Английская Википедия:Bhaktivinoda Thakur

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:EngvarB Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox Hindu leader Шаблон:Quote box Шаблон:Vaishnavism Шаблон:Hindu philosophy Bhaktivinoda Thakur (Шаблон:IAST3, Шаблон:IPA-bn) (2 September 1838 – 23 June 1914), born Kedarnath Datta (Шаблон:IAST, Шаблон:IPA-bn), was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and spiritual reformer of Gaudiya VaishnavismШаблон:Sfn who effected its resurgence in India in late 19th and early 20th centuryШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and was called by contemporary scholars as a Gaudiya Vaishnava leader of his time.Шаблон:Sfn He is also known along with his son Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati, with initiating the propagation of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in the West and its global spread.Шаблон:Sfn

He tackled the task of reconciling Western reason and traditional belief, by accommodating both modern critical analysis and Hindu mysticism in his writings. Kedarnath's spiritual quest led him at the age of 29 to become a follower of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533). He dedicated himself to the study and practice of Chaitanya's teachings, emerging as a leader within the Chaitanya Vaishnava movement in Bengal.Шаблон:Sfn

In his later years Bhaktivinoda founded and conducted nama-hatta – a travelling preaching program that spread theology and practice of Chaitanya throughout rural and urban Bengal, by means of discourses, printed materials and Bengali songs of his own composition. He also opposed what he saw as apasampradayas, or numerous distortions of the original Chaitanya teachings. He is credited with the rediscovery of the lost site of Chaitanya's birth, in Mayapur near Nabadwip, which he commemorated with a prominent temple.Шаблон:Sfn

Bhaktivinoda Thakur led the spread of Chaitanya's teachings in the West,Шаблон:Sfn in 1880 sending copies of his works to Ralph Waldo Emerson in the United States and to Reinhold Rost in Europe.

The revival of Gaudiya Vaishnavism effected by Bhaktivinoda spawned one of India's dynamic preaching missions of the early 20th century, the Gaudiya Matha, headed by his son and spiritual heir, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati.Шаблон:Sfn Bhaktisiddhanta's disciple A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami (1896–1977) continued his guruШаблон:'s Western mission when in 1966 in the United States he founded ISKCON, or the Hare Krishna movement, which then spread Gaudiya Vaishnavism globally.

Bengali Renaissance and the bhadralok

Kedarnath Datta belonged to the kayastha community of Bengali intellectual gentry that lived during the Bengal Renaissance and attempted to rationalise their traditional Hindu beliefs and customs.Шаблон:Sfn

Kedarnath's birth in 1838 occurred during the period of the history of Bengal marked by the emergence and influence of the bhadralok community.Шаблон:Sfn The bhadralok, refers to "gentle or respectable people",Шаблон:Sfn was a class of Bengalis (Hindus), who served the British administration in occupations requiring Western education and proficiency in English and other languages.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Exposed to and influenced by the Western values of the British, including the latter's condescending attitude towards cultural and religious traditions of India, the bhadralok started calling into question and reassessing the tenets of their own religion and customs.Шаблон:Sfn Their attempts to rationalise and modernise Hinduism in order to reconcile it with the Western outlook gave rise to a historical period called the Bengali Renaissance, led by reformists such as Rammohan RoyШаблон:Sfn and Swami Vivekananda.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This trend led to a perception, both in India and in the West, of modern Hinduism as being equivalent to Advaita Vedanta, a conception of the divine as devoid of form and individuality that was hailed by its proponents as the "perennial philosophy"Шаблон:Sfn and "the mother of religions".Шаблон:Sfn As a result, the other schools of Hinduism, including bhakti, were gradually relegated in the minds of the Bengali Hindu middle-class to obscurity, and seen as a "reactionary and fossilized jumble of empty rituals and idolatrous practices."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Early period (1838–1858): student

Birth and childhood

Шаблон:Multiple image Kedarnath was born on 2 September 1838 in the village of Ula (presently Birnagar) in Bengal, some Шаблон:Convert north of modern-day Kolkata.Шаблон:Sfn Both his father, Ananda Chandra Dutta, and mother, Jagat Mohini Devi, hailed from kayastha families.Шаблон:Sfn

After a village schooling, he continued his education at Hindu College in Calcutta, where he acquainted himself with contemporary Western philosophy and theology. There he became a close associate of literary and intellectual figures of the Bengali Renaissance, such as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, and Sisir Kumar Ghosh.' In his youth he spent time researching and comparing various religious and philosophical systems, both Indian and Western, with a view of finding among them a comprehensive, authentic and intellectually satisfying path. At 18, he began a teaching career in rural areas of Bengal and Orissa until he became an employee with the British Raj in the Judicial Service, from which he retired in 1894 as District Magistrate.

From the time of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533), the paternal Datta lineage were Vaishnavas and counted among their ranks Krishnananda, an associate of Nityananda Prabhu. Kedarnath's mother, Jagan Mohini Devi (born Mitra), was a descendant of Rameshwar Mitra, a zamindar (landowner) of the 18th century.Шаблон:Sfn Kedaranath in his autobiography Svalikhita-jivani refers to his father, Anand Chandra Dutta, as a "straightforward, clean, religious man"Шаблон:Sfn and describes his mother as "a sober woman possessed of many unique qualities".Шаблон:Sfn

Kedarnath was the third of six children of Anand Chandra and Jagat Mohini, preceded by older brothers Abhaykali (died before Kedarnath's birth) and Kaliprasanna and followed by three younger siblings: sister Hemlata and brothers Haridas and Gauridas.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Kedarnath evoked affection of his mother, who prayed for his survival.Шаблон:Sfn

Prior to his birth, financial circumstances had forced his parents to relocate from Calcutta to Ula, where he was born and grew up in the palace of his maternal grandfather, Ishwar Chandra Mustauphi, a landowner known for his generosity.Шаблон:Sfn

From the age of five, Kedarnath attended the village school in Ula. Later, when an English school opened there, he showed such interest in the English language, attending the classes during lunch, that the headmaster of the school convinced Anand Chandra to let the boy study there.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn At the age of seven Kadarnath was transferred to another English school in Krishnanagar.Шаблон:Sfn

In the following years Kedarnath's family faced a series of calamities. All three of his brothers died of cholera, soon followed by their father, Anand Chandra. The financial situation of his widowed mother worsened as his maternal grandfather, Ishwar Chandra, incurred huge debts due to the oppressive Permanent Settlement Act and ended up bankrupt.Шаблон:Sfn In 1850, when Kedarnath was 12, in accordance with the upper-class Hindu customs Jagat Mohini married him to a five-year-old Shaymani Mitra of Ranaghat, hoping to sever Kedarnath's connection with the ill fate of his own family and replace it with the good karma of the in-laws.Шаблон:Sfn Soon after the wedding Ishwar Chandra died, leaving the responsibility for his troubled estate on the widow with two young children.Шаблон:Sfn Kedarnath recalls:

Шаблон:Blockquote

These hardships made young Kedarnath question the meaning of life and ponder over reasons for human sufferings. He felt unconvinced by conventional explanations and started doubting the reality of the many Hindu gods and goddesses worshiped in village temples. Exposed to contradictory views ranging from religious beliefs to tantric practices, exorcism, superstitions and atheism, Kedarnath found himself in a state of disappointment and philosophical confusion. It was at that time that an encounter with a simple old woman who advised him to chant the name of Rama made an unexpectedly profound impact on him, planting the seed of the Vaishnava faith that he maintained throughout his life.Шаблон:Sfn

New challenges and responsibilities caused Kedarnath to visit Calcutta for the first time. The trip, albeit short and unpleasant, further developed his curiosity for European life and customs. Back in Ula he continued struggling to maintain the property inherited from his grandfather. This took a toll on his education. Finally, in 1852 his maternal uncle, Kashiprasad Ghosh, a famous poet and newspaper editor, visited Ula and, impressed with the talented boy, convinced Jagat Mohini to send Kedarnath to Calcutta to further his studies. In November 1852, leaving his mother and sister behind in Ula, Kedarnath moved to Ghosh's house on Beadon Street in the middle of Calcutta.Шаблон:Sfn

Education in Calcutta

Calcutta was a multicultural city, different from Kedarnath's experience.Шаблон:Sfn His maternal uncle Kashiprasad Ghosh, a graduate of the Hindu College of Calcutta, was a champion of Westernisation, the editor of the English-language Hindu Intelligencer, a journal which propagated the ideas of the bhadralok, and a patriotic poet praised even by the British.Шаблон:Sfn

Kedarnath stayed with Kashiprasad Ghosh until 1858 and became steeped in the lifestyle of the bhadralok and immersed in studying a range of Western philosophical, poetic, political, and religious texts.Шаблон:Sfn Kadarnath studied at the Hindu Charitable InstituteШаблон:Sfn between 1852 and 1856. There he met one of the bhadralok Hindu intellectuals of the time, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820–1891), who became his tutor, his mentor, and a lifelong friend.Шаблон:Sfn

While excelling in his studies, especially in the English language and writing, Kedarnath started writing his own poems and articles.Шаблон:Sfn Exposed to and influenced by the views of the famous acquaintances of Kashiprasad who frequented his home – Kristo Das Pal, Shambhu Mukhopadhyay, Baneshwar Vidyalankar, and others – Kedarnath started regularly contributing to the Hindu Intelligencer, critiquing contemporary social and political issues from a bhadralok viewpoint.Шаблон:Sfn Eventually Kedarnath felt confident enough in his studies and in 1856 enrolled in the Hindu College, Calcutta's leading school, where for the next two years he continued his studies under Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar in the company of remarkable classmates such as Keshub Chandra Sen, Nabagopal Mitra, and the elder brothers of Rabindranath Tagore: Satyendranath and Ganendranath.Шаблон:Sfn Becoming increasingly involved in the intellectual values of the bhadralok community, Kedarnath along with his classmates started taking public-speaking lessons from the famous British parliamentarian and abolitionist George Thompson (1804–1878).Шаблон:Sfn At the same time, Kedarnath published his first major literary work, a two-volume historical poem titled The Poriade, which earned him both a name as a poet and some income.Шаблон:Sfn

Kedarnath's health deteriorated due to poor drinking water and the challenging environment of Calcutta. He made regular visits to his mother and sister in Ula for recovery and convalescence.Шаблон:Sfn However, when in 1856Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn a violent outbreak of cholera wiped out the whole village of Ula, killing his sister Hemlata and barely sparing his mother, Kedarnath took her along with his grandmother to Calcutta for good.Шаблон:Sfn The devastation of Ula marked a turning point in Kedarnath's attitude to life. He writes:

Шаблон:Blockquote

Finding himself disoriented, he sought shelter and solace in his friendship with the Tagore brothers. There he overcame his crisis and started moving towards a religious rather than social and political outlook on life. Along with Dvijendranath Tagore, Kedarnath started studying Sanskrit and the theological writings of such authors as Kant, Goethe, Hegel, Swedenborg, Hume, Voltaire, and Schopenhauer, as well as the books of the Brahmo Samaj, which rekindled his interest in Hinduism.Шаблон:Sfn At the same time, Kedarnath daily met with Charles Dall, a Unitarian minister from the American Unitarian Association of Boston posted to Calcutta for propagating Unitarian ideas among the educated Bengalis. Under Dall's guidance, Kedarnath studied the Bible and the Unitarian writings of Channing, Emerson, Parker, and others.Шаблон:Sfn While developing a fascination for the liberalism of Unitarian religious teachings, the young Kedarnath also studied the Qur'an.Шаблон:Sfn

Dire financial strain and obligations to maintain his young wife and aging mother caused Kedarnath to look for employment.Шаблон:Sfn Finding a well-paid job in Calcutta – especially a job compatible with his high ethical valuesШаблон:Efn – was nearly impossible.Шаблон:Sfn After a few unsuccessful stints as a teacher and after incurring a large debt, Kedarnath along with his mother and wife accepted the invitation of Rajballabh, his paternal grandfather in Orissa, and in the spring of 1858 left for the Orissan village of Chutimangal.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Middle period (1858–1874): working years

Teaching in Orissa (1858–1866)

In Chutimangal, Kedarnath Datta was able to begin his career as an English teacher – first at the local village school, and then, after passing a qualifying examination, at a school in Cuttack.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn From 1862 until 1865 he served as the first headmaster of Bhadrak High School (currently Zilla School) in Bhadrak.Шаблон:Sfn His finances improved, allowing him to dedicate more time to studying, writing, and lecturing.Шаблон:Sfn This established Kedarnath as an intellectual and cultural voice of the local bhadralok community, and soon a following of his own formed, consisting of students attracted by his discourses and personal tutorship on religious and philosophical topics.Шаблон:Sfn

In August 1860 his first son, Annada Datta, was born. His birth was followed by the death of Kedarnath's young wife ten months later.Шаблон:Sfn Widowed and with an infant on his hands at twenty-three, Kedarnath married Bhagavati Devi, a daughter of Gangamoy Roy of Jakpore. She would become his companion and the mother of his other thirteen children.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn After a short tenure at a lucrative position as the head clerk at the Bardhaman revenue collector's office, Kedarnath felt morally compromised as well as insecure with the position of a rent collector and settled for a less profitable but more agreeable occupation as a clerk elsewhere.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

These external events as well as the internal conflict between morality and need moved Kedarnath towards introspection in search for a more personal and ethically appealing concept of God, as accepted in Christianity and Vaishnavism.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Marking this period of his life was Kedarnath's growing interest in Gaudiya Vaishnavism and particularly in the persona and teachings of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533).Шаблон:Sfn Kedarnath tried to acquire a copy of Chaitanya Caritamrita and the Bhagavata Purana, principal scriptures for Gaudiya Vaishnavas, but failed.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn However, his interest in Chaitanya's teaching and example of love for Krishna, the personal form of God, coupled with Chaitanya's grace and ethical integrity became the decisive theme of his life and mission.Шаблон:Sfn

This period was also marked with Kedarnath's budding literary gift. Taking advantage of the tranquility of his new clerical job, he composed the Bengali poems Vijanagrama and Sannyasi, lauded for their poetic elegance and novel meter, which incorporated the style of Milton and Byron into Bengali verse.Шаблон:Sfn He also authored an article on Vaishnavism as well as a book, Our Wants.Шаблон:Sfn

As Bhagavati Devi gave birth to Kedarnath's second child, daughter Saudhamani (1864), the need to secure a more stable income for his growing family made Kedarnath seek a job with the British government.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Government service (1866–1893)

An Indian man in mid-50s dressed in an official-looking overcoat and cap
Kedarnath Datta in official magistrate dress, late 1880s

In February 1866 Kedarnath Datta received, with a friend's help, a position with the Registrar's office as a "Special Deputy Registrar of Assurances with Powers of a Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector" in Chhapra in the Saran district of Bihar.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In colonial Bengal a job at the executive government service, staffed by the bhadralok (except for the topmost management tier, occupied by the British), was the coveted achievement. It ensured one's financial security, social status, and protected retirement.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn During the next twenty-eight years, Kedarnath rose through the ranks of civil service from sixth grade to second grade, which entailed prosperity, respect and authority.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn Kedarnath gradually established himself with the British authorities as a trustworthy, responsible, and efficient officer and a man of integrity.Шаблон:Sfn The course of his government service took him and his growing family to almost twenty different locations in Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This allowed him to study different cultures, languages, and religions. He also soon showed himself a linguistic savant, within a short time learning Urdu and Persian, required for his government duties.Шаблон:Sfn He also mastered Sanskrit for his Vaishnava pursuits, enough to be able to read the Bhagavata Purana with traditional commentaries and to write his own Sanskrit poetry.Шаблон:Sfn

When Kedarnath suffered from prolonged bouts of fever and colitis,Шаблон:Efn he took advantage of the paid sick leave to visit Mathura and Vrindavana – sacred places for Gaudiya Vaishnavas.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

His interest in Chaitanya Vaishnavism grew. After an eight-year search, in 1868 he found a copy of Chaitanya's biography Chaitanya Caritamrita by Krishnadasa Kaviraja and a translation of the Bhagavata Purana.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He became increasingly appreciative of the philosophical sophistication and ethical purity of Chaitanya's teaching but struggled to reconcile it with the prevalent perception of Krishna, Chaitanya's worshipable God described in the Bhagavata Purana, as "basically a wrong-doer."Шаблон:Sfn He concluded that both faith and reason have their respective, mutually complementary places in religious experience, and neither can be ousted from it altogether.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Kedarnath describes the transformation he went through while reading the long sought-after scripture:

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Accepting Chaitanya as the final goal of his intellectual and spiritual quest, Kedarnath soon started delivering public lectures on his teachings, culminating in his famous speech The Bhagavat: Its Philosophy, Ethics and Theology – his first public announcement of his newly found religious allegiance.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In The Bhagavat, delivered in masterful English but directed at both the Western cultural conquest and the bhadralok that conquest influenced,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Kedarantha attempted to reconcile modern thought and Vaishnava orthodoxy and to restore the Bhagavata to its preeminent position in Hindu philosophy.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His newfound inspiration in the teachings of Chaitanya and the Bhagavata made Kedarnath receive his next job transfer to Jagannath Puri as a blessing – Puri was Chaitanya's residence for most of his life, and the shelter of the principal Vaishnava shrine, the Temple of Jagannath.Шаблон:Sfn

Service in Puri (1870–1875)

Following the annexation of the state of Orissa by Britain in 1803, the British force commander in India, Marquess Wellesley, ordered by decree "the utmost degree of accuracy and vigilance" in protecting the security of the ancient Jagannath temple and in respecting religious sentiments of its worshipers.Шаблон:Sfn The policy was strictly followed, to the point that the British army escorted Hindu religious processions.Шаблон:Sfn However, under the pressure of Christian missionaries both in India and in Britain, in 1863 this policy was lifted and the temple management entrutsed entirely to the care of the local brahmanas, which soon led to its deterioration.Шаблон:Sfn

When Kedarnath was posted to Puri in 1870, he was already known for his honesty and integrity and was consequently given the charge to oversee law and order in the busy pilgrimage site, as well as to provide thousands of pilgrims with food, accommodation, and medical assistance on festival occasions.Шаблон:Sfn The government also deputed Kedarnath as a law enforcement officer to thwart the Atibadis, a heterodox Vaishnava sect that conspired to overthrow the British and was led by a self-proclaimed avatar, Bishkishan – a task that Kedarnath successfully accomplished.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

However, while busy with governmental assignments, Kedarnath dedicated his off-duty time to nurturing his newly acquired inspiration for Gaudiya Vaishnavism.Шаблон:Sfn He started mastering Sanskrit under the tutelage of local pandits and absorbed himself in intense study of Chaitanya Caritamrita, the Bhagavata Purana with the commentary of Sridhara Svami, and the seminal philosophical treatises of the Gaudiya Vaishnava canon such as the Sat Sandarbhas by Jiva Goswami (c.1513–1598), Bhakti-rasamrta-sindhu by Rupa Goswami (1489–1564), and the Govinda Bhashya commentary by Baladeva Vidyabhushana (?−1768) on the Brahma Sutras.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Kedarnath also started searching for authentic Gaudiya Vaishnava manuscripts and writing prolifically on the subject of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, authoring and publishing Datta-kaustubha and a number of Sanskrit verses, and commenced a major literary work, Krishna-samhita.Шаблон:Sfn

A young Bengali boy looking forward
Kedarnath Datta's seventh child Bimala Prasad, age 7 (1881)

Soon Kedarnath formed a society called Bhagavat Samsad, consisting of the local bhadralok who were eager listen to his exposition of Gaudiya Vaishnavism.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This brought him at odds with the local pandit, who criticised him for lecturing on Vaishnava topics while lacking a proper Vaishnava initiation, or diksha, the tilak markings, and other devotional insignia.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn Even though Kedarnath was already following Gaudiya Vaishnava spiritual discipline like harinama-japa, or chanting the Hare Krishna mantra on beads,Шаблон:Efn their opposition prompted Kedarnath to seriously aspire to find a diksha-guru and take initiation from him.Шаблон:Sfn

While Kedarnath Datta was able to favourably influence many bhadraloks hitherto skeptical towards the Gaudiya Vaishnavism taught by Chaitanya, he felt in need of assistance.Шаблон:Sfn When his wife gave birth to a new child, Kedarnath linked the event to a divinatory dream and named his son Bimala Prasad ('"the mercy of Bimala Devi").Шаблон:Sfn The same account mentions that at his birth, the child's umbilical cord was looped around his body like a sacred brahmana thread (upavita) that left a permanent mark on the skin, as if foretelling his future role as religious leader.Шаблон:Sfn In the early 1880s, Kedarnath Datta, out of desire to foster the child's budding interest in spirituality, initiated him into harinama-japa. At the age of nine Bimala Prasad memorised the seven hundred verses of the Bhagavad Gita in Sanskrit.Шаблон:Sfn From his early childhood Bimala Prasad demonstrated a sense of strict moral behavior, a sharp intelligence, and an eidetic memory.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He gained a reputation for remembering passages from a book on a single reading, and soon learned enough to compose his own poetry in Sanskrit.Шаблон:Sfn Bhaktisiddhanta's biographers write that even up to his last days Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati could verbatim recall passages from books that he had read in his childhood, earning the epithet "living encyclopedia".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Bimala Prasad later became known as Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati.

By the end Kedarnath's tenure in Puri his family already had seven children, and his oldest daughter, Saudamani, 10, had to be married – which, according to upper-class Hindu customs, had to take place in Bengal.Шаблон:Sfn Kedarnath took a three-month privileged leave from his duties and in November 1874 went with his family to Bengal.Шаблон:Sfn

Later period (1874–1914): Writing and preaching

A group photograph of a large Indian family seated in rows around an old grey-haired man.
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After leaving Puri for Bengal, Kedarnath Datta decided to establish his growing family in Calcutta at a permanent home, which he called "Bhakti Bhavan." This afforded him more freedom for his traveling, studies and writing.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1880 Kedarnath and his wife accepted diksha (initiation) into Gaudiya Vaishnavism from Bipin Bihari Goswami (1848–1919), a descendant from one of Chaitanya's associates, Vamsivadana Thakur. This formalised Kedarnath's commitment to the Gaudiya Vaishnava sampradaya.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Later he developed a connection with the renowned Gaudiya Vaishnava ascetic Jagannatha Dasa Babaji (1776–1894), who became his principal spiritual mentor.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

In 1885 Kedarnath Datta formed the Vishva Vaishnava Raj Sabha ("Royal World Vaishnava Association") composed of leading Bengali Vaishnavas and established at his own house the Vaishnava Depository, a library and a printing press for systematically presenting Gaudiya Vaishnavism by publishing canonical devotional texts, often with his translations and commentaries, as well as his own original writing.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In his endeavors to restore the purity and influence of Gaudiya Vaishnavism,Шаблон:Sfn in 1881 Bhaktivinoda began a monthly magazine in Bengali, Sajjana-toshani ("The source of pleasure for devotees"), in which he serialised many of his books and published essays of the history and philosophy of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, along with book reviews, poetry, and novels.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In January 1886, in recognition of Kedarnath's significant role in reviving Vaishnavism through his literary and spiritual achievements, the local Gaudiya Vaishnava leaders, including his guru Bipin Bihari Goswami, conferred upon him the honorific title Bhaktivinoda; from that time on he was known as Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda, or Bhakivinoda Thakur.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

A face close-up of a marble statue of a man with wooden beads and white cloth around the neck.
Bhaktivinoda's shrine in Mayapur

On 4 October 1894, at the age of 56, Bhaktivinoda Thakur retired from government service and moved with his family to Mayapur to focus on his devotional practice, writing and preaching.Шаблон:Sfn In 1908 Bhaktivinoda formally adopted the lifestyle and practice of a babaji (Vaishnava recluse) at his house in Calcutta, absorbed in chanting the Hare Krishna mantra until his death on 23 June 1914. His remains in a silver urn were interred at his house in Surabhi-kunj.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Major works

Шаблон:See also

From 1874 till his departure in 1914 Bhaktivinoda wrote, both philosophical works in Sanskrit and English that appealed to the bhadralok intelligentsia, and devotional songs (bhajans) in simple Bengali that conveyed the same message to the masses.Шаблон:Sfn His bibliography counts over one hundred works, including his translations of canonical Gaudiya Vaishnava texts, often with his own commentaries, as well as poems, devotional song books, and essaysШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn – an achievement his biographers attribute in large part to his industrious and organised nature.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn

Krishna-samhita, published in 1879, was Bhaktivinoda's first major work.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Composed in Sanskrit and Bengali, the book was intended as a response to criticism of Krishna by Christian missionaries, Brahmo Samaj, and Westernised bhadralok for what they saw as his immoral, licentious behavior incompatible with his divine status in Hinduism.Шаблон:Sfn The critics drew upon the perceived moral lapses in Krishna's character to further their propaganda against Hinduism and Vaishnavism, challenging their very ethical foundation.Шаблон:Sfn In defense of the tenets of Vaishnavism, Bhaktivinoda's Krishna-samhita employed the same rational tools of its opponents, complete with contemporary archeological and historical data and theological thought, to establish Krishna's pastimes as transcendent (Шаблон:Transliteration) manifestations of morality.Шаблон:Sfn In particular, he applied what he termed adhunika-vada ("contemporary thinking") – his methodology of correlating the phenomenal discourse of the scripture with the observable reality.Шаблон:Sfn The book evoked an intense and polarised response, with some praising its intellectual novelty and traditionalism while others condemned it for what they saw as deviations from the orthodox Vaishnava hermeneutics.Шаблон:Sfn Bhaktivinoda recalls:

Шаблон:Blockquote

Undaunted by the criticism, Bhaktivinoda saw Krishna-samhita as an adequate presentation of the Gaudiya Vaishnava thought even for a Western mind and in 1880 sent copies of the book to leading intellectuals of Europe and America.Шаблон:Sfn Soon Bhaktivinoda received a favorable response from an eminent Sanskrit scholar in London, Reinhold Rost, and a courteous acknowledgement of the gift from Ralph Waldo Emerson.Шаблон:Sfn This became the first foray of Chaitanya's theology into the Western world.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1886 Bhaktivinoda published another important work, Chaitanya-siksamrita, which summarises the teachings of Chaitanya and includes Bhaktivinoda's own socio-religious analysis.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Along with it came his own Bengali translation of the Bhagavad Gita with commentaries by Visvanatha Chakravarti (ca.1626–1708). He also published Amnaya-sutra, Vaishnava-siddhanta-mala, Prema-pradipa, his own Sanskrit commentaries on the Chaitanya-upanisad and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's Siksastakam, and two parts of Chaitanya-caritamrita with his own commentary, entitled Amrita-pravaha-bhashya ("A commentary that showers nectar").Шаблон:Sfn Tattva-viveka, his concise masterpiece designed to awaken higher intelligence in the individual, was published in 1893.[1]

Шаблон:Multiple image In Jaiva-dharma, another key work, published in 1896,Шаблон:Sfn Bhaktivinoda employs the fictional style of a novel to create an ideal, even utopian Vaishnava realm that serves as a backdrop to philosophical and esoteric truths unfolding in a series of conversations between the book's characters and guiding their devotional transformations.Шаблон:Sfn Jaiva-dharma is considered one of the important books in the Gaudiya Vaishnava lineage of Bhaktivinoda. It has been translated into many languages and printed in thousands of copies.Шаблон:Sfn

At the request of his son Lalita Prasad, in 1896 Bhaktivinoda wrote a detailed autobiography called Svalikhita-jivani that covered 56 years of his life, from birth up until that time. Tthe work described a life full of financial struggle, health issues, internal doubts and insecurity, and introspection that gradually led him, sometimes in convoluted ways, to the deliberate and mature decision of accepting Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's teachings as his final goal.Шаблон:Sfn Bhaktivinoda did not display much concern for how this account would reflect on his status as an established Gaudiya Vaishnava spiritual leader. It is telling that he never refers to himself as feeling or displaying any special spiritual acumen, saintlihood, powers, or charisma – anything worthy of veneration.Шаблон:Sfn The honest, almost self-deprecating narrative portrays him as a genuine, exceptionally humble and modest man, serving as the best exemplar and foundation of the teaching he dedicated his later life to spreading.Шаблон:Sfn The book was published by Lalita Prasad in 1916, after Bhaktivinoda's death.Шаблон:Sfn

He edited and published over 100 books on Vaishnavism, including major theological treatises such as Krishna-samhita (1880), Chaitanya-sikshamrita (1886), Jaiva-dharma (1893), Tattva-sutra (1893), Tattva-viveka (1893), and Hari-nama-cintamani (1900). Between 1881 and 1909, Kedarnath also published a monthly journal in Bengali entitled Sajjana-toshani ("The source of pleasure for devotees"), which he used as the prime means for propagating Chaitanya's teachings among the bhadralok.Шаблон:Sfn In 1886, in recognition of his theological, philosophical and literary contributions, the local Gaudiya Vaishnava community conferred upon Kedarnath Datta the honorific title of Bhaktivinoda.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1896 another publication of Bhaktivinoda's, a book in English entitled Srimad-Gaurangalila-Smaranamangala, or Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, His life and Precepts, was sent to several academics and libraries in Canada, Britain and Australia.Шаблон:Sfn

In February 2023, a new Bengali edition of the Svalikhita-Jivani, edited by Dr. Santanu Dey, was published jointly by the Bhaktivedanta Research Center and Dey’s Publishing.[2][3][4]

Шаблон:Listen

Bhaktivinoda also contributed to the development of Vaishnava music and song in the 19th century.Шаблон:Sfn He composed many devotional songs, or bhajans, in Bengali and occasionally in Sanskrit, that were compiled into collections, such as Kalyana-kalpataru (1881), Saranagati (1893), and Gitavali (1893).Шаблон:Sfn Conveying the essence of Gaudiya Vaishnava teachings in simple language, many of his songs are to this day known Bengal and across the world.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Discovery of Chaitanya's birthplace

Шаблон:See also

A white ornate structure with a pyramidal pointed dome standing on the bank of a pond and surrounded by trees
The temple at Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's birthsite in Nabadwip established by Bhaktivinoda Thakur.

In 1886 Bhaktivinoda attempted to retire from his government service and move to Vrindavan to pursue his devotional life. However, he saw a dream in which Chaitanya ordered him to go to Nabadwip instead.Шаблон:Sfn After some difficulty, in 1887 Bhaktivinoda obtained a transfer to Krishnanagar, a district centre Шаблон:Convert away from Nabadwip, famous as the birthplace of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.Шаблон:Sfn Despite poor health, Bhaktivinoda began to regularly visit Nabadwip to research places connected with Chaitanya.Шаблон:Sfn Soon he concluded that the site purported by the local brahmanas to be Chaitanya's birthplace could not possibly be genuine.Шаблон:Sfn Determined to find the actual place but frustrated by the lack of reliable evidence and clues, one night he saw a mystical vision:Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Blockquote

Taking this as a clue, Bhaktivinoda conducted an investigation of the site by consulting old maps and matching them against scriptural and verbal accounts. He concluded that the village of Ballaldighi was formerly known as Mayapur, confirmed in Bhakti-ratnakara to be the birth site of Chaitanya.Шаблон:Sfn He soon acquired a property in Surabhi-kunj near Mayapur to oversee construction of a temple at Chaitanya's birthplace.Шаблон:Sfn For this purpose he organised, via Sajjana-tosani and special festivals, as well as personal acquaintances, a successful fundraising effort.Шаблон:Sfn Noted Bengali journalist Sisir Kumar Ghosh (1840–1911) commended Bhaktivinoda for the discovery and hailed him as "the seventh goswami" – a reference to the Six Goswamis, renowned medieval Gaudiya Vaishnava ascetics and close associates of Chaitanya who had authored many of the school's theological texts and discovered places of Krishna's pastimes in Vrindavan.Шаблон:Sfn

Nama-hatta

A two-storey pink-and-yellow building with a sign in Bengali and English
Bhaktivinoda Thakur's house at Surabhi-kunj (Mayapur) that served as the headquarters of his nama-hatta preaching.

Kedarnath started a travelling preaching program in Bengali and Orissan villages that he called nama-hatta, or "the market-place of the name [of Krishna]".Шаблон:Sfn Modelled after the circuit court system, his nama-hatta groups included kirtana parties, distribution of prasada (food offered to Krishna), and lecturers on the teachings of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, travelling from village to village as far as Vrindavan in an organised and systematic way.Шаблон:Sfn The program was a big success, widely popularising the teachings of Chaitanya among the masses as well as attracting a following of high-class patrons.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn By the beginning of the 20th century Bhaktivinoda had established over five hundred nama-hattas across Bengal.Шаблон:Sfn

Opposing Vaishnava heterodoxy

Prior to Bhaktivinoda's literary and preaching endeavours, an organised Gaudiya Vaishnava sampradaya (lineage) was virtually nonexistent, as was a single, overarching Gaudiya Vaishnava canon in a codified form. In the absence of such theological and organisational commonality, claims of affiliation with Gaudiya Vaishnavism by individuals and groups were either tenuous, superficial, or unverifiable. Bhaktivinoda Thakur attempted to restore the once strong and unified Chaitanya movement from the motley assortment of sects that it came to be towards the end of the 19th century. He chose his Sajjjana-tosani magazine as the means for this task. Through his articles dealing with the process of initiation and sadhana, through translations of Vaishnava scriptures, and through his commentaries on contemporary issues from a Vaishnava perspective, Bhaktivinoda was gradually establishing, both in the minds of his large audience and in writing,Шаблон:Efn the foundation for Gaudiya Vaishnava orthodoxy and orthopraxy, or what a Vaishnava is and isn't.Шаблон:Sfn

Gradually Bhaktivinoda directed criticism at various heterodox Vaishnava groups abounding in Bengal that he identified and termed "a-Vaishnava" (non-Vaishnava) and apasampradayas ("deviant lineages"): Aul, Baul, Saina, Darvesa, Sahajiya, smarta brahmanas, etc.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Of them, the Vaishnava spin-off groups that presented sexual promiscuity to be a spiritual practice became the target of choice for Bhaktivinoda's especially pointed attacks.Шаблон:Sfn A more tacit but nothing short of uncompromising philosophical assault was directed at the influential jati-gosais (caste goswamis) and smarta brahmanas who claimed exclusive right to conduct initiations into Gaudiya Vaishnavism on the basis of their hereditary affiliation with it and denied eligibility to do so to non-brahmana Vaishnavas. Шаблон:Sfn Bhaktivinoda's contention with them was brewing for many years until it came to a boil when he, already seriously ill, delegated his son Bhaktisiddhanta to the famous Brāhmaṇa o Vaiṣṇava (Brahmana and Vaishnava) debate that took place in 1911 in Balighai, Midnapore, and turned into Bhaktisiddhanta's and Bhaktivinoda's triumph.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Reaching out to the West

Шаблон:See also

A black-and-white title page of an English book
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, His life and Precepts, the book sent by Bhaktivinoda to the West in 1896.

Although his Krishna-samhita made it into the hands of some leading intellectuals of the West, a book in Sanskrit had very few readers there.Шаблон:Sfn Despite this obstacle, in 1882 Bhaktivinoda stated in his Sajjana-toshani magazine a coveted vision of universalism and brotherhood across borders and races:

Шаблон:Blockquote

Bhaktivinoda did not stop short of making practical efforts to implement his vision. In 1896 he published and sent to several academic addressees in the West a book entitled Gaurangalila-Smaranamangala, or Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, His life and Precepts,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn which portrayed Chaitanya Mahaprabhu as a champion of "universal brotherhood and intellectual freedom":

Шаблон:Blockquote

Bhaktivinoda adapted his message to the Western mind by borrowing popular Christian expressions such as "universal fraternity", "cultivation of the spirit", "preach", and "church" and deliberately using them in a Hindu context.Шаблон:Sfn Copies of Chaitanya, His Life and Precepts were sent to Western scholars across the British Empire, and landed, among others, in academic libraries at McGill University in Montreal, at the University of Sydney in Australia and at the Royal Asiatic Society of London. The book also made its way to prominent scholars such as Oxford Sanskritist Monier Monier-Williams and earned a favorable review in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

A black-and-white photo of a man with pen in hand looking pensively
Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati editing an article. ca.1930s

Bhaktivinoda's son, who by that time came to be known as Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati, inherited the vision of spreading the message of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in the West from his father. This inspiration was bequeathed to Bhaktisiddhanta in a letter that he received from Bhaktivinoda in 1910:

Шаблон:Blockquote

In the 1930s, the Gaudiya Math founded by Bhaktisiddhanta sent its missionaries to Europe, but remained largely unsuccessful in its Western outreach efforts, until in 1966 Bhaktisiddhanta's disciple A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami (1896–1977) founded in New York City the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Modeled after the original Gaudiya Math and emulating its emphasis on dynamic mission and spiritual practice, ISKCON popularised Chaitanya Vaishnavism on a global scale, becoming the world's leading proponent of Hindu bhakti personalism.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Legacy

In 2023 the Bhaktivedanta Research Centre established an endowment to the Department of Sociology, Presidency University, Kolkata, in honour of Bhaktivinod Thakur, who was a student of Hindu College in 1853.[5] The scholarship aims to support academic endeavors related to the study of religion within the department.[6]

An archive has been compiled containing records of Hindu/Presidency College (Now Presidency University, Kolkata), developed through collaboration with the British Library and the University of Chicago. Among the documents found in this archive is an attendance register from Hindu College bearing the name of Kedarnath Dutta.[7][8]

Bhaktivinoda wrote an autobiographical account titled Svalikhita-jivani that spanned the period from his birth in 1838 until retirement in 1894. He died in Calcutta on 23 June 1914 at age 75. His remains were interred near Mayapur, West Bengal.

Notes

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Footnotes

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References

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  1. ↑ Bhaktivinode Thankura (author), Vaishnava Foundation (translator), Tattva-viveka: Awakened Intelligence in AbsoluteTruth, 2nd ed.; Vaishnava Foundation: 2019
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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