as to what was meant by a step-by-step attack with limited objectives" and suggested reverting to a Шаблон:Cvt advance on the first day to increase the concentration of British artillery.Шаблон:Sfn Gough stressed the need to plan to exploit opportunities to take ground left temporarily undefended, more likely in the first attack, which would have the benefit of long preparation. This had not been done in earlier battles and vacant ground, there for the taking, had been re-occupied by the Germans. At the end of June, Haig added a division to II Corps (Lieutenant-General Claud Jacob) from the Second Army and next day, after meeting with Gough and General Herbert Plumer, the Second Army commander, Haig endorsed the Fifth Army plan.Шаблон:Sfn

Battle of Pilckem Ridge

Файл:The Battle of Passchendaele, July-november 1917 Q5726.jpg

The British attack began at Шаблон:Nowrap on 31 July; the attack was to commence at dawn but a layer of unbroken low cloud meant that it was still dark when the infantry advanced.Шаблон:Sfn The main attack, by II Corps across the Ghelveult Plateau to the south, confronted the principal German defensive concentration of artillery, ground-holding divisions (Шаблон:Lang) and Шаблон:Lang divisions. The attack had most success on the northern flank, on the fronts of XIV Corps and the French First Army, both of which advanced Шаблон:Cvt to the line of the Steenbeek river. In the centre, XVIII Corps and XIX Corps pushed forward to the line of the Steenbeek (black line) to consolidate and sent fresh troops towards the green line and on the XIX Corps front to the red line, for an advance of about Шаблон:Cvt. Group Ypres counter-attacked the flanks of the British break-in, supported by every artillery piece and aircraft within range, around noon. The Germans were able to drive the three British brigades back to the black line with Шаблон:Nowrap casualties; the German advance was stopped at the black line by mud, artillery and machine-gun fire.Шаблон:Sfn

Capture of Westhoek

Файл:German defensive system, Flanders, mid-1917.jpg

After rain delays from 2 August, II Corps attacked again on 10 August, to capture the rest of the black line (second objective) on the Gheluvelt plateau. The infantry advance succeeded but German artillery-fire and infantry counter-attacks isolated the infantry of the 18th (Eastern) Division in Glencorse Wood. At about Шаблон:Nowrap German infantry attacked behind a smokescreen and recaptured all but the north-west corner of the wood; only the 25th Division gains on Westhoek Ridge to the north were held.Шаблон:Sfn Lieutenant-Colonel Albrecht von Thaer, Chief of Staff of Шаблон:Lang (Group Wytschaete, the headquarters of the IX Reserve Corps), noted that casualties after Шаблон:Nowrap in the line averaged Шаблон:Nowrap compared to Шаблон:Nowrap on the Somme in 1916 and that German troop morale was higher than the year before.Шаблон:Sfn

Battle of Hill 70

Attacks to threaten Lens and Lille were to be made by the First Army in late June near Gavrelle and Oppy, along the Souchez river. The objective was to eliminate a German salient between Avion and the west end of Lens, by taking reservoir Hill (Hill 65) and Hill 70. The attacks were conducted earlier than planned to use heavy and siege artillery before it was transferred to Ypres, the Souchez operation being cut back and the attack on Hill 70 postponed.Шаблон:Sfn The Battle of Hill 70, Шаблон:Cvt south of Ypres, eventually took place from 15 to 25 August. The Canadian Corps fought four divisions of the German 6th Army in the operation. The capture of Hill 70 was a costly success in which three Canadian divisions inflicted many casualties on the German divisions opposite and pinned down troops reserved for the relief of tired divisions in Flanders.Шаблон:Sfn Hermann von Kuhl, chief of staff of Army Group Crown Prince Rupprecht, wrote later that it was a costly defeat and wrecked the plan for relieving fought-out (exhausted) divisions in Flanders.Шаблон:Sfn

Battle of Langemarck

Файл:AAGunMorbecque29August1917-2.jpeg

The Battle of Langemarck was fought from Шаблон:Nowrap the Fifth Army headquarters was influenced by the effect that delay would have on Operation Hush, which needed the high tides due at the end of August or it would have to be postponed for a month. Gough intended that the rest of the green line, just beyond the Шаблон:Lang (German third line), from Polygon Wood to Langemarck, was to be captured and the Steenbeek crossed further north.Шаблон:Sfn In the II Corps area, the disappointment of 10 August was repeated, with the infantry managing to advance, then being isolated by German artillery and forced back to their start line by German counter-attacks, except in the 25th Division area near Westhoek. Attempts by the German infantry to advance further were stopped by British artillery-fire with many casualties.Шаблон:Sfn The advance further north in the XVIII Corps area retook and held the north end of St Julien and the area south-east of Langemarck, while XIV Corps captured Langemarck and the Шаблон:Lang north of the Ypres–Staden railway, near the Kortebeek stream. The French First Army conformed, pushing up to the Kortebeek and St Jansbeck stream west of the northern stretch of the Шаблон:Lang, where it crossed to the east side of the Kortebeek.Шаблон:Sfn

Local attacks

Шаблон:See also

Файл:The Battle of Passchendaele, July-november 1917 Q6236.jpg

On the higher ground, the Germans continued to inflict many losses on the British divisions beyond Langemarck but on 19 August, after two fine dry days, XVIII Corps conducted a novel infantry, tank, aircraft and artillery operation. German strongpoints and pillboxes along the St Julien–Poelcappelle road in front of the Шаблон:Lang were captured. On 22 August, more ground was gained by XIX and XVIII corps but the tactical disadvantage of being overlooked by the Germans continued.Шаблон:Sfn A II Corps attack on the Gheluvelt Plateau from 22 to 24 August, to capture Nonne Bosschen, Glencorse Wood and Inverness Copse, failed in fighting that was costly to both sides.Шаблон:Sfn Gough laid down a new infantry formation of skirmish lines to be followed by "worms" on 24 August and Cavan noted that pillboxes should be attacked on a broad front, to engage them simultaneously.Шаблон:Sfn Another general offensive intended for 25 August, was delayed by the failure of the preliminary attacks and then postponed due to more bad weather.Шаблон:Sfn On 27 August, II Corps tried a combined tank and infantry attack but the tanks bogged, the attack failed and Haig called a halt to operations until the weather improved.Шаблон:Sfn

Weather

In Field Marshal Earl Haig (1929), Brigadier-General John Charteris, the BEF Chief of Intelligence from 1915 to 1918, wrote that

only the first part of which was quoted by Lloyd George (1934), Liddell Hart (1934) and Leon Wolff (1959); in a 1997 essay, John Hussey called the passage by Charteris "baffling".Шаблон:Sfn The BEF had set up a Meteorological Section under Ernest Gold in 1915, which by the end of 1917 had Шаблон:Nowrap and Шаблон:Nowrap The section predicted the warm weather and thunderstorms of 7 to 14 June; in a letter to the press of 17 January 1958, Gold wrote that the facts of the Flanders climate contradicted Charteris.Шаблон:Sfn In 1989, Philip Griffiths examined August weather in Flanders for the thirty years before 1916 and found that,

From 1901 to 1916, records from a weather station at Cap Gris Nez showed that Шаблон:Nowrap of August days were dry and that from 1913 to 1916, there were Шаблон:Nowrap rainless days and monthly rainfall of Шаблон:Cvt;

There were Шаблон:Cvt of rain in August 1917 and Шаблон:Cvt of the total fell on Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Nowrap The month was overcast and windless, which much reduced evaporation. Divided into two ten-day and an eleven-day period, there were Шаблон:Cvt of rain; in the Шаблон:Nowrap before Шаблон:Nowrap on 31 July, Шаблон:Cvt fell. From Шаблон:Nowrap on 31 July to Шаблон:Nowrap on 4 August, there was another Шаблон:Cvt of rain. August 1917 had three dry days and Шаблон:Nowrap with less than Шаблон:Cvt of rain. Three days were sunless and one had six minutes of sunshine; from 1 to 27 August there were Шаблон:Nowrap of sunshine, an average of Шаблон:Nowrap per day. Hussey wrote that the wet weather in August 1917 was exceptional, Haig had been justified in expecting little rain, swiftly dried by sunshine and breezes.Шаблон:Sfn

Verdun

Petain had committed the French Second Army to an attack at Verdun in mid-July, in support of the Flanders offensive. The attack was delayed, partly due to mutinies in the French army after the failure of the Nivelle Offensive and because of a German attack at Verdun from 28 to 29 June, which captured some of the French jumping-off points. A French counter-attack on 17 July re-captured the ground, the Germans regained it on 1 August, then took ground on the east bank on 16 August.Шаблон:Sfn The French attacked on 20 August and by 9 September had taken Шаблон:Nowrap Sporadic fighting continued into October, adding to the German difficulties on the Western Front and elsewhere. Ludendorff wrote

No German counter-attack was possible because the local Шаблон:Lang divisions had been transferred to Flanders.Шаблон:Sfn

September–October

Файл:The Battle of Passchendaele, July-november 1917 Q6416.jpg

The 4th Army had held on to the Gheluvelt Plateau in August but its casualties worsened the German manpower shortage.Шаблон:Sfn Haig transferred the main offensive effort to the Second Army on 25 August and moved the northern boundary of the Second Army closer to the Ypres–Roulers railway. More heavy artillery was sent to Flanders from the armies further south and placed opposite the Gheluvelt Plateau.Шаблон:Sfn Plumer continued the tactical evolution of the Fifth Army during its slow and costly progress in August. After a pause of about three weeks, Plumer intended to capture the plateau in four steps, with six-day intervals to bring forward artillery and supplies.Шаблон:Sfn The Second Army attacks were to remain limited and infantry brigade tactics were changed to attack the first objective with a battalion each and the final one with two battalions, the opposite of the Fifth Army practice on 31 July, to adapt to the dispersed defences being encountered between the Шаблон:Lang and the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn

Plumer arranged for the medium and heavy artillery reinforcements reaching Flanders to be added to the creeping bombardment, which had been impossible with the amount of artillery available to the Fifth Army.Шаблон:Sfn The tactical changes ensured that more infantry attacked on narrower fronts, to a shallower depth than on 31 July, like the Fifth Army attacks in August. The shorter and quicker advances possible once the ground dried were intended to be consolidated on tactically advantageous ground, especially on any reverse slopes in the area, with the infantry still in contact with the artillery and aircraft, ready to repulse counter-attacks.Шаблон:Sfn The faster tempo of operations was intended to add to German difficulties in replacing tired divisions through the railway bottlenecks behind the German front.Шаблон:Sfn The pause in British attacks misled some of the German commanders and Albrecht von Thaer, the chief of staff of Шаблон:Lang, wrote that it was "almost boring".Шаблон:Sfn Kuhl doubted that the offensive had ended but had changed his mind by 13 September; two divisions, thirteen heavy artillery batteries, twelve field batteries, three fighter squadrons and four other units of the Шаблон:Lang were transferred from the 4th Army.Шаблон:Sfn

German tactical changes

After setting objectives Шаблон:Cvt distant on 31 July, the British attempted shorter advances of approximately Шаблон:Cvt in August but were unable to achieve these lesser objectives on the south side of the battlefield, because the rain soaked ground and poor visibility were to the advantage of the defenders. After the dry spell in early September, British advances had been much quicker and the final objective was reached a few hours after dawn, which confounded the German counter-attack divisions. Having crossed Шаблон:Cvt of mud, the Шаблон:Lang divisions found the British already dug in, with the German forward battle zone and its weak garrison gone beyond recapture.Шаблон:Sfn In August, German front-line divisions had two regiments deployed in the front line, with the third regiment in reserve. The front battalions had needed to be relieved much more frequently than expected due to the power of British attacks, constant artillery-fire and the weather. Replacement units became mixed up with ones holding the front and reserve regiments had failed to intervene quickly, leaving front battalions unsupported until Шаблон:Lang divisions arrived some hours later.Шаблон:Sfn

In July and August, German counter-attack (Шаблон:Lang) divisions had conducted an "advance to contact during mobile operations", which had given the Germans several costly defensive successes.Шаблон:Sfn After the Battle of the Menin Road Ridge, German tactics were changed.Шаблон:Sfn After another defeat on 26 September, the German commanders made more tactical changes to counter the more conservative form of limited attacks adopted by the British.Шаблон:Sfn German counter-attacks in September had been "assaults on reinforced field positions", due to the restrained nature of British infantry advances. The fine weather in early September had greatly eased British supply difficulties, especially in ammunition and the British made time to establish a defence in depth on captured ground, protected by standing artillery barrages. The British attacked in dry, clear conditions, with more aircraft over the battlefield for counter-attack reconnaissance, contact patrol and ground-attack operations. Systematic defensive artillery-fire was forfeited by the Germans, due to uncertainty over the position of their infantry, just when the British infantry benefited from the opposite. German counter-attacks were costly failures and on 28 September, Thaer wrote that the experience was "awful" and that he did not know what to do.Шаблон:Sfnm

Ludendorff ordered the Шаблон:Lang (ground holding divisions) to reinforce their front garrisons; all machine-guns, including those of the support and reserve battalions were sent into the forward zone, to form a cordon of four to eight guns every Шаблон:Cvt.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Lang were reinforced by the Шаблон:Lang (shock) regiments of Шаблон:Lang divisions, which were moved into the artillery protective line behind the forward battle zone, to counter-attack sooner. The other regiments of the Шаблон:Lang divisions were to be held back and used for a methodical counter-attack (Шаблон:Lang) a day or two after and for spoiling attacks as the British reorganised.Шаблон:Sfnm Шаблон:Efn More tactical changes were ordered on 30 September; operations to increase British infantry losses were to continue and gas bombardments were to be increased, weather permitting. Every effort was to be made to induce the British to reinforce their forward positions with infantry for the German artillery to bombard them.Шаблон:Sfn Between 26 September and 3 October, the Germans attacked at least Шаблон:Nowrap and Operation High Storm Шаблон:Lang, a Шаблон:Lang (methodical counter-attack), to recapture the area around Zonnebeke was planned for 4 October.Шаблон:Sfnm

Battle of the Menin Road Ridge

Файл:Battle of Menin Road - wounded at side of the road.jpg

The British plan for the battle fought from Шаблон:Nowrap included more emphasis on the use of heavy and medium artillery to destroy German concrete pill-boxes and machine-gun nests, which were more numerous in the battle zones being attacked, than behind the original July front line and to engage in more counter-battery fire. The British had Шаблон:Nowrap and medium and Шаблон:Nowrap guns and howitzers, more than double the quantity of artillery available at the Battle of Pilckem Ridge.Шаблон:Sfn Aircraft were to be used for systematic air observation of German troop movements, to avoid the failures of previous battles, where too few aircrews had been burdened with too many duties and had flown in bad weather, which made their difficulties worse.Шаблон:Sfn

On 20 September, the Allies attacked on a Шаблон:Cvt front and by mid-morning had captured most of their objectives, to a depth of about Шаблон:Cvt.Шаблон:Sfn The Germans made many hasty counter-attacks (Шаблон:Lang), beginning around Шаблон:Nowrap until early evening, all of which failed to gain ground or made only a temporary penetration of the new British positions. The German defence had failed to stop a well-prepared attack made in good weather.Шаблон:Sfn Minor attacks took place after 20 September, as both sides jockeyed for position and reorganised their defences. A mutually-costly attack by the Germans on 25 September, recaptured pillboxes at the south western end of Polygon Wood. Next day, the German positions near the wood were swept away in the Battle of Polygon Wood.Шаблон:Sfn

German counter-attack, 25 September

Two regiments of the German 50th Reserve Division attacked on a Шаблон:Cvt front, either side of the Reutelbeek stream, supported by aircraft and Шаблон:Nowrap and Шаблон:Nowrap batteries of artillery, four times the usual amount for a division. The German infantry managed to advance on the flanks, about Шаблон:Cvt near the Menin road and Шаблон:Cvt north of the Reutelbeek. The infantry were supported by artillery-observation and ground-attack aircraft; a box-barrage was fired behind the British front-line, which isolated the British infantry from reinforcements and ammunition. Return-fire from the 33rd Division and the 15th Australian Brigade of the 5th Australian Division along the southern edge of Polygon Wood to the north, forced the attackers under cover around some of the Шаблон:Lang pillboxes, near Black Watch Corner, at the south-western edge of Polygon Wood. German attempts to reinforce the attacking troops failed, due to British artillery observers isolating the advanced German troops with artillery barrages.Шаблон:Sfn

Plumer ordered the attack due on 26 September to go ahead but reduced the objectives of the 33rd Division. The 98th Brigade was to advance and cover the right flank of the 5th Australian Division and the 100th Brigade was to re-capture the lost ground further south. The 5th Australian Division advance the next day began with uncertainty as to the security of its right flank; the attack of the depleted 98th Brigade was delayed and only managed to reach Black Watch Corner, Шаблон:Cvt short of its objectives. Reinforcements moved into the 5th Australian Division area and attacked south-westwards at noon as a silent (without artillery support) frontal attack was made from Black Watch Corner, because British troops were known to be holding out in the area. The attack succeeded by Шаблон:Nowrap and later in the afternoon, the 100th Brigade re-took the ground lost north of the Menin road. Casualties in the 33rd Division were so great that it was relieved on 27 September by the 23rd Division, which had only been withdrawn on the night of Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Sfn

Battle of Polygon Wood

Файл:Australian infantry small box respirators Ypres 1917.jpg

The Second Army altered its Corps frontages soon after the attack of 20 September, for the next effort Шаблон:Nowrap so that each attacking division could be concentrated on a Шаблон:Cvt front. Roads and light railways were extended to the new front line, to allow artillery and ammunition to be moved forward. The artillery of VIII Corps and IX Corps on the southern flank, simulated preparations for attacks on Zandvoorde and Warneton. At Шаблон:Nowrap on 26 September, five layers of barrage fired by British artillery and machine-guns began. Dust and smoke thickened the morning mist and the infantry advanced using compass bearings.Шаблон:Sfn Each of the three German ground-holding divisions attacked on 26 September had an Шаблон:Lang division in support, twice the ratio of 20 September. No ground captured by the British was lost and German counter-attacks managed only to reach ground to which survivors of the front-line divisions had retired.Шаблон:Sfn

October–November

German counter-attacks, 30 September – 4 October

At Шаблон:Nowrap on 30 September, a thick mist covered the ground and at Шаблон:Nowrap German artillery began a bombardment between the Menin road and the Reutelbeek. At Шаблон:Nowrap German troops emerged from the mist on an Шаблон:Cvt front.Шаблон:Sfn The attack was supported by flame-throwers and German infantry throwing smoke- and hand-grenades. The British replied with small-arms fire and bombs, forcing the Germans to retreat in confusion but a post was lost south of the Menin road, then retaken by an immediate counter-attack. SOS rockets were not seen in the mist and the British artillery remained silent.Шаблон:Sfn The Germans were repulsed again at Шаблон:Nowrap but German artillery-fire continued during the day.Шаблон:Sfn

On 1 October, at Шаблон:Nowrap a German hurricane bombardment began from the Reutelbeek north to Polygon Wood and Black Watch Corner; by coincidence a Second Army practice barrage began at Шаблон:Nowrap The British front line was cut off and German infantry attacked in three waves at Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Sfn Two determined German attacks were repulsed south of Cameron Covert, then at Шаблон:Nowrap German troops massed near the Menin road. The German attack was defeated by small-arms fire and the British artillery, whose observers had seen the SOS rockets. The British were forced out of Cameron Covert and counter-attacked but a German attack began at the same time and the British were repulsed. Another German attack failed and the German troops dug in behind some old German barbed wire; after dark, more German attacks around Cameron Covert failed.Шаблон:Sfn North of the covert near Polygon Wood, deep mud smothered German shells before they exploded but they still caused many casualties. Communication with the rear was lost and the Germans attacked all day but British SOS rockets remained visible and the attacks took no ground; after dark German attacks were repulsed by another three SOS barrages.Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Lang (Operation High Storm) was planned by Шаблон:Lang to recapture the Tokio Spur from Zonnebeke south to Molenaarelsthoek at the eastern edge of Polygon Wood on 3 October.Шаблон:Sfn The attacking infantry from the 45th Reserve and the 4th Guard divisions were commanded by Major Freiherr von Schleinitz in the north and Lieutenant-Colonel Rave in the south.Шаблон:Sfn After the costly failure of the methodical counter-attack ( Шаблон:Lang) on 1 October, the attack was put back to 4 October, rehearsals taking place from 2 to 3 October.Шаблон:Sfn On the night of Шаблон:Nowrap the German commanders had doubts about the attack but decided to proceed with the Шаблон:Lang, warning the artillery to be ready to commence defensive bombardments.Шаблон:Sfn A contact patrol aircraft was arranged to fly over the area at Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Sfn

Battle of Broodseinde

On 4 October, the British began the Battle of Broodseinde to complete the capture of the Gheluvelt Plateau and occupy Broodseinde Ridge. By coincidence, the Germans sought to recapture their defences around Zonnebeke with a Шаблон:Lang at the same time.Шаблон:Sfn The British attacked along a Шаблон:Cvt front and as the I Anzac Corps divisions began their advance towards Broodseinde Ridge, men were seen rising from shell-holes in no man's land and more German troops were found concealed in shell-craters. Most of the German troops of the 45th Reserve Division were overrun or retreated through the British barrage, then the Australians attacked pillboxes one-by-one and captured the village of Zonnebeke north of the ridge.Шаблон:Sfnm When the British barrage began on Broodseinde Ridge, the Keiberg Spur and Waterdamhoek, some of the German forward headquarters staffs only realised that they were under attack when British and Australian troops appeared.Шаблон:Sfn

As news arrived of the great success of the attack, the head of GHQ Intelligence went to the Second Army headquarters to discuss exploitation. Plumer declined the suggestion, as eight fresh German divisions were behind the battlefield, with another six beyond them.Шаблон:Sfn Later in the day, Plumer had second thoughts and ordered I Anzac Corps to push on to the Keiberg spur, with support from the II Anzac Corps. The II Anzac Corps commander wanted to advance north-east towards Passchendaele village but the I Anzac Corps commander preferred to wait until artillery had been brought up and supply routes improved. The X Corps commander proposed an attack northward from In de Ster into the southern flank of the Germans opposite I Anzac Corps. The 7th Division commander objected, due to uncertainty about the situation and the many casualties suffered by the 21st Division on the right flank and Plumer changed his mind again. During the morning, Gough had told the Fifth Army corps commanders to push on but when reports arrived of a repulse at 19 Metre Hill, the order was cancelled.Шаблон:Sfn

German defensive changes

Файл:NLS Haig - Troops moving up at eventide - men of a Yorkshire regiment on the march (cropped).jpg

On 7 October, the 4th Army again dispersed its troops in the front defence zone. Reserve battalions moved back behind the artillery protective line and the Шаблон:Lang divisions were organised to intervene as swiftly as possible once an attack commenced, despite the risk of British artillery-fire. Counter-battery fire to suppress the British artillery was to be increased, to protect the Шаблон:Lang divisions as they advanced.Шаблон:Sfn All of the German divisions holding front zones were relieved and an extra division brought forward, because the British advances had lengthened the front line. Without the divisions necessary for a counter-offensive south of the Gheluvelt Plateau towards Kemmel Hill, Rupprecht began to plan for a slow withdrawal from the Ypres Salient, even at the risk of uncovering German positions further north and on the Belgian coast.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Efn

Battle of Poelcappelle

The French First Army and British Second and Fifth armies attacked on 9 October, on a Шаблон:Cvt front, from south of Broodseinde to St Jansbeek, to advance half of the distance from Broodseinde ridge to Passchendaele, on the main front, which led to many casualties on both sides. Advances in the north of the attack front were retained by British and French troops but most of the ground taken in front of Passchendaele and on the Becelaere and Gheluvelt spurs was lost to German counter-attacks.Шаблон:Sfn General William Birdwood later wrote that the return of heavy rain and mud sloughs was the main cause of the failure to hold captured ground. Kuhl concluded that the fighting strained German fighting power to the limit but that the German forces managed to prevent a breakthrough, although it was becoming much harder to replace losses.Шаблон:Sfn

First Battle of Passchendaele

Файл:Passchendaele aerial view.jpg

The First Battle of Passchendaele on 12 October was another Allied attempt to gain ground around Passchendaele. Heavy rain and mud again made movement difficult and little artillery could be brought closer to the front. Allied troops were exhausted and morale had fallen. After a modest British advance, German counter-attacks recovered most of the ground lost opposite Passchendaele, except for an area on the right of the Wallemolen spur. North of Poelcappelle, the XIV Corps of the Fifth Army advanced along the Broembeek some way up the Watervlietbeek and the Stadenrevebeek streams and the Guards Division captured the west end of the Vijwegen spur, gaining observation over the south end of Houthulst Forest.Шаблон:Sfn There were Шаблон:Nowrap casualties, including Шаблон:Nowrap Zealanders, Шаблон:Nowrap whom were dead or stranded in the mud of no-man's-land; it was one of the worst days in New Zealand military history.Шаблон:Sfn

At a conference on 13 October, Haig and the army commanders agreed that attacks would stop until the weather improved and roads could be extended, to carry more artillery and ammunition forward. The offensive was to continue, to reach a suitable line for the winter and to keep German attention on Flanders, with a French attack due on 23 October and the Third Army operation south of Arras scheduled for mid-November.Шаблон:Sfn The battle was also costly for the Germans, who lost more than Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Sfn The German 195th Division at Passchendaele suffered Шаблон:Nowrap casualties from 9 to 12 October and had to be relieved by the 238th Division.Шаблон:Sfn Ludendorff became optimistic that Passchendaele Ridge could be held and ordered the 4th Army to stand fast.Шаблон:Sfn On 18 October, Kuhl advocated a retreat as far to the east as possible; Armin and Loßberg wanted to hold on, because the ground beyond the Passchendaele watershed was untenable, even in winter.Шаблон:Sfn

Action of 22 October

On 22 October the 18th (Eastern) Division of XVIII Corps attacked the east end of Poelcappelle as XIV Corps to the north attacked with the 34th Division between the Watervlietbeek and Broenbeek streams and the 35th Division northwards into Houthulst Forest. The attack was supported by a regiment of the French 1st Division on the left flank of the 35th Division and was intended to obstruct a possible German counter-attack on the left flank of the Canadian Corps as it attacked Passchendaele and the ridge. The artillery of the Second and Fifth armies conducted a bombardment to simulate a general attack as a deception. Poelcappelle was captured but the attack at the junction between the 34th and 35th divisions was repulsed. German counter-attacks pushed back the 35th Division in the centre but the French attack captured all its objectives. Attacking on ground cut up by bombardments and soaked by rain, the British had struggled to advance in places and lost the ability to move quickly to outflank pillboxes. The 35th Division reached the fringe of Houthulst Forest but was outflanked and pushed back in places. German counter-attacks made after 22 October, were at an equal disadvantage and were costly failures. The German 4th Army was prevented from transferring troops away from the Fifth Army and from concentrating its artillery-fire on the Canadians as they prepared for the Second Battle of Passchendaele (26 October – 10 November 1917).Шаблон:Sfn

Battle of La Malmaison

After numerous requests from Haig, Petain began the Battle of La Malmaison, a long-delayed French attack on the Chemin des Dames, by the Sixth Army (General Paul Maistre). The artillery preparation started on 17 October and on 23 October, the German defenders were swiftly defeated and the French advanced up to Шаблон:Cvt, capturing the village and fort of La Malmaison, gaining control of the Chemin des Dames ridge.Шаблон:Sfn The Germans lost Шаблон:Nowrap killed or missing and Шаблон:Nowrap along with Шаблон:Nowrap and Шаблон:Nowrap against Шаблон:Nowrap casualties, fewer than a third of the German total.Шаблон:Sfn The Germans had to withdraw from their remaining positions on the Chemin des Dames to the north of the Ailette Valley early in November. Haig was pleased with the French success but regretted the delay, which had lessened its effect on the Flanders operations.Шаблон:Sfn

Second Battle of Passchendaele

Файл:Second Battle of Passchendaele - Barbed wire and Mud.jpg

Файл:Landscape Passendale Tyne Cot 2.jpg

The British Fifth Army undertook minor operations from Шаблон:Nowrap to maintain pressure on the Germans and support the French attack at La Malmaison, while the Canadian Corps prepared for a series of attacks from Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Sfnm The four divisions of the Canadian Corps had been transferred to the Ypres Salient from Lens, to capture Passchendaele and the ridge.Шаблон:Sfn The Canadians relieved the II Anzac Corps on 18 October and found that the front line was mostly the same as that occupied by the 1st Canadian Division in April 1915. The Canadian operation was to be three limited attacks, on 26 October 30 October and 6 November.Шаблон:Sfn On 26 October, the 3rd Canadian Division captured its objective at Wolf Copse, then swung back its northern flank to link with the adjacent division of the Fifth Army. The 4th Canadian Division captured its objectives but was forced slowly to retire from Decline Copse, against German counter-attacks and communication failures between the Canadian and Australian units to the south.Шаблон:Sfn

The second stage began on 30 October, to complete the previous stage and gain a base for the final assault on Passchendaele. The attackers on the southern flank quickly captured Crest Farm and sent patrols beyond the final objective into Passchendaele. The attack on the northern flank again met with exceptional German resistance. The 3rd Canadian Division captured Vapour Farm on the corps boundary, Furst Farm to the west of Meetcheele and the crossroads at Meetcheele but remained short of its objective. During a seven-day pause, the Second Army took over another section of the Fifth Army front adjoining the Canadian Corps. Three rainless days from Шаблон:Nowrap eased preparation for the next stage, which began on the morning of 6 November, with the 1st Canadian Division and the 2nd Canadian Division. In less than three hours, many units reached their final objectives and Passchendaele was captured. The Canadian Corps attacked on 10 November to gain control of the remaining high ground north of the village near Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Sfnm Шаблон:Efn

December

Night action of 1/2 December 1917

On 18 November the VIII Corps on the right and II Corps on the left (northern) side of the Passchendaele Salient took over from the Canadian Corps. The area was subjected to constant German artillery bombardments and its vulnerability to attack led to a suggestion by Brigadier C. F. Aspinall, that either the British should retire to the west side of the Gheluvelt Plateau or advance to broaden the salient towards Westroosebeke. Expanding the salient would make the troops in it less vulnerable to German artillery-fire and provide a better jumping off line for a resumption of the offensive in the spring of 1918. The British attacked towards Westroozebeke on the night of 1/2 December but the plan to mislead the Germans by not bombarding the German defences until eight minutes after the infantry began their advance came undone. The noise of the British assembly and the difficulty of moving across muddy and waterlogged ground had also alerted the Germans. In the moonlight, the Germans had seen the British troops when they were still Шаблон:Cvt away. Some ground was captured and about Шаблон:Nowrap were taken but the attack on the redoubts failed and observation over the heads of the valleys on the east and north sides of the ridge was not achieved.Шаблон:Sfn

Action on the Polderhoek Spur

Файл:View from top of Tyne Cot.JPG

The attack on the Polderhoek Spur on 3 December 1917, was a local operation by the British Fourth Army (renamed from the Second Army on 8 November). Two battalions of the 2nd New Zealand Brigade of the New Zealand Division attacked the low ridge, from which German observers could view the area from Cameron Covert to the north and the Menin road to the south-west. A New Zealand advance of Шаблон:Cvt on a Шаблон:Cvt front, would shield the area north of the Reutelbeek stream from German observers on the Gheluvelt spur. Heavy artillery bombarded the ruins of Polderhoek Château and the pillboxes in the grounds to mislead the defenders and the attack was made in daylight as a ruse to surprise the Germans, who would be under cover sheltering from the routine bombardments. Smoke and gas bombardments on the Gheluvelt and Becelaere spurs on the flanks and the infantry attack began at the same time as the "routine" bombardment. The ruse failed, some British artillery-fire dropped short on the New Zealanders and the Germans engaged the attackers with small-arms fire from Polderhoek Spur and Gheluvelt ridge. A strong west wind ruined the smoke screens and the British artillery failed to suppress the German machine-guns. New Zealand machine-gunners repulsed a counter-attack but the New Zealand infantry were Шаблон:Cvt short of the first objective; another attempt after dark was cancelled because of the full moon and the arrival of German reinforcements.Шаблон:Sfn

Aftermath

Analysis

German casualtiesШаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Efn
Date	No.
21–31 July	30,000
1–10 Aug	16,000
11–21 Aug	24,000
21–31 Aug	12,500
1–10 Sept	4,000
11–20 Sept	25,000
21–30 Sept	13,500
1–10 Oct	35,000
11–20 Oct	12,000
21–31 Oct	20,500
1–10 Nov	9,500
11–20 Nov	4,000
21–30 Nov	4,500
1–10 Dec	4,000
11–31 Dec	2,500
Total	217,000

In a German General Staff publication, it was written that "Germany had been brought near to certain destruction (Шаблон:Lang) by the Flanders battle of 1917".Шаблон:Sfn In his Memoirs of 1938, Lloyd George wrote, "Passchendaele was indeed one of the greatest disasters of the war ... No soldier of any intelligence now defends this senseless campaign ...".Шаблон:Sfn In 1939, G. C. Wynne wrote that the British had eventually reached Passchendaele Ridge and captured Шаблон:Lang but beyond them were Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang. The German submarine bases on the coast had not been captured but the objective of diverting the Germans from the French further south, while they recovered from the Nivelle Offensive in April, had succeeded.Шаблон:Sfn In 1997, Paddy Griffith wrote that the bite and hold system kept moving until November, because the BEF had developed a workable system of offensive tactics, against which the Germans ultimately had no answer.Шаблон:Sfn A decade later, Jack Sheldon wrote that relative casualty figures were irrelevant, because the German army could not afford the losses or to lose the initiative by being compelled to fight another defensive battle on ground of the Allies' choosing. The Third Battle of Ypres had pinned the German army to Flanders and caused unsustainable casualties.Шаблон:Sfn

In 2018, Jonathan Boff wrote that after the war the Шаблон:Lang official historians, many of whom were former staff officers, wrote of the tactical changes after 26 September and their scrapping after the Battle of Broodseinde on 4 October, as the work of Loßberg. By blaming an individual, the rest of the German commanders were exculpated, which gave a false impression that OHL operated in a rational manner, when Ludendorff imposed another defensive scheme on 7 October. Boff wrote that this narrative was facile and that it avoided the problem faced by the Germans in late 1917. OHL had issued orders to change tactics again days before Loßberg was blamed for giving new orders to the 4th Army. Boff also doubted that all of the divisions in Flanders could act on top-down changes. The 119th Division was in the front line from 11 August to 18 October and replied that new tactics were difficult to implement due to lack of training. The tempo of British attacks and the effect of attrition meant that although six divisions were sent to the 4th Army by 10 October, they were either novice units deficient in training or veteran formations with low morale after earlier defeats; good divisions had been diluted with too many replacements. Boff wrote that the Germans consciously sought tactical changes for an operational dilemma for want of an alternative. On 2 October, Rupprecht had ordered the 4th Army HQ to avoid over-centralising command, only to find that Loßberg had issued an artillery plan detailing the deployment of individual batteries.Шаблон:Sfn

At a British conference on 13 October, the Third Army (General Julian Byng) scheme for an attack in mid-November was discussed. Byng wanted the operations at Ypres continued, to hold German troops in Flanders.Шаблон:Sfn The Battle of Cambrai began on 20 November and the British breached the first two parts of the Hindenburg Line, in the first successful mass use of tanks in a combined arms operation.Шаблон:Sfn The experience of the failure to contain the British attacks at Ypres and the drastic reduction in areas of the western front that could be considered "quiet" after the tank and artillery surprise at Cambrai, left the OHL with little choice but to return to a strategy of decisive victory in 1918.Шаблон:Sfn On 24 October, the Austro-German 14th Army (Шаблон:Lang Otto von Below), attacked the Italian Second Army on the Isonzo at the Battle of Caporetto and in 18 days, inflicted casualties of Шаблон:Nowrap and Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Sfn In fear that Italy might be put out of the war, the French and British governments offered reinforcements.Шаблон:Sfn British and French troops were swiftly moved from Шаблон:Nowrap but the diversion of resources from the BEF forced Haig to conclude the Third Battle of Ypres short of Westrozebeke; the last substantial British attack took place on 10 November.Шаблон:Sfn

Casualties

Various casualty figures have been published for the Third Battle of Ypres, sometimes with acrimony; the highest estimates for British and German casualties appear to be discredited but the British claim to have taken Шаблон:Nowrap has not been disputed.Шаблон:Sfnm In 1940, C. R. M. F. Cruttwell recorded Шаблон:Nowrap casualties and Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Sfn In the History of the Great War volume Military Operations.... published in 1948, James Edmonds put British casualties Шаблон:Nowrap and wrote that equivalent German figures were not available, estimating German losses Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Efn A. J. P. Taylor wrote in 1972 that no one believed Edmonds' "farcical calculations". Taylor put British wounded and killed at Шаблон:Nowrap German losses at Шаблон:Nowrap "a proportion slightly better than the Somme".Шаблон:Sfn In 2007, Jack Sheldon wrote that although German casualties from 1 June to 10 November Шаблон:Nowrap a figure available in Volume III of the Шаблон:Lang (Medical Report, 1934), Edmonds may not have included these data as they did not fit his case, using the phrases "creative accounting" and "cavalier handling of the facts". Sheldon wrote that the German casualties could only be brought up to Шаблон:Nowrap by including the Шаблон:Nowrap who were sick or treated at regimental aid posts for "minor cuts and wounds" but not struck off unit strength; Sheldon wrote "it is hard to see any merit" in doing so.Шаблон:Sfn

Leon Wolff, writing in 1958, gave German casualties as Шаблон:Nowrap and British casualties as Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Sfn Wolff's British figure was refuted by John Terraine in a 1977 publication. Despite writing that Шаблон:Nowrap casualties was the BEF total for the second half of 1917, Wolff had neglected to deduct Шаблон:Nowrap for the Battle of Cambrai, given in the Official Statistics from which he quoted or "normal wastage", averaging Шаблон:Nowrap month in "quiet" periods.Шаблон:Sfn In 1959, Cyril Falls estimated Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Nowrap and Шаблон:Nowrap casualties.Шаблон:Sfn In his 1963 biography of Haig, Terraine accepted Edmonds' figure of Шаблон:Nowrap casualties and agreed that German losses were at least equal to and probably greater than British, owing to the strength of British artillery and the high number of German counterattacks; he did not accept Edmonds' calculation that German losses were as high Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Sfn In his 1977 work, Terraine wrote that the German figure ought to be increased because their statistics were incomplete and because their data omitted some lightly wounded men, who would have been included under British casualty criteria, revising the German figure by twenty per cent, which made German casualties Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Sfn Prior and Wilson, in 1997, gave British losses of Шаблон:Nowrap German casualties at just Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Sfn In 1997, Heinz Hagenlücke gave Шаблон:Circa casualties.Шаблон:Sfn Gary Sheffield wrote in 2002 that Richard Holmes guessed that both sides suffered Шаблон:Nowrap which seemed about right to him.Шаблон:Sfn

Subsequent operations

Winter 1917–1918

The area to the east and south of the ruins of Passchendaele village was held by posts, those to the east being fairly habitable, unlike the southern ones; from Passchendaele as far back as Potijze, the ground was far worse. Each brigade spent four days in the front line, four in support and four in reserve. The area was quiet apart from artillery-fire and in December the weather turned cold and snowy, which entailed a great effort to prevent trench foot. In January, spells of freezing cold were followed by warmer periods, one beginning on 15 January with torrential rain and gale-force winds, washing away plank roads and duckboard tracks.Шаблон:Sfn Conditions in the salient improved with the completion of transport routes and the refurbishment of German pillboxes. Both sides raided and the British used night machine-gun fire and artillery barrages to great effect.Шаблон:Sfn On the evening of 3 March 1918, two companies of the 8th Division raided Teal Cottage, supported by a smoke and shrapnel barrage, killed many of the garrison and took six prisoners for one man wounded.Шаблон:Sfn A German attack on 11 March was repulsed; after that the Germans made no more attacks, keeping up frequent artillery bombardments and machine-gun fire instead.Шаблон:Sfn When the German armies further south began the Spring Offensive on 21 March 1918, "good" divisions in Flanders were sent south; the 29th Division was withdrawn on 9 April and transferred to the Lys.Шаблон:Sfnm

Retreat, 1918

Шаблон:See also

On 23 March, Haig ordered Plumer to make contingency plans to shorten the line and release troops for the other armies. Worn-out divisions from the south had been sent to Flanders to recuperate closer to the coast. On 11 April, Plumer authorised a withdrawal of the southern flank of the Second Army. On 12 April, the VIII Corps HQ ordered the infantry retirement to begin that night and the 59th Division was replaced by part of the 41st Division and transferred south. The II Corps had begun to withdraw its artillery at the same time as VIII Corps, on the night of 11/12 April and ordered the 36th (Ulster) and 30th divisions to conform to the VIII Corps retirement, which was complete by 13 April, with no German interference.Шаблон:Sfn On 13 April, Plumer agreed to a retirement in the south side of the salient to a line from Mt Kemmel to Voormezeele [[[:Шаблон:Cvt]] south of Ypres], White Château [[[:Шаблон:Cvt]] east of Ypres] and Pilckem Ridge.Шаблон:Sfn The 4th Army diary recorded that the withdrawal was discovered at Шаблон:Nowrap Next day, at the Battle of Merckem, the Germans attacked from Houthulst Forest, north-east of Ypres and captured Kippe but were forced out by Belgian counter-attacks, supported by the II Corps artillery. On the afternoon of 27 April, the south end of the Second Army outpost line was driven in near Voormezeele and another British outpost line was established north-east of the village.Шаблон:Sfn

Commemoration