Английская Википедия:Boring Lava Field

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The Boring Lava Field (also known as the Boring Volcanic Field) is a Plio-Pleistocene volcanic field with cinder cones, small shield volcanoes, and lava flows in the northern Willamette Valley of the U.S. state of Oregon and adjacent southwest Washington. The field got its name from the town of Boring, Oregon, located Шаблон:Convert southeast of downtown Portland. Boring lies southeast of the densest cluster of lava vents. The zone became volcanically active about 2.7Шаблон:Spacesmillion years ago, with long periods of eruptive activity interspersed with quiescence. Its last eruptions took place about 57,000 years ago at the Beacon Rock cinder cone volcano; the individual volcanic vents of the field are considered extinct, but the field itself is not.

The Boring Lava Field covers an area of about 1,500 square miles (4,000 km²), and has a total volume of Шаблон:Convert. This region sustains diverse flora and fauna within its habitat areas, which are subject to Portland's moderate climate with variable temperatures and mild precipitation. The highest elevation of the field is at Larch Mountain, which reaches a height of Шаблон:Convert.

The Portland metropolitan area, including suburbs, is one of the few places in the continental United States to have extinct volcanoes within a city's limits, and the Boring Lava Field plays an important role in local affairs, including the development of the Robertson Tunnel, recreation, and nature parks. Because of the field's proximity to densely populated areas, eruptive activity would be a threat to human life and property, but the probability for future eruptions affecting the region is very low. The field may also influence future earthquakes in the area, as intrusive rock from its historic eruptions may affect ground movement.

Geography

A hiker stands on a rock mound with snow surrounding him; forest can be seen below the mountain

A hiker atop Larch Mountain, the highest elevation in the field

The Boring Lava deposits received their name based on their proximity to the town of Boring,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which lies Шаблон:Convert southeast of downtown Portland. The term "Boring Lava" is often used to refer to the local deposits erupted by vents in the field.Шаблон:Sfn They are located in the western portion of Oregon.Шаблон:Sfn The deposits were given this name by R. Treasher in 1942.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In 2002, as geochemical and geochronological information on the Boring deposits accumulated, they were designated part of the larger Boring Lava Field.Шаблон:Sfn This grouping is somewhat informal and is based on similarities in age and lithology.Шаблон:Sfn

The Boring Lava deposits lie west of the town of Boring.Шаблон:Sfn The Global Volcanism Program lists the volcanic field's highest elevation as Шаблон:Convert,Шаблон:Sfn at Larch Mountain; most vents reach an elevation of Шаблон:Convert. Located in the Portland Basin, the field consists of monogenetic volcanic cones that appear as hills throughout the area, reaching heights of Шаблон:Convert above their surroundings. The collection includes more than 80 small volcanic edifices and lava flows in the Portland–Vancouver metropolitan area, with the possibility of more volcanic deposits buried under sedimentary rock layers. The borders for the Boring Lava Field group are clear, except on the eastern side where distinguishing between Boring deposits and those from the major Cascade arc are less clear; many geologists have arbitrarily placed the eastern border at a longitude of 122Шаблон:Spacesdegrees west.Шаблон:Sfn In total, the Boring Lava Field covers an area of about Шаблон:Convert, and it has a total volume of Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn

Physical geography

With a variable topography, the Portland area ranges from river valley floors to terraces reaching elevations of Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn The Willamette Valley is marked by hills reaching heights of more than Шаблон:Convert,Шаблон:Sfn and it is also physically separated from the lower Columbia River valley.Шаблон:Sfn The Columbia River flows west from the eastern Portland region, merging with the Willamette near Portland before moving north. Tributaries for the Willamette include the Pudding, Molalla, Tualatin, Abernethy, and Clackamas Rivers; tributaries for the Columbia River include the Washougal and Sandy Rivers.Шаблон:Sfn The Columbia River has significantly shaped the geology of the area.Шаблон:Sfn

Multnomah Creek drains from Larch Mountain, one of the volcanic cones in Boring Lava Field.Шаблон:Sfn Local streams near the community of Boring receive seepage from the local aquifer. This unit, part of the greater Troutdale sandstone aquifer, is also made of sandstone and conglomerate and bears water well.Шаблон:Sfn It also supplies water to domestic wells in the Mount Norway area.Шаблон:Sfn Boring Lava is known to have formed intrusions into local sedimentary rock, and thus it may guide flow of groundwater locally.Шаблон:Sfn

Portland's climate is moderate, with long growing seasons, moderate rainfail, mild winters, and warm, dry summer seasons. The area has more than 200 frost-free days annually. Temperature can vary widely, reaching a historic maximum of Шаблон:Convert, though the usual July maximum is below Шаблон:Convert, and the average minimum for January is above Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Yearly, precipitation averages between Шаблон:Convert in most river valleys, with a mean of Шаблон:Convert from 1871 through 1952. It shows variability, with a historic low of Шаблон:Convert at Portland in 1929 and a maximum of Шаблон:Convert in 1882.Шаблон:Sfn More than 75 percent of this precipitation occurs between October and March; July and August mark the driest months with means below Шаблон:Convert, while November, December, and January represent the wettest with averages greater than Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Prevailing winds originate from the south during winter and from the northwest during the summer season, with the exception of prevailing winds at the mouth of the Columbia River Gorge, where winds predominantly move to the east. The southern winds have the highest velocities of the three, only rarely occurring with potentially destructive force.Шаблон:Sfn

Ecology

A foot path runs through forest with shrubs and many tall trees.

Old-growth forest at Larch Mountain

The Portland area has a moderate climate, and precipitation is not typically very heavy, allowing for significant growth of vegetation, which can hamper fieldwork in the area.Шаблон:Sfn Many forests that covered the area were partly cleared for agriculture, timber, or cemetery applications in the early 20th century.Шаблон:Sfn These cleared and burned land plots sustain rich stands of secondary forest, featuring gorse, huckleberry, nettles, poison oak, salal, and blackberry. Myriad species of fern, as well as rapid-growth deciduous trees like alder and vine maple are also frequent. Forests support stands of Douglas fir, western hemlock, western redcedar, Pacific dogwood, bigleaf maple, Oregon ash, red alder, cascara buckthorn, Pacific madrone, and Oregon white oak; within swamps and moist areas in creeks, the shrub Devil's club can be observed.Шаблон:Sfn Other trees that sometimes dominate forest areas include black cottonwood and red alder.Шаблон:Sfn Forest communities have many additional shrubs including Indian plum, western hazel, and snowberry. Ground layer plants include the herbaceous sword fern and stinging nettle.Шаблон:Sfn

In contemporary times, clearing of forests for housing development has left about half of the Boring Lava region un-forested. As a result, water quality has decreased due to higher sedimentation and turbidity, and flooding has worsened over time.Шаблон:Sfn Streams within the area are of either first or second order, with moderate to low flows and average gradients between 10 and 12Шаблон:Spacespercent. Cool and clear, many sustain macroinvertebrates, and a smaller number support amphibians and fish.Шаблон:Sfn The riparian zones in the Lava Field area host diverse species, and they are influenced by uplands that serve as migration connections for birds, mammals, reptiles, and some amphibians.Шаблон:Sfn

The United States Fish and Wildlife Service provided a list of potentially threatened or endangered species in the Boring Lava area, labeling them "sensitive" species.Шаблон:Sfn Among plant species, they determined the following species to be sensitive: whitetop aster, golden Indian paintbrush, tall bugbane, pale larkspur, peacock larkspur, Willamette daisy, water howellia, Bradshaw's lomatium, Kincaid's lupine, Howell's montia, Nelson's checkermallow, and Oregon sullivantia.Шаблон:Sfn For animal and marine life, northwestern pond turtles, willow flycatchers, long-eared myotises, fringed myotises, long-legged myotises, Yuma myotises, Pacific western big-eared bats, and northern red-legged frogs have been identified as species of concern; pileated woodpeckers, bald eagles, cutthroat trout, and coho salmon are also considered sensitive.Шаблон:Sfn

History

The nearby Portland area was inhabited by the Chinook people,Шаблон:Sfn though much of the local indigenous culture is poorly understood as a result of disturbance of archeological sites and artifacts by erosion and human development.Шаблон:Sfn Oral history, limited archeological evidence, and ethnographic research inform current knowledge about local Native American communities.Шаблон:Sfn The area surrounding Portland constituted one of the most densely populated communities in the Pacific Northwest, made up predominantly of Chinook people including the Multnomah and the Clackamas.Шаблон:Sfn In 1805 and 1806, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark documented villages and encampments near what is now East Portland, trading with members of the community and describing their plank houses, language, customs, and material culture.Шаблон:Sfn Chinookian villages married amongst themselves and with members of the Tualatin tribe as well as the coastal Tillamook people. They imported slaves, traded among villages, and acted as intermediaries for the English and American fur trade. They also developed skill as craftspeople in making clothing, baskets, tools, and architecture.Шаблон:Sfn Local indigenous populations were greatly reduced after forced displacement and disease,Шаблон:Sfn but a small Native American community persists in Multnomah County.Шаблон:Sfn

The Portland area has historically been a center for trade since it was founded in 1845. With time, commerce has diversified. Iron mining and smelting was common between 1867 and 1894, with paper mills becoming established as an industry in 1885. Plants manufacturing cement and conducting aluminum reduction, and shipyards can be found in the region. Industrial chemical production represents an important industry in Portland. Most of these industries rely on resources outsourced from other areas, except for the paper industry; business is driven by low power costs and the local industrial mineral market. Other important manufacturing industries in the nearby region include food processing and logging.Шаблон:Sfn

A glass tube containing geological samples including some from Boring Lava Field is seen running along the wall of the Washington Park station platform.

A core sample showing Portland's geological history, which includes Boring Lava Field deposits, is exhibited on the Washington Park station platform.

In 1893 the Kelly Butte Natural Area was designated upon a petition from the Portland City Council. The park is public land Шаблон:Convert to the southeast of downtown Portland named after a pioneer family, covers an area of Шаблон:Convert, including part of the Boring Lava Field. Historically, it sustained a quarry, prompting the creation of the Kelly Butte Jail, which used prisoner labor (under guard supervision) to gather crushed rocks for building roads in Portland until the 1950s. In general, rocks from the Boring Lava Field have been used for masonry projects including retaining walls, garden walls, and rock gardens, especially oxidized and scoriaceous rocks.Шаблон:Sfn Despite the prevalence of quarrying activity in historical times, there is no ongoing mineral or aggregate resource mining near the Boring Lava Field.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1952, after a local vote, the Kelly Butte Civil Defense Center was built between 1955 and 1956, costing about $670,000. The center was constructed to host local government agents should a nuclear attack on Portland occur; it had an area of Шаблон:Convert, intended to host 250 people in case an emergency government became necessary. It was known throughout the United States as a model facility for local governments, and in 1957, the docudrama A Day Called X included footage of the Defense Center. The center was left obsolete after a 1963 Portland City Council vote to abolish it passed; in 1968, just one permanent employee remained. Eventually the building was converted into an emergency services dispatch center from 1974 through 1994, when it was abandoned due to rising costs for renovation and space limitations. That same year the building was vacated, and then it was sealed off in 2006. A sixty-bed isolation hospital operated at Kelly Butte from September 1920 until 1960, supporting patients with communicable disease. A Шаблон:Convert water tank stood in the area from 1968 through 2010, when it was replaced with a Шаблон:Convert underground reservoir that cost $100Шаблон:Spacesmillion, despite opposition from local environmental groups like the Friends of the Reservoirs. Historically, the park has also housed a police firing range, and Kelly Butte remains a recreational space today, administered jointly by Portland Parks and Recreation and the Portland Water Board.

In 1981, the Portland city government built a reservoir at the north end of Powell Butte (part of the Boring Lava Field), which still serves the city. In 1987, Portland government created Powell Butte Nature Park, covering Шаблон:Convert of meadows and forest within the city. Planning started in 1995 for a second water reservoir in the area, which was built between 2011 and 2014. The new reservoir is underground, buried under topsoil and native plants, and it has a volume of Шаблон:Convert. With the new reservoir came improvements to the Powell Butte park, including resurfaced and realigned trails, reduced environmental impacts, better accessibility measures, and reduction of steep grades. The government also built a visitor center, caretaker's house, public restrooms, maintenance yard, and a permeable parking area that permitted filtration of rainwater through asphalt to an underground stone bed, where it could be absorbed by the soil and then into the nearest aquifer.

Built between 1993 and 1998, the Robertson Tunnel runs for Шаблон:Convert through the Tualatin Mountains. It contains Washington Park station, the deepest train station in North America, located Шаблон:Convert underground. The station displays a core that exhibits Boring Lava deposits. For the first Шаблон:Convert of the tunnel, the core shows Boring lava flows with cinder, breccia, and loess dated from 1.47Шаблон:Spacesmillion to 120,000 years ago, which have been deformed by the Sylvan fault. With the Oatfield fault, the Sylvan fault trends to the northwest, extending Шаблон:Convert northwest and Шаблон:Convert southeast of the tunnel. It is of Quaternary age and lacks surface expression, possibly as a result of its extensive burial by loess along its length.Шаблон:Sfn

In 2000, the nonprofit Friends of Mt. Tabor Park was formed to help maintain the Mount Tabor Park area, located Шаблон:Convert east of downtown Portland. They have an organizational website and publish a bi-annual newsletter called the Tabor Times. Membership requires dues, and they also rely on donations and a gift shop for financial support.

In September 2017, the Hogan Butte Nature Park opened in the city of Gresham, encompassing an area of Шаблон:Convert that includes the extinct Boring Lava Field volcano Hogan Butte. This park opened after more than 25 years of processing, supported by a 1990 bond from the city and two regional Metro bonds. Collaborators for opening the park include the U.S. Forest Service, local citizens, Metro, The Trust for Public Land, and the Buttes Conservancy organization. Gresham is one of just a few places in the United States with volcanoes contained in its city limits. Mount Sylvania and Mount Scott lie within the limits of Portland, in the southwestern and southeastern parts of the city, respectively.Шаблон:Sfn

Geology

Graphic showing the oceanic Juan de Fuca tectonic plate advancing under the continental North American tectonic plate, with rising magma showing where volcanoes have formed as with the Boring Lava Field

Volcanism in the Boring Lava Field results from subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca tectonic plate under the North American tectonic plate.

There are 90 volcanic centersШаблон:RefШаблон:Sfn within a Шаблон:Convert radius of Troutdale and more than 32 vents within a Шаблон:Convert radius of Kelly Butte. Mostly small cinder cone vents, these volcanoes also include some larger lava domes from shield volcanoes at Mount Sylvania, Highland Butte, and Larch Mountain. The Boring Lava Field marks the densest volcanic vicinity in this group, encompassing an area of Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn It includes more than 80 known small vents and associated lava flows, with more volcanic deposits likely present under sedimentary rock deposits from the Missoula Floods (also known as the Bretz or Ice Age Floods),Шаблон:Sfn which took place between 21,000 and 15,000 years ago and probably destroyed small cinder cones (including those made from tuff) and maar craters, burying them under up to Шаблон:Convert of silt from slack water. The Global Volcanism Program reports that the field includes somewhere between 32 and 50 shield volcanoes and cinder cones, with many vents concentrated northwest of the town of Boring.

Regional setting

Considered an outlier of the Cascade Range,Шаблон:Sfn the Boring Lava Field lies about Шаблон:Convert to the west of the major Cascade crest.Шаблон:Sfn It marks one of five volcanic fields along the Quaternary Cascade arc, along with Indian Heaven, Tumalo in Oregon, the Mount Bachelor chain, and Caribou in California.Шаблон:Sfn Like the Cascade Range, the Boring field was also generated by subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca tectonic plate under the North American tectonic plate, but it has a different tectonic position, with its eruptive activity more likely related to tectonic rifting throughout the region. The Boring Lava Field has erupted material derived from hot mantle magma, and the subducting Juan de Fuca plate may be as shallow as Шаблон:Convert in depth at their location.Шаблон:Sfn

The High Cascades, a segment of the Cascade volcanic arc that includes the Boring Lava Field,Шаблон:Sfn is characterized by basaltic lava flows with andesite, tuff breccia, and volcanic ash.Шаблон:Sfn The High Cascades may lie over a graben (a depressed block of the Earth's crust bordered by parallel faults), and activity at the Boring field and throughout the Portland area may be associated with deformation of the block.Шаблон:Sfn Portland lies within the Portland Basin, part of the forearc (the region between an oceanic trench and the associated volcanic arc) between the Cascades major arc and the Pacific Coast Ranges, which consist of Eocene to Miocene marine sedimentary rock deposits and Eocene intrusions and extrusions of basalt that were emplaced on the Siletz terrane.Шаблон:Sfn The eastern boundary for the Portland Basin is the Cascades, while the Tualatin Mountains lie to the west, along an anticline formation that has been changing since the Miocene.Шаблон:Sfn The Boring Lava Field sits on the floor of the Portland Basin,Шаблон:Sfn residing in the forearc setting between tectonic extension to the south and compression to the north.Шаблон:Sfn The uneven distribution of vents within this forearc suggests a local zone of crustal expansion. Over the last 2.7Шаблон:Spacesmillion years, the volcanic field has irregularly rotated clockwise and migrated to the northwest at an average rate of Шаблон:Convert ± Шаблон:Convert per year relative to the surrounding crust. This northwest trending is consistent with other faults in the nearby area.Шаблон:Sfn The Boring Lava Field represents the youngest episode of volcanism within the Cascade forearc,Шаблон:Sfn and while there is no evidence that they were associated with a slab window (a gap that forms in a subducted oceanic plate when a mid-ocean ridge meets with a subduction zone and plate divergence at the ridge and convergence at the subduction zone continue, causing the ridge to be subducted), they likely interacted with the regional mantle wedge.Шаблон:Sfn

Composition and local setting

The Boring Lava Field shows a similar composition to the High Cascades that run through Oregon and southern Washington state,Шаблон:Sfn with Pliocene to PleistoceneШаблон:Sfn basalt lava flows and breccias.Шаблон:Sfn It was active during the late Tertiary into the early Quaternary.Шаблон:Sfn Within the field, lava shows a diverse composition overall,Шаблон:Sfn varying from low-K,Шаблон:Ref tholeiitic to high-K, calc-alkaline eruptive products.Шаблон:Sfn Some of the low-K tholeiite deposits likely originated from vents closer to the High Cascades, and they are overlain by Boring Lava materials.Шаблон:Sfn J. M. Shempert, a geologist at Portland State University, proposed that mantle sources for the two different lava types may be different and that the calc-alkaline sources are more refractory.Шаблон:RefШаблон:Sfn

Like the surrounding High Cascades, Boring Lava Field erupted lava made of olivine basalt and basaltic andesite;Шаблон:Sfn these sub-alkaline basalts and basaltic andesite predominate among Boring Lava deposits.Шаблон:Sfn The olivine basalt deposits have fine to medium textures, and the basaltic andesite lava flow deposits have relatively little pyroclastic rock in them,Шаблон:Sfn suggesting that explosive eruptions were uncommon within the field.Шаблон:Sfn Dark gray to light gray in color, Boring Lava produces columnar and platy joints, which can be seen in Oregon east of Portland and in Clark County in Washington state.Шаблон:Sfn It is usually phyric, though one sample from Rocky Butte consists of labradorite with olivine phenocrysts that have been transformed to iddingsite. The Boring Lava reaches thicknesses of more than Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Boring Lava has a more mafic (rich in magnesium in iron) composition than the nearby volcano Mount Hood, but they are similar in age.Шаблон:Sfn There is a small amount of andesite in the lavas from the field, mostly erupted from monogenetic vents or Larch Mountain.Шаблон:Sfn Sometimes, Boring Lava overlaps with volcaniclastic conglomerate from other Cascade eruptions in Multnomah County and the northern part of Clackamas County.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Boring Lava also contains tuff, cinder, and scoria; it is characterized by plagioclase laths that show a pilotaxitic texture with spaces between them that show a diktytaxitic texture.Шаблон:Sfn The Boring Lava exposures show aeromagnetic anomalies with short wavelengths and high amplitudes suggestive of their relatively young geological ages.Шаблон:Sfn

At points where the Boring Lava sits over Troutdale Formation deposits, landslides are frequent, producing steep head scarps with heights of up to Шаблон:Convert. These scarps tend to have grabens at their bases and Boring Lava blocks at their tops, and they show variable slide surfaces from hummocky to flat. A number of these exposures show dips up to 35Шаблон:Spacesdegrees, as well as minor faults. The landslides range in thickness from Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Portland's wet climate leads to weathering,Шаблон:Sfn which at the Boring Lava Field has reached depths of up to Шаблон:Convert, altering the upper Шаблон:Convert of soil to a red, clay-like material. At the cinder cone in Mount Tabor Park, an outcrop of quartzite-pebble xenoliths (rock fragments enveloped in a larger rock during the latter's development and solidification) can be observed among local cinder specimens, dating from Miocene to Pliocene Troutdale deposits. While the volcanic rock of Boring Lava was being emplaced over rock from the Troutdale formation,Шаблон:Sfn there was deformation that uplifted and dropped fault blocks to the southeast of Portland.Шаблон:Sfn Along the Washougal River, a large landslide occurred as a result of failure due to the Boring Lava pushing down on rock from the Troutdale formation.Шаблон:Sfn Intrusions of Boring Lava formed outcrops at Highland Butte, La Butte, and potentially in the subsurface regions near Aurora and Curtis, and these intrusions have been associated with normal faulting at Parrett and Petes Mountain, Aurora, Curtis, and Swan Island (along the Molalla River).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Faults together with igneous intrusions are usually accompanied by stretching and doming as a result of magma influxes or collapses from the evacuation of the magma flows.Шаблон:Sfn Similarly, faults north of Oregon City might have resulted from subsidence after magma chambers emptied or lava was extruded as a result of Boring Lava eruptions.Шаблон:Sfn Some of the Boring Lava vents cut off hydrogeologic units in the surrounding area.Шаблон:Sfn

Eruptive vents on the western edge of the field formed along a fault line that trended to the northeast, located north of present-day Carver.Шаблон:Sfn Boring Lava was erupted by vents in the volcanic field,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and it has been exposed at elevated topographic levels in intact volcanic cones and dissected lava plains. There is likely more lava deposited under Quaternary sedimentary mantle throughout the region,Шаблон:Sfn though activity was confined to a relatively concentrated area.Шаблон:Sfn

Subfeatures

Map of the Boring Lava Field with a total of 95 vents including 74 named cones, with major landmarks marked including Portland, Vancouver, and other cities as well as the Columbia River

D. E. Trimble (1963) argued that the Boring Lava Field was produced by eruptive activity at 30 volcanic centers;Шаблон:Sfn these include shield and cinder cone volcanoes.Шаблон:Sfn J. E. Allen reported 95 vents in 1975, dividing them into four clusters: 17 vents north of the Columbia River, 14 vents west of the Willamette River, 19 vents east of the Willamette River and north of Powell Valley Road, and 45 vents east of the Willamette River and south of Powell Valley Road (Highway 26). Of these, 42 were unnamed, and several volcanoes contained multiple vents. Generally, all lava flows in the field can be traced to specific vents in the field,Шаблон:Sfn but documented source vents have mostly been confirmed through chemical analysis or petrographic comparisons,Шаблон:Sfn with a few exceptions.Шаблон:Sfn

In the eastern part of the Boring cluster, volcanic vents have average diameters less than Шаблон:Convert, with average heights less than Шаблон:Convert from base to summit. The lava flows from Highland Butte and Larch Mountain, both shield volcanoes, encompass a wide area, the Boring Lava deposits averaging thicknesses of Шаблон:Convert not considering areas next to volcanic cones in the field. Most of the summit craters have been destroyed, though there are partial craters at Bobs Hill (located Шаблон:Convert northeast of Portland) and Battle Ground Lake (located Шаблон:Convert north of Portland);Шаблон:Sfn Mount Scott also has an intact summit crater.Шаблон:Sfn Many of its vents retain the shape of a volcanic cone, with loess extending above an elevation of Шаблон:Convert. The Rocky Butte plug, which reaches a height of Шаблон:Convert above its surroundings, was dated to 125,000 ± 40,000 years old by R. Evarts and B. Fleck from the United States Geological Survey (USGS). Mount Tabor is also prominent in the area, dated by the USGS to 203,000 ± 5,000 years old, as are Kelly Butte, Powell Butte, and Mount Scott. Scott has been dated to 1.6Шаблон:Spacesmillion years ago.Шаблон:Sfn

A series of lava tubes were documented near the Catlin Gabel School along the western slope of the Portland Hills. These formations, created by lava flows cooling at the surface while their hot interior kept draining, were first identified by R. J. Deacon in 1968, then analyzed by L. R. Squier in 1970;Шаблон:Sfn they were studied in greater detail by J. E. Allen and his team in 1974.Шаблон:Sfn The Catlin Gabel tubes lie among cinder cones and lava flows from the Pliocene to Pleistocene, and they are the oldest known lava tubes in Oregon, older than the Holocene.Шаблон:Sfn The tubes were produced by a small vent at the southern end of the northern segment of the field,Шаблон:Sfn extending Шаблон:Convert from its base to the south and then the west.Шаблон:Sfn They originated from the uppermost lava flow from a series of eruptions that ran into a valley on the western slope of the Portland Hills.Шаблон:Sfn The Catlin Gabel tubes have a width of Шаблон:Convert, with slopes averaging Шаблон:Convert per mile for an average grade of 3Шаблон:Spacespercent. On average, these tubes have a thickness of Шаблон:Convert near their center, with an upper lava unit thickness of Шаблон:Convert that has since been modified by erosion and the deposition of up to Шаблон:Convert of Portland Hills silt. The Catlin Gabel tubes also sit atop Шаблон:Convert of silt from the Troutdale Formation.Шаблон:Sfn Running along the tube's arc are five depressions, which were created through the collapsing roofs of the lava tubes within a subsegment that is Шаблон:Convert in length. The characteristics of the tube system are not well documented, since only the collapsed segments are accessible. Some of the channels have been reduced to rubble, and analysis has revealed that they trended northwest, had widths up to Шаблон:Convert and depths no more than Шаблон:Convert, and required special engineering procedures to permit the construction of a 15-story building above them.Шаблон:Sfn

Oregon vents

The following vents are in Oregon:

Boring Lava Field Vents in Oregon

Name	Elevation	Notes
Chamberlain Hill	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Cook's Butte	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Highland Butte	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Kelly Butte	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Larch Mountain	Шаблон:Convert
Powell Butte	Шаблон:Convert
Rocky Butte	Шаблон:Convert
Ross Mountain	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Swede Hill	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Mount Scott	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn	Named for Harvey W. Scott
Mount Sylvania	Шаблон:Convert
Mount Tabor	Шаблон:Convert
Mount Talbert	Шаблон:Convert
TV Hill	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Walker Peak	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn

Washington vents

The following vents are in Washington:

Boring Lava Field Vents in Washington

Name	Elevation	Notes
Battle Ground Lake	Шаблон:Convert
Bob's Mountain	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Bob's Mountain (N)	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Bob's Mountain (S)	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Brunner Hill	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn	2 vents
Green Mountain	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Mount Norway	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Mount Pleasant	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Mount Zion	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Nichol's Hill	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Pohl's Hill	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Prune Hill (E)	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Prune Hill (W)	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn
Tum-Tum Mountain	Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn

Eruptive history

Houses cover a forested area that sits atop Mount Scott, one of the Boring Lava Field volcanic vents.

Eruptions took place in areas that are now populated, such as this community on Mount Scott.

Eruptions at Boring Lava Field occur in a concentrated manner, often in clusters of three to six vents, as at Bobs Mountain and Portland Hills.Шаблон:Sfn These types of vents typically produced similar types of magma in relatively short periods of time, and they also frequently show alignment. Vents in the field have generally produced basalt and basaltic andesite, with some andesitic eruptions, including those that produced the Larch Mountain shield volcano.

Prior to the 1990s, there was little potassium-argon dating data available for the lava field,Шаблон:Sfn and despite the field's proximity to an urban area, little was known about its composition until recent years.Шаблон:Sfn Weathering, fine grain size, and glassy content further limit argon–argon dating for the field.Шаблон:Sfn Recent argon–argon dating suggests that eruptive activity at the Boring Lava Field began between 2.6 and 2.4Шаблон:Spacesmillion years ago, yielding far-reaching basalt lava flows, the Highland Butte shield volcano, a number of monogenetic vents, and one andesitic lava flow. These took place near the southern Portland Basin, and were followed by about 750,000 years of quiescence. About 1.6Шаблон:Spacesmillion years ago, eruptive activity resumed to the north of the previously active area, with alkalic basalt lava flowsШаблон:Sfn generating the Mount Scott shield volcano.Шаблон:Sfn As eruptions shifted to the east over time, the Larch Mountain volcano was produced by eruptions in the foothills of the Cascade Range. Activity spread out over the area, extending to its current expansive state about one million years ago. In addition to spreading out geographically, the lava composition in the field's vents became more diverse.Шаблон:Sfn This period continued until about 500,000 years ago, with no activity until about 350,000 years ago,Шаблон:Sfn after which activity continued through roughly 60,000Шаблон:Sfn to 50,000 years ago according to several sources,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn or about 120,000 years ago according to I. P. Madin (2009).Шаблон:Sfn R. Evarts and Fleck originally reported that lava flows at the Barnes Road deposit of the field represented the youngest eruptive products in the Boring area, with a radiometric dating age of 105,000 ± 6,000 years.Шаблон:Sfn These eruptions followed a relatively even age distribution over time;Шаблон:Sfn younger vents and associated deposits lie in the northern portion of the field, while older deposits are confined to the south.Шаблон:Sfn

The products of the Boring Lava Field were erupted discontinuously over an erosion surface.Шаблон:Sfn Activity took place during the late Tertiary and early Quaternary, in what is now the Portland area as well as the surrounding area, with a particularly concentrated pocket of activity to the east.Шаблон:Sfn Nearly all of these eruptions were confined to single vents or small vent complexes, with the exception of a lava plain southeast of present-day Oregon City.Шаблон:Sfn Boring Lava generally consists of flowing lava; only one eruptive deposit contains tuff, ash, and tuff breccia, and one vent to the northeast of the Carver area displayed evidence of explosive eruptions that later became effusive.Шаблон:Sfn

Recent activity and current threats

Sometime less than 100,000 years ago, magma at Battle Ground Lake in Washington state interacted with water to form the eponymous maar volcano, destroying a lava flow dated to 100,000 years ago. The last volcanic center to form in the field was Beacon Rock, a cinder cone produced by eruptions about 57,000 years ago, which was eroded by the Missoula Floods to leave only its central volcanic plug.Шаблон:Sfn While the known volcanic vents in the Boring Lava Field are extinct, the field itself is not considered extinct. The probability of future eruptions in the Portland–Vancouver metropolitan area is very low. It is rare that more than 50,000 years pass without an eruption in the region; given the past eruptive history of the field, an eruption is predicted to occur once every 15,000 years on average.Шаблон:Sfn

About half of the Boring Lava Field eruptions took place in what are today densely populated areas of the Portland–Vancouver metropolitan area. Though the formation of a small cinder cone vent might not extend far beyond its surroundings, depending on location, similar eruptions could lead to deposition of volcanic ash that could lead to serious infrastructural consequences, covering large areas. A larger eruption, like the ones that built Larch Mountain or Mount Sylvania, could span years to decades. It is unclear where exactly a future eruption might take place, but it would probably occur in the northern portion of the field.Шаблон:Sfn

Many seismic faults in the northeastern section of the northern Willamette Valley formed as a result of intrusions of Boring Lava, as supported by their orientation, lengths, displacements, age, and proximity to Boring Lava intrusions. Though intrusions from any future eruptions at the Boring field are "probably minimal",Шаблон:Sfn Boring Lava might play a role in determining the intensity of ground shaking during future earthquakes in the area.Шаблон:Sfn

Recreation

Trails in the city of Gresham travel over parts of the Boring Lava Field and its cones. Mount Tabor and Powell Butte are better known for their recreational uses than other cones; Powell Butte Nature Park has Шаблон:Convert of trails. The Mt. Tabor Park is open to bicyclists and pedestrians from 5 a.m. through midnight and to motorized vehicles from 5 a.m. through 10 p.m. each day, except for Wednesdays when the park roads are not open to automobiles. The Hogan Butte Nature Park offers views of Mount Adams, Mount Hood, Mount Rainier, and Mount St. Helens, as well as running trails and sites for picnicking.

In addition to the nature park on Hogan Butte, a number of smaller cinder cones are also publicly accessible. The Gresham Saddle Trail traverses Gresham Butte and Gabbert Butte, running for Шаблон:Convert. The trail is considered to be of moderate difficulty, and it offers no amenities. It includes the Gabbert Loop Trail, which extends for Шаблон:Convert through forests of maples, alders, ferns, and firs.

Notes

• [a] Шаблон:Note Evarts et al. (2009) list only 80 centers but acknowledge there are likely more buried vents;Шаблон:Sfn Le Corvec et al. (2013) list 88 volcanic centers at Boring Lava Field.Шаблон:Sfn
• [b] Шаблон:Note Low-K is a geological term used to describe lava with low amounts of potassium, while high-K describes lava enriched in potassium.
• [c] Шаблон:Note Refractory refers to any material that does not easily convert from liquid to gas via the process of vaporization, which includes elements and compounds made from metals.

Sources

• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite report
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite report
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite conference
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite thesis
• Шаблон:Cite report
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite report
• Шаблон:Cite report
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite report
• Шаблон:Cite report
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite thesis
• Шаблон:Cite report
• Шаблон:Cite report
• Шаблон:Cite report
• Шаблон:Cite thesis
• Шаблон:Cite book

External links

• USGS Map of Boring Lava Field