Английская Википедия:Breton language
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox language Breton (Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:Respell, Шаблон:IPA-fr; Шаблон:Lang-br Шаблон:IPA-br[1] or Шаблон:IPA-br in Morbihan) is a Southwestern Brittonic language of the Celtic language group spoken in Brittany, part of modern-day France. It is the only Celtic language still widely in use on the European mainland, albeit as a member of the insular branch instead of the continental grouping.[2]
Breton was brought from Great Britain to Armorica (the ancient name for the coastal region that includes the Brittany peninsula) by migrating Britons during the Early Middle Ages, making it an Insular Celtic language. Breton is most closely related to Cornish, another Southwestern Brittonic language.[3] Welsh and the extinct Cumbric, both Western Brittonic languages, are more distantly related, and the Goidelic languages (Irish, Manx, Scottish Gaelic) have a slight connection due to both of their origins being from Insular Celtic.
Having declined from more than one million speakers around 1950 to about 200,000 in the first decade of the 21st century, Breton is classified as "severely endangered" by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger.[4] However, the number of children attending bilingual classes rose 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709.[5][6]
History and status
Breton is spoken in Lower Brittany (Шаблон:Lang-br), roughly to the west of a line linking Plouha (west of Saint-Brieuc) and La Roche-Bernard (east of Vannes). It comes from a Brittonic language community that once extended from Great Britain to Armorica (present-day Brittany) and had even established a toehold in Galicia (in present-day Spain). Old Breton is attested from the 9th century.[7] It was the language of the upper classes until the 12th century, after which it became the language of commoners in Lower Brittany. The nobility, followed by the bourgeoisie, adopted French. The written language of the Duchy of Brittany was Latin, switching to French in the 15th century. There exists a limited tradition of Breton literature. Some philosophical and scientific terms in Modern Breton come from Old Breton. The recognized stages of the Breton language are: Old Breton – Шаблон:Circa to Шаблон:Circa, Middle Breton – Шаблон:Circa to Шаблон:Circa, Modern Breton – Шаблон:Circa to present.[8]
The French monarchy was not concerned with the minority languages of France, spoken by the lower classes, and required the use of French for government business as part of its policy of national unity. During the French Revolution, the government introduced policies favouring French over the regional languages, which it pejoratively referred to as Шаблон:Lang. The revolutionaries assumed that reactionary and monarchist forces preferred regional languages to try to keep the peasant masses under-informed. In 1794, Bertrand Barère submitted his "report on the Шаблон:Lang" to the Committee of Public Safety in which he said that "federalism and superstition speak Breton".[9]
Since the 19th century, under the Third, Fourth and now Fifth Republics, the French government has attempted to stamp out minority languages—including Breton—in state schools, in an effort to build a national culture. Teachers humiliated students for using their regional languages, and such practices prevailed until the late 1960s.[9]
In the early 21st century, due to the political centralization of France, the influence of the media, and the increasing mobility of people, only about 200,000 people are active speakers of Breton, a dramatic decline from more than 1 million in 1950. The majority of today's speakers are more than 60 years old, and Breton is now classified as an endangered language.[5]
At the beginning of the 20th century, half of the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton; the other half were bilingual. By 1950, there were only 100,000 monolingual Bretons, and this rapid decline has continued, with likely no monolingual speakers left today. A statistical survey in 1997 found around 300,000 speakers in Lower Brittany, of whom about 190,000 were aged 60 or older. Few 15- to 19-year-olds spoke Breton.[10] In 1993, parents were finally legally allowed to give their children Breton names.[11]
Revival efforts
In 1925, Professor Roparz Hemon founded the Breton-language review Шаблон:Lang. During its 19-year run, Шаблон:Lang tried to raise the language to the level of a great international language.[12] Its publication encouraged the creation of original literature in all genres, and proposed Breton translations of internationally recognized foreign works. In 1946, Шаблон:Lang replaced Шаблон:Lang. Other Breton-language periodicals have been published, which established a fairly large body of literature for a minority language.[13]
In 1977, Diwan schools were founded to teach Breton by immersion. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton.
The Asterix comic series has been translated into Breton. According to the comic, the Gaulish village where Asterix lives is in the Armorica peninsula, which is now Brittany. Some other popular comics have also been translated into Breton, including The Adventures of Tintin, Шаблон:Lang, Titeuf, Hägar the Horrible, Peanuts and Yakari.
Some original media are created in Breton. The sitcom, Шаблон:Lang, is in Breton.[14][15] Radio Kerne, broadcasting from Finistère, has exclusively Breton programming. Some movies (Lancelot du Lac, Shakespeare in Love, Marion du Faouet, Sezneg) and TV series (Columbo, Perry Mason) have also been translated and broadcast in Breton. Poets, singers, linguists, and writers who have written in Breton, including Yann-Ber Kallocʼh, Roparz Hemon, Anjela Duval, Xavier de Langlais, Pêr-Jakez Helias, Youenn Gwernig, Glenmor, Vefa de Saint-Pierre and Alan Stivell are now known internationally.
Today, Breton is the only living Celtic language that is not recognized by a national government as an official or regional language.
The first Breton dictionary, the Catholicon, was also the first French dictionary. Edited by Jehan Lagadec in 1464,[16] it was a trilingual work containing Breton, French and Latin. Today bilingual dictionaries have been published for Breton and languages including English, Dutch, German, Spanish and Welsh. A monolingual dictionary, Шаблон:Lang was published in 1995. The first edition contained about 10,000 words, and the second edition of 2001 contains 20,000 words.
In the early 21st century, the Шаблон:Lang ("Public Office for the Breton language") began a campaign to encourage daily use of Breton in the region by both businesses and local communes. Efforts include installing bilingual signs and posters for regional events, as well as encouraging the use of the Spilhennig to let speakers identify each other. The office also started an Internationalization and localization policy asking Google, Firefox[17] and SPIP to develop their interfaces in Breton. In 2004, the Breton Wikipedia started, which now counts more than 85,000 articles. In March 2007, the Шаблон:Lang signed a tripartite agreement with Regional Council of Brittany and Microsoft[18] for the consideration of the Breton language in Microsoft products. In October 2014, Facebook added Breton as one of its 121 languages[19] after three years of talks between the Шаблон:Lang and Facebook.
France has twice chosen to enter the Eurovision Song Contest with songs in Breton; once in 1996 in Oslo with "Шаблон:Lang" by Dan Ar Braz and the fifty piece band Héritage des Celtes, and most recently in 2022 in Turin with "Шаблон:Lang" by Alvan Morvan Rosius and vocal trio Ahez. These are two of five times France has chosen songs in one of its minority languages for the contest, the others being in 1992 (bilingual French and Antillean Creole), 1993 (bilingual French and Corsican), and 2011 (Corsican).
Geographic distribution and dialects
Breton is spoken mainly in Lower Brittany, but also in a more dispersed way in Upper Brittany (where it is spoken alongside Gallo and French), and in areas around the world that have Breton emigrants.
The four traditional dialects of Breton correspond to medieval bishoprics rather than to linguistic divisions. They are Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, of the county of Léon), Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, of Trégor), Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, of Шаблон:Lang), and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, of Vannes).[20] Шаблон:Lang was spoken up to the beginning of the 20th century in the region of Guérande and Batz-sur-Mer. There are no clear boundaries between the dialects because they form a dialect continuum, varying only slightly from one village to the next.[21] Шаблон:Lang, however, requires a little study to be intelligible with most of the other dialects.[22]
| Region | Population | Number of speakers | Percentage of speakers |
|---|---|---|---|
| Basse Bretagne | 1,300,000 | 185,000 | 14.2% |
| Centre Ouest Bretagne | 112,000 | 20,000 | 20% |
| Trégor-Goelo | 127,000 | 25,000 | 20% |
| Pays de Brest | 370,000 | 40,000 | 11% |
| Pays de Cornouaille | 320,000 | 35,000 | 11.5% |
| Pays de Lorient | 212,000 | 15,000 | 7.3% |
| Pays de Vannes | 195,000 | 11,000 | 5.5% |
| Pays de Guingamp | 76,000 | 12,000 | 17% |
| Pays de Morlaix | 126,000 | 15,000 | 12% |
| Pays de St Brieuc | 191,000 | 5,000 | 3% |
| Pays de Pontivy | 85,000 | 6,500 | 8% |
| Pays d'Auray | 85,000 | 6,500 | 7.6% |
| Haute Bretagne | 1,900,000 | 20,000 | 2% |
| Pays de Rennes | 450,000 | 7,000 | 1.5% |
| Loire-Atlantique | 1,300,000 | ||
| Pays de Nantes | 580,000 | 4,000 | 0.8% |
| TOTAL | 4,560,000 | 216,000 | 4.6% |
Official status
Nation
As noted, only French is an official language of France. Supporters of Breton and other minority languages continue to argue for their recognition, and for their place in education, public schools, and public life.[24]
Constitution
In July 2008, the legislature amended the French Constitution, adding article 75-1: Шаблон:Lang (the regional languages belong to the heritage of France).
The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which obliges signatory states to recognize minority and regional languages, was signed by France in 1999 but has not been ratified. On 27 October 2015, the Senate rejected a draft constitutional law ratifying the charter.[25]
Region
Regional and departmental authorities use Breton to a very limited extent. Some bilingual signage has also been installed, such as street name signs in Breton towns. One station of the Rennes metro system has signs in both French and Breton.
Under the French law known as Toubon, it is illegal for commercial signage to be in Breton alone. Signs must be bilingual or French only. Since commercial signage usually has limited physical space, most businesses have signs only in French.Шаблон:Citation needed
Шаблон:Lang, the Breton language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the daily use of Breton.[26] It helped to create the Шаблон:Lang campaign, to encourage enterprises, organisations and communes to promote the use of Breton, for example by installing bilingual signage or translating their websites into Breton.[27]
Education
In the late 20th century, the French government considered incorporating the independent Breton-language immersion schools (called Шаблон:Lang) into the state education system. This action was blocked by the French Constitutional Council based on the 1994 amendment to the Constitution that establishes French as the language of the republic. Therefore, no other language may be used as a language of instruction in state schools. The Toubon Law implemented the amendment, asserting that French is the language of public education.[28]
The Diwan schools were founded in Brittany in 1977 to teach Breton by immersion. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton. The schools have also gained fame from their high level of results in school exams, including those on French language and literature.[29] Breton-language schools do not receive funding from the national government, though the Brittany Region may fund them.[30]
Another teaching method is a bilingual approach by Шаблон:Lang[31] ("Two Languages") in the State schools, created in 1979. Шаблон:Lang[32] ("Awakening") was created in 1990 for bilingual education in the Catholic schools.
Statistics
In 2018, 18,337[6] pupils (about 2.00% of all pupils in Brittany) attended Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang schools, and their number has increased yearly. The goal of Jean-Yves Le Drian (president of the Regional Council) of 20,000, and of "their recognition" for "their place in education, public schools, and public life", by 2010, was not achieved, but he describes being encouraged by their progress.[33]
In 2007, some 4,500 to 5,000 adults followed such a Breton language course as an evening or correspondence one.Шаблон:Vague The transmissionШаблон:Vague of Breton in 1999 is estimated to be 3 percent.[6]
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Municipalities
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Other forms of education
In addition to bilingual education (including Breton-medium education) the region has introduced the Breton language in primary education, mainly in the department of Finistère. These "initiation" sessions are generally one to three hours per week, and consist of songs and games.
Schools in secondary education (Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang) offer some courses in Breton. In 2010, nearly 5,000 students in Brittany were reported to be taking this option.[36] Additionally, the University of Rennes 2 has a Breton language department offering courses in the language along with a master's degree in Breton and Celtic Studies.
Phonology
Vowels
Vowels in Breton may be short or long. All unstressed vowels are short; stressed vowels can be short or long (vowel lengths are not noted in usual orthographies as they are implicit in the phonology of particular dialects, and not all dialects pronounce stressed vowels as long). An emergence of a schwa sound occurs as a result of vowel neutralization in post-tonic position, among different dialects.
All vowels can also be nasalized,[37] which is noted by appending an 'n' letter after the base vowel, or by adding a combining tilde above the vowel (most commonly and easily done for a and o due to the Portuguese letters), or more commonly by non-ambiguously appending an Шаблон:Angle bracket letter after the base vowel (this depends on the orthographic variant).
| Front | Central | Back | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| unrounded | rounded | unrounded | rounded | ||
| Close | i Шаблон:IPAslink | u Шаблон:IPAslink | ou Шаблон:IPAslink | ||
| Close-mid | e Шаблон:IPAslink | eu Шаблон:IPAslink | o Шаблон:IPAslink | ||
| Open-mid | e Шаблон:IPAslink | eu Шаблон:IPAslink | o Шаблон:IPAslink | ||
| Open | a Шаблон:IPAslink | a Шаблон:IPAslink | |||
Diphthongs are Шаблон:IPA.
Consonants
| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Post- alveolar |
Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | lab. | plain | lab. | ||||||||
| Nasal | m Шаблон:IPAslink | n Шаблон:IPAslink | gn Шаблон:IPAslink | ||||||||
| Plosive | Шаблон:Small | b Шаблон:IPAslink | d Шаблон:IPAslink | g Шаблон:IPAslink | gw, gou Шаблон:IPAslink | ||||||
| Шаблон:Small | p Шаблон:IPAslink | t Шаблон:IPAslink | k Шаблон:IPAslink | kw, kou Шаблон:IPAslink | |||||||
| Fricative | Шаблон:Small | v Шаблон:IPAslink | (z, d Шаблон:IPAslink) | z, zh Шаблон:IPAslink | j Шаблон:IPAslink | cʼh Шаблон:IPAslink | |||||
| Шаблон:Small | f Шаблон:IPAslink | s Шаблон:IPAslink | ch Шаблон:IPAslink | cʼh Шаблон:IPAslink | h, zh Шаблон:IPAslink | ||||||
| Trill | r Шаблон:IPAslink | (r Шаблон:IPAslink) | |||||||||
| Approximant | Шаблон:Small | (r Шаблон:IPAslink) | y Шаблон:IPAslink | u Шаблон:IPAslink | w Шаблон:IPAslink | ||||||
| Шаблон:Small | l Шаблон:IPAslink | lh Шаблон:IPAslink | |||||||||
- The pronunciation of the letter Шаблон:Angbr varies nowadays: Шаблон:IPA is used in the French-influenced standard language and, generally speaking, in the central parts of Lower Brittany (including the south of Trégor, the west of Vannetais and virtually all parts of Cornouaille) whereas Шаблон:IPA is the common realisation in Léon and often in the Haut-Vannetais dialect of central Morbihan (in and around the city of Vannes and the Pays de Pontivy), though in rapid speech mostly a tapped Шаблон:IPA occurs. In the other regions of Trégor Шаблон:IPA or even Шаблон:IPA may be found.
- The voiced dental fricative (Шаблон:IPAslink) is a conservative realisation of the lenition (or the "spirant mutation" in cases where the phenomenon originates from the mutation of Шаблон:IPA, respectively) of the consonants Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA which is to be found in certain varieties of Haut-Vannetais. Most of the Breton dialects do not inherit the sound and thus it is mostly not orthographically fixed. The Peurunvan, for instance, uses Шаблон:Angbr for both mutations, which are regularly and more prominently pronounced Шаблон:IPA in Léonais, Cornouaillais, Trégorrois and Bas-Vannetais. In traditional literature written in the Vannetais dialect, two different graphemes are employed for representing the dental fricative, depending on the scripture's historical period. There once was a time when Шаблон:Angbr was used to transcribe the sound, but today mostly the regular Шаблон:Angbr is instead used, and this practice can be traced back to at least the end of the 17th century.[38] The area this phenomenon has been found to be evident in encompasses the towns of Pontivy and Baud and surrounding smaller villages like Cléguérec, Noyal-Pontivy, Pluméliau, St. Allouestre, St. Barthélemy, Pluvigner and also parts of Belle-Île. The only known place where the mutation occurs outside of the Vannes country is the Île de Sein, an island located off Finistère's coast. Some scholars also used Шаблон:IPA as the symbol for the sound to indicate that it was rather an "infra-dental" consonant than a clear interdental, which is the sound the symbol Шаблон:IPA is usually describes. Other linguists, however, did not draw that distinction, either because they identified the sound to actually be an interdental fricative (such as Roparz Hemon in his phonetic transcription of the dialect used in Pluméliau or Joseph Loth in his material about the dialect of Sauzon in Belle-Île) or due to the fact that they attached no importance to it and ascertained that their descriptions were not in need of a further clarification of the sound's phonetic realisation as it was a clearly distinguishable phoneme.[39][40]
- The digraph zh represents a variable sound that may exhibit as /s/, /z/, or /h/, and descends from a now-extinct sound Шаблон:IPA, which is still extant in Welsh as th.
Grammar
Nouns
Breton nouns are marked for gender and number. While Breton gender is fairly typical of gender systems across western Europe (with the exception of Basque and modern English), Breton number markers demonstrate rarer behaviors.
Gender
Breton has two genders: masculine (Шаблон:Lang) and feminine (Шаблон:Lang), having largely lost its historic neuter (Шаблон:Lang) as has also occurred in the other Celtic languages as well as across the Romance languages. Certain suffixes (-ach/-aj,[41] -(a)dur,[41] -er, -lecʼh, -our, -ti, -va[42]) are masculine, while others (-enti, -er, -ez, -ezh, -ezon, -i, -eg, -ell, and the singulative -enn) are feminine.[42] The suffix -eg can be masculine or feminine.[41]
There are certain non-determinant factors that influence gender assignment. Biological sex is applied for animate referents. Metals, time divisions (except for Шаблон:Lang "hour", Шаблон:Lang "night" and Шаблон:Lang "week") and mountains tend to be masculine, while rivers, cities and countries tend to be feminine.[41]
However, gender assignment to certain words often varies between dialects.[41]
Number
Number in Breton is primarily based on an opposition between singular and plural.[43] However, the system is full of complexities[44] in how this distinction is realized.
Although modern Breton has lost its ancestral dual number marker, relics of its use are preserved in various nouns pertaining to body parts, including the words for eyes, ears, cheeks, legs, armpits, arms, hands, knees, thighs, and wings. This is seen in a prefix (formed in Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang) that is etymologically derived from the prefixation of the number two.[43][44] The dual is no longer productive, and has merely been lexicalized in these cases rather than remaining a part of Breton grammar. The (etymologically) already dual words for eyes (Шаблон:Lang) and ears (Шаблон:Lang) can be pluralized "again" to form Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang.[43][42]
Like other Brythonic languages, Breton has a singulative suffix that is used to form singulars out of collective nouns, for which the morphologically less complex form is the plural. Thus, the singulative of the collective Шаблон:Lang "mice" is Шаблон:Lang "mouse".[43] However, Breton goes beyond Welsh in the complications of this system. Collectives can be pluralized to make forms which are different in meaning from the normal collective-- Шаблон:Lang "fish" (singular) is pluralized to Шаблон:Lang, singulativized to Шаблон:Lang, referring to a single fish out of a school of fish, and this singulative of the plural can then be pluralized again to make Шаблон:Lang "fishes".[44]
On top of this, the formation of plurals is complicated by two different pluralizing functions. The "default" plural formation is contrasted with another formation which is said to "emphasize variety or diversity" – thus two semantically different plurals can be formed out of Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang "parks" and Шаблон:Lang "various different parks".[44] Ball reports that the latter pluralizer is used only for inanimate nouns.[43] Certain formations have been lexicalized to have meanings other than that which might be predicted solely from the morphology: Шаблон:Lang "water" pluralized forms Шаблон:Lang which means not "waters" but instead "rivers", while Шаблон:Lang now has come to mean "running waters after a storm". Certain forms have lost the singular from their paradigm: Шаблон:Lang means "news" and Шаблон:Lang is not used, while Шаблон:Lang has become the regular plural,[43] 'different news items'.
Meanwhile, certain nouns can form doubly marked plurals with lexicalized meanings – Шаблон:Lang "child" is pluralized once into Шаблон:Lang "children" and then pluralized a second time to make Шаблон:Lang "groups of children".[44]
The diminutive suffix Шаблон:Lang also has the somewhat unusual property of triggering double marking of the plural: Шаблон:Lang means "little child", but the doubly pluralized Шаблон:Lang means "little children"; Шаблон:Lang boat has a singular diminutive Шаблон:Lang and a simple plural Шаблон:Lang, thus its diminutive plural is the doubly pluralized Шаблон:Lang.[44][43]
As seen elsewhere in many Celtic languages, the formation of the plural can be hard to predict, being determined by a mix of semantic, morphological and lexical factors.
The most common plural marker is Шаблон:Lang, with its variant Шаблон:Lang;[43] most nouns that use this marker are inanimates but collectives of both inanimate and animate nouns always use it as well.[43]
Most animate nouns, including trees, take a plural in Шаблон:Lang.[43] However, in some dialects the use of this affix has become rare. Various masculine nouns including occupations as well as the word Шаблон:Lang ("Englishman", plural Шаблон:Lang) take the suffix Шаблон:Lang, with a range of variants including Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang.[43]
The rare pluralizing suffixes Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are used for a few nouns. When they are appended, they also trigger a change in the vowel of the root: Шаблон:Lang triggers a vowel harmony effect whereby some or all preceding vowels are changed to Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang "cousin" → Шаблон:Lang "cousins"; Шаблон:Lang "crow" → Шаблон:Lang "crows"; Шаблон:Lang "partridge" → Шаблон:Lang "partridges"); the changes associated with Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang are less predictable.[43]
Various nouns instead form their plural merely with ablaut: Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang in the stem being changed to Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang "wing" → Шаблон:Lang "wings"; Шаблон:Lang "tooth" → Шаблон:Lang "teeth"; Шаблон:Lang "rope" → Шаблон:Lang "ropes".[43]
Another set of nouns have lexicalized plurals that bear little if any resemblance to their singulars. These include Шаблон:Lang "girl" → Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang "pig" → Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang "cow" → Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang "dog" → Шаблон:Lang.[43]
In compound nouns, the head noun, which usually comes first, is pluralized.[43]
Verbal aspect
As in other Celtic languages as well as English, a variety of verbal constructions is available to express grammatical aspect, for example: showing a distinction between progressive and habitual actions:
| Breton | Cornish | Irish | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | I am talking to my neighbour |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | I talk to my neighbour (every morning) |
Inflected prepositions
As in other modern Celtic languages, Breton pronouns are fused into preceding prepositions to produce a sort of inflected preposition. Below are some examples in Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx, along with English translations.
| Breton | Cornish | Welsh | Irish | Scottish Gaelic | Manx | English |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Interlinear | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | I have a book |
| Шаблон:Interlinear | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | you have a drink |
| Шаблон:Interlinear | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | he has a computer |
| Шаблон:Interlinear | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | she has a child |
| Шаблон:Interlinear | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | we have a car |
| Шаблон:Interlinear | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | you have a house |
| Шаблон:Interlinear | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | they have money |
Note that in the examples above the Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) use the preposition meaning at to show possession, whereas the Brittonic languages use with. The Goidelic languages, however, do use the preposition with to express "belong to" (Irish Шаблон:Lang, Scottish Шаблон:Lang, Manx Шаблон:Lang, The book belongs to me).
The Welsh examples are in literary Welsh. The order and preposition may differ slightly in colloquial Welsh (Formal Шаблон:Lang, North Wales Шаблон:Lang, South Wales Шаблон:Lang).
Initial consonant mutations
Шаблон:Main Breton has four initial consonant mutations: though modern Breton lost the nasal mutation of Welsh (but for rare words such the word "door": "dor" "an nor"), it also has a "hard" mutation, in which voiced stops become voiceless, and a "mixed" mutation, which is a mixture of hard and soft mutations.
| Unmutated consonant |
Mutations | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hard | Mixed | Soft | Aspirant | |
| m Шаблон:IPA | v Шаблон:IPA | v Шаблон:IPA | ||
| b Шаблон:IPA | p Шаблон:IPA | v Шаблон:IPA | v Шаблон:IPA | |
| p Шаблон:IPA | b Шаблон:IPA | f Шаблон:IPA | ||
| g Шаблон:IPA | k Шаблон:IPA | cʼh Шаблон:IPA | cʼh Шаблон:IPA | |
| k Шаблон:IPA | g Шаблон:IPA | cʼh Шаблон:IPA | ||
| d Шаблон:IPA | t Шаблон:IPA | t Шаблон:IPA | z Шаблон:IPA | |
| t Шаблон:IPA | d Шаблон:IPA | z Шаблон:IPA | ||
| gw Шаблон:IPA | kw Шаблон:IPA | w Шаблон:IPA | w Шаблон:IPA | |
Word order
Шаблон:Expand section Normal word order, like the other Insular Celtic languages, is at its core VSO (verb-subject-object), which is most apparent in embedded clauses. However, Breton finite verbs in main clauses are additionally subject to V2 word order in which the finite main clause verb is typically the second element in the sentence.[45] That makes it perfectly possible to put the subject or the object at the beginning of the sentence, largely depending on the focus of the speaker. The following options are possible (all with a little difference in meaning):
- the first places the verbal infinitive in initial position (as in (1)), followed by the auxiliary Шаблон:Lang 'to do'.
- the second places the Auxiliary verb Шаблон:Lang 'to be' in initial position (as in (2)), followed the Subject, and the construction Шаблон:Lang + infinitive. At the end comes the Object. This construction is an exception to verb-second.
- the third places the construction Шаблон:Lang + infinitive in the initial position (as in (3)), followed by the Auxiliary verb Шаблон:Lang, the Subject, and the Object.
- the fourth option places the Object in initial position (as in (4)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the Subject.
- the fifth, and originally least common, places the Subject in initial position (as in (5)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the Object, just like in English (SVO).
Vocabulary
Breton uses much more borrowed vocabulary than its relatives further north; by some estimates a full 40% of its core vocabulary consists of loans from French.[44]
Orthography
The first extant Breton texts, contained in the Leyde manuscript, were written at the end of the 8th century: 50 years prior to the Strasbourg Oaths, considered to be the earliest example of French. Like many medieval orthographies, Old- and Middle Breton orthography was at first not standardised, and the spelling of a particular word varied at authors' discretion. In 1499, however, the Catholicon, was published; as the first dictionary written for both French and Breton, it became a point of reference on how to transcribe the language. The orthography presented in the Catholicon was largely similar to that of French, in particular with respect to the representation of vowels, as well as the use of both the Latinate digraph Шаблон:Vr—a remnant of the sound change Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA in Latin—and Brittonic Шаблон:Vr or Шаблон:Vr to represent Шаблон:IPA before front vowels.
As phonetic and phonological differences between the dialects began to magnify, many regions, particularly the Vannes country, began to devise their own orthographies. Many of these orthographies were more closely related to the French model, albeit with some modifications. Examples of these modifications include the replacement of Old Breton -Шаблон:Vr with -Шаблон:Vr to denote word-final Шаблон:IPA (an evolution of Old Breton Шаблон:IPA in the Vannes dialect) and use of -Шаблон:Vr to denote the initial mutation of Шаблон:IPA (today this mutation is written Шаблон:Vr).[46] and thus needed another transcription.
In the 1830s Jean-François Le Gonidec created a modern phonetic system for the language.
During the early years of the 20th century, a group of writers known as Шаблон:Lang elaborated and reformed Le Gonidec's system. They made it more suitable as a super-dialectal representation of the dialects of Cornouaille, Leon and Trégor (known as from Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang in Breton). This KLT orthography was established in 1911. At the same time writers of the more divergent Vannetais dialect developed a phonetic system also based on that of Le Gonidec.
Following proposals made during the 1920s, the KLT and Vannetais orthographies were merged in 1941 to create an orthographic system to represent all four dialects. This Шаблон:Lang ("wholly unified") orthography was significant for the inclusion of the digraph Шаблон:Vr, which represents a Шаблон:IPA in Vannetais and corresponds to a Шаблон:IPA in the KLT dialects.
In 1955 François Falcʼhun and the group Emgleo Breiz proposed a new orthography. It was designed to use a set of graphemes closer to the conventions of French. This Шаблон:Lang ("University Orthography", known in Breton as Шаблон:Lang) was given official recognition by the French authorities as the "official orthography of Breton in French education." It was opposed in the region and today is used only by the magazine Шаблон:Lang and the publishing house Emgléo Breiz.
In the 1970s, a new standard orthography was devised — the Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang. This system is based on the derivation of the words.[47]
Today the majority of writers continue to use the Peurunvan orthography, and it is the version taught in most Breton-language schools.
Alphabet
Breton is written in the Latin script. Peurunvan, the most commonly used orthography, consists of the following letters:
- a, b, ch, cʼh, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, v, w, y, z
The circumflex, grave accent, trema and tilde appear on some letters. These diacritics are used in the following way:
- â, ê, î, ô, û, ù, ü, ñ
Differences between Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang
Both orthographies use the above alphabet, although Шаблон:Vr is used only in Шаблон:Lang.
Differences between the two systems are particularly noticeable in word endings. In Peurunvan, final obstruents, which are devoiced in absolute final position and voiced in sandhi before voiced sounds, are represented by a grapheme that indicates a voiceless sound. In OU they are written as voiced but represented as voiceless before suffixes: Шаблон:Lang "big", Шаблон:Lang "bigger".
In addition, Peurunvan maintains the KLT convention, which distinguishes noun/adjective pairs by nouns written with a final voiced consonant and adjectives with a voiceless one. No distinction is made in pronunciation, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "Breton language" vs. Шаблон:Lang "Breton (adj)".
| Шаблон:Lang (1975) | Шаблон:Lang (1941) | Шаблон:Lang (1956) | English gloss |
|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | rain |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | who |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | book |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | for |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | with |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | of her |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | add |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | most beautiful |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | where |
Pronunciation of the Breton alphabet
Notes:
- Шаблон:Note Vocative particle: Шаблон:Lang "O Brittany".
- Шаблон:Note Word-initially.
- Шаблон:Note Word-finally.
- Шаблон:Note Unwritten lenition of Шаблон:Vr and spirantization of Шаблон:Vr > Шаблон:Vr Шаблон:IPA.
- Шаблон:Note Unstressed Шаблон:Vr represent Шаблон:IPA in Leoneg but Шаблон:IPA in the other dialects. The realisations Шаблон:IPA appear mainly before Шаблон:Vr (also less often before Шаблон:Vr), semivowels Шаблон:IPA, consonant clusters beginning with Шаблон:Vr or Шаблон:Vr. Stressed long Шаблон:Vr represent Шаблон:IPA.
- Шаблон:Note In Gwenedeg velars are palatalized before Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr, i.e. Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr represent Шаблон:IPA. In the case of word-final Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr palatalization to Шаблон:IPA also occurs after Шаблон:Vr.
- Шаблон:Note Before a vowel other than Шаблон:Vr the digraph Шаблон:Vr is written instead of Шаблон:Vr, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "to drive", radical Шаблон:Lang, 1PS preterite Шаблон:Lang, 3PS preterite Шаблон:Lang.
- Шаблон:Note Silent in words such as Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang. Always silent in Gwenedeg and Leoneg.
- Шаблон:Note Шаблон:Vr is realized as Шаблон:IPA when it precedes or follows a vowel (or when between vowels), but in words such as Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang it represents Шаблон:IPA (in orthography Шаблон:Vr may be used: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang).
- Шаблон:Note Шаблон:Vr represents Шаблон:IPA when it follows a vowel, after a consonant it represents Шаблон:IPA. But before a vowel other than Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr is written instead of Шаблон:Vr, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "to follow", radical Шаблон:Lang, 1PS preterite Шаблон:Lang, 3PS preterite Шаблон:Lang. In some regions Шаблон:IPA may be heard instead of Шаблон:IPA.
- Шаблон:Note Word-finally after a cluster of unvoiced consonants.
- Шаблон:Note In front of Шаблон:Vr.
- Шаблон:Note The digraph Шаблон:Vr is realized like Шаблон:Vr when preceded or followed by a vowel (or when between vowels), but in words such as Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang it represents Шаблон:IPA.
- Шаблон:Note The digraph Шаблон:Vr represents plural endings. Its pronunciation varies by dialect: Шаблон:IPA rating geographically from Northwest Leon to Southeast Gwened.
- Шаблон:Note Шаблон:Vr usually represents Шаблон:IPA, but word-finally (except in word-final Шаблон:Vr) it represents Шаблон:IPA in KLT, Шаблон:IPA in Gwenedeg and Шаблон:IPA in Goëlo. The pronunciation Шаблон:IPA is retained word-finally in verbs. In words Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang it represents Шаблон:IPA in KLT, Шаблон:IPA in Gwenedeg and Шаблон:IPA in Goëlo. Word-finally following Шаблон:Vr it represents Шаблон:IPA.
- Шаблон:Note But silent in words such as Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, 'Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:LangШаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang. Шаблон:Vr is generally silent in Kerneweg, Tregerieg and Gwenedeg, but in Leoneg Шаблон:Vr is always pronounced.
- Шаблон:Note Used to distinguish words such as Шаблон:Lang "river", Шаблон:Lang "heir", Шаблон:Lang "town" (also written Шаблон:Lang) from Шаблон:Lang "sense", Шаблон:Lang "bold", Шаблон:Lang "dear".
- Шаблон:Note Used to distinguish Шаблон:Lang "circuit/tour" from Шаблон:Lang "foot".
- Шаблон:Note In northern dialects (mainly in Leoneg), there is a tendency to voice Шаблон:Vr between vowels. Шаблон:IPA also appears as the lenition of Шаблон:Vr and mixed mutation of Шаблон:Vr.
- Шаблон:Note The lenition of Шаблон:Vr and the spirantization of Шаблон:Vr are both represented by Шаблон:Vr is mainly pronounced Шаблон:IPA although in certain regions Шаблон:IPA (especially for the spirantization of Шаблон:Vr in Cornouaille) and Шаблон:IPA (in some Haut-Vannetais varieties)Шаблон:Ref also occur.
- Шаблон:Note The pronunciation of Шаблон:Vr varies by dialect, nowadays uvular Шаблон:IPA (or Шаблон:IPA) is standard; Шаблон:IPA occurs in Leoneg, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA in Tregerieg, and Шаблон:IPA in Gwenedeg.
- Шаблон:Note In Gwenedeg an unstressed Шаблон:Vr often represents Шаблон:IPA.
- Шаблон:Note Lenited varieties of Шаблон:Vr may appear word-initially in case of soft mutation.
- Шаблон:Note In Leoneg Шаблон:IPA in front of a nasal.
- Шаблон:Note In Leoneg Шаблон:Vr represents Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:Vr.
- Шаблон:Note In Leoneg Шаблон:Vr represents Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:Vr.
- Шаблон:Note In Leoneg Шаблон:Vr represents Шаблон:IPA.
- Шаблон:Note Before a vowel.
- Шаблон:Note Forms of the indefinite article.
- Шаблон:Note A conservative realisation of the initial mutation of Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr, used in certain parts of the Vannes country.
Sample texts
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
| Breton: Шаблон:Lang[48] |
English: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.[49] |
Lord's Prayer
- Hon Tad,
- cʼhwi hag a zo en Neñv,
- ra vo santelaet hocʼh anv.
- Ra zeuio ho Rouantelezh.
- Ra vo graet ho youl war an douar evel en neñv.
- Roit dimp hiziv bara hor bevañs.
- Distaolit dimp hon dleoù
- evel m'hor bo ivez distaolet d'hon dleourion.
- Ha n'hon lezit ket da vont gant an temptadur,
- met hon dieubit eus an Droug.
Words and phrases in Breton
Visitors to Brittany may encounter words and phrases (especially on signs and posters) such as the following:
| Breton | English |
|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | welcome |
| Шаблон:Lang | you're welcome |
| Шаблон:Lang | Brittany |
| Шаблон:Lang | Breton (language) |
| Шаблон:Lang, "ty" | house |
| Шаблон:Lang | town hall |
| Шаблон:Lang | town centre |
| Шаблон:Lang | all directions |
| Шаблон:Lang | school |
| Шаблон:Lang | university |
| Шаблон:Lang | pipe band (nearly) |
| Шаблон:Lang | lit. "night festival", a Шаблон:Lang or "day festival" also exists |
| Шаблон:Lang | goodbye |
| Шаблон:Lang | pancakes (a pancake = Шаблон:Lang) |
| Шаблон:Lang | cider |
| Шаблон:Lang | Breton mead |
| Шаблон:Lang | Cheers! |
| Шаблон:Lang | always at sea |
| Шаблон:Lang | rich butter and sugar cake |
Language comparison
Borrowing from Breton by other languages
The English words Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang have been borrowed from French, which took them from Breton. However, this is uncertain: for instance, Шаблон:Lang is Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang ("long stone"), Шаблон:Lang ("straight stone") (two words: noun + adjective) in Breton. Dolmen is a misconstructed word (it should be Шаблон:Lang). Some studies state[50] that these words were borrowed from Cornish. Шаблон:Lang can be directly translated from Welsh as "long stone" (which is exactly what a Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang is). The Cornish surnames Mennear, Minear and Manhire all derive from the Cornish Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang ("long stone"), as does Шаблон:Lang "settlement by the long stone".
The French word Шаблон:Lang ("to jabber in a foreign language") is derived from Breton Шаблон:Lang ("bread") and Шаблон:Lang ("wine"). The French word Шаблон:Lang ("large seagull") is derived from Breton Шаблон:Lang, which shares the same root as English "gull" (Welsh Шаблон:Lang, Cornish Шаблон:Lang).
See also
- Armoricani
- Gaelic revival, Irish language revival
- Julian Maunoir, 17th-century Breton language orthographer
- List of Celtic-language media
- Шаблон:Lang an association promoting the language
References
Notes Шаблон:Reflist
Further reading
- Overviews
- Historical development
- Hemon, Roparz. A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1975.
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Grammars and handbooks
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Favereau, Francis. Grammaire du breton contemporain. Morlaix: Skol Vreizh, 1997.
- Hemon, Roparz. Breton Grammar, 3rd edn. Trans. & rev'd by Michael Everson. Westport: Evertype, 2011.
- Шаблон:Cite book
- McKenna, Malachy. A handbook of modern spoken Breton. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1988 (repr. 2015).
- Шаблон:Cite book (repr. 2011).
- Press, Ian & Hervé Le Bihan. Colloquial Breton: the complete course for beginners. London: Routledge, 2004 (repr. 2007, 2015).
External links
Шаблон:Commons category Шаблон:InterWiki Шаблон:WikisourceWiki Шаблон:Wikiquote Шаблон:Wikibooks Шаблон:Sister project Шаблон:Wiktionary category
- Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg official website.
- Шаблон:Citation, the public Breton TV channel.
- Шаблон:Citation: an essay about the situation of the Breton language.
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation: news in Breton.
- Шаблон:Citation: Brittany information, articles about Breton.
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Шаблон:Citation.
Dictionaries
- English online dictionary and grammar for Breton
- A multilingual dictionary containing many Breton words alongside those of other languages
Learning
- Breton site including online lessons
- Audio CD, workbooks, software in English to learn Breton
- Breton site with learners' forum and lessons (mostly in French with some English)
- Jouitteau, M. Grammaire du breton, (extensive Breton grammar in French, with glossed examples and typological comparisons), IKER, CNRS, 2009 > 2017].
Bible
Шаблон:Celtic languages Шаблон:Languages of France Шаблон:Celts Шаблон:Languages of Europe
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Diamond, Jared (2012) The World Until Yesterday New York: Viking. p.399. Шаблон:Isbn
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite UNESCO Atlas
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокBroudic2009не указан текст - ↑ 6,0 6,1 6,2 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокofis-statsне указан текст - ↑ Benjamin W. Fortson IV, Indo European Language and Culture, chapter 14 paragraph 63.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 9,0 9,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Francis Favereau, "Anthologie de la littérature bretonne au XXe siècle : 1919–1944", "Tome 2 : Breiz Atao et les autres en littérature", Skol Vreizh, 2003, Шаблон:ISBN.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite AV media
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal Pdf.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Kergoat, Lukian. "Breton Dialects" in Celtic Culture, pp. 250 ff. ABC-CLIO (Sta. Barbara), 2006.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite thesis
- ↑ Шаблон:In lang Diwan FAQ, #6.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 34,0 34,1 34,2 Шаблон:In lang Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang
- ↑ 35,0 35,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 41,0 41,1 41,2 41,3 41,4 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 42,0 42,1 42,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 43,00 43,01 43,02 43,03 43,04 43,05 43,06 43,07 43,08 43,09 43,10 43,11 43,12 43,13 43,14 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 44,0 44,1 44,2 44,3 44,4 44,5 44,6 Fortson, Benjamin W. 2005. Indo-European Language and Culture. Page 295: "Breton has also borrowed much more heavily from French throughout its history than any of the other British Celtic languages ever have from English, to the extent that two-fifths of the ordinary vocabulary is of French origin, according to some extents".
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- Английская Википедия
- Страницы с неработающими файловыми ссылками
- Breton language
- Languages attested from the 9th century
- Southwestern Brittonic languages
- Brittany
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- History of Brittany
- Endangered Celtic languages
- Languages of France
- Verb–subject–object languages
- Severely endangered languages
- Страницы, где используется шаблон "Навигационная таблица/Телепорт"
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