Английская Википедия:Breast tax
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Mulakkaram, literally translated as breast tax, was a poll tax imposed on women belonging to Nadar, Ezhava and other lower caste communities by the erstwhile Kingdom of Tranvancore (in present-day Kerala state of India), and was not applicable to upper caste women of Travancore.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfn[web 1][web 2]Шаблон:Refn The term "breast tax" was used to denote the gender of the person and not breasts per se.[web 3][web 4]
According to subaltern beliefs[web 5][web 6][web 3] the breast tax was imposed on lower class women if they covered their breasts.[web 5]Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn This belief has been questioned,[web 7][web 1][web 2][web 3] as lower class women "were not allowed to wear upper garments in public"Шаблон:Sfn at all until 1859.Шаблон:RefnШаблон:Refn
Head tax
The "breast tax" (Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Transl in Malayalam) was a head tax imposed on the Nadars, Ezhavars and lower caste communities by the Kingdom of Tranvancore (in present-day Kerala state of India).Шаблон:Sfn[web 1][web 2]Шаблон:Refn In 19th century Kingdom of Travancore, all persons from lower castes were expected to pay poll tax when they start to work around the age of fourteen.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn Poll tax paid by men were called talakkaram (Шаблон:Literal translation) or meeshakkaram (Шаблон:Literal translation); and the tax paid by women were called mulakkaram (Шаблон:Literal translation).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:PnШаблон:Sfn
'Breast-cover tax'
The "breast tax" caught wider attention in 2016, when BBC reporter Divya Arya reported on a series of paintings by artist Murali T on the legend of Nangeli.[web 5] The village legend of Nangeli is about a woman who lived in the early 19th century in Cherthala in the state of Travancore, and supposedly cut off her breasts in an effort to protest against the caste-based "breast tax."[web 5]Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to the legend, she cut off her breasts and presented them to the tax collector in a plantain leaf, then died of blood loss.Шаблон:Sfn[web 8]
According to local beliefs,[web 5][web 6][web 3] the "breast tax" was imposed on lower class women if they covered their breasts in public, to disencourage them from doing so.[web 5]Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn[web 6]Шаблон:Refn
These beliefs have been questioned,[web 7][web 1][web 2][web 3] as lower class women "were not allowed to wear upper garments in public"Шаблон:Sfn at all until 1859, after the Channar revolt.Шаблон:Refn Historian Manu Pillai treats the concept of "breast tax" to be a misnomer which "had nothing to do with breasts"[web 3] and notes that covering the breasts was not the norm in Kerala's matrilineal society during Nangeli's life-span. Victorian standards of morality penetrated into the society decades later under British colonial influence, which led to subsequent class-struggles for the right to wear upper-body clothing.[web 7] He believes Nangeli to have protested against an oppressive tax regime that was imposed upon all lower castes, which got appropriated with the passage of time, in pursuit of a different patriarchal fight for the preservation of female dignity.[web 7][web 1] In Jain's account, the "breast tax" is presented as a fine imposed by "Travancore's State's council of "upper" caste Nair's" to maintain caste boundaries.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn
Notes
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References
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