Английская Википедия:Burmese language

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Infobox language

Шаблон:Contains special characters

Файл:WIKITONGUES- Naw speaking Burmese.webm
A Burmese speaker, recorded in Taiwan

Myanmar Language (Шаблон:Lang-my-name-MLCTS; Шаблон:IPA-my) is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken in Myanmar, where it is the official language, lingua franca, and the native language of the Bamar, the country's principal ethnic group. Burmese is also spoken by the indigenous tribes in Chittagong Hill Tracts (Rangamati, Bandarban, Khagrachari, Cox's Bazar) in Bangladesh, and in Tripura state in India. The Constitution of Myanmar officially refers to it as the Myanmar language in English,[1] though most English speakers continue to refer to the language as Burmese, after Burma—a name with co-official status that had historically been predominantly used for the country. Burmese is the most widely-spoken language in the country, where it serves as the lingua franca.Шаблон:Sfn In 2007, it was spoken as a first language by 33 million.[2] Burmese is spoken as a second language by another 10 million people, including ethnic minorities in Myanmar like the Mon and also by those in neighboring countries.[3] In 2022, the Burmese-speaking population was 38.8 million.Шаблон:Citation needed

Myanmar is a tonal, pitch-register, and syllable-timed language,Шаблон:Sfn largely monosyllabic and agglutinative with a subject–object–verb word order. It is a member of the Lolo-Burmese grouping of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The Burmese alphabet is ultimately descended from a Brahmic script, either the Kadamba or Pallava alphabets.

As far as natural language processing research dealing with interaction of computers and Burmese human-spoken language is concerned, during the period spanning more than 25 years, from 1990 to 2016, notable work has been done and annotated in the areas of Burmese language word identification, segmentation, disambiguation, collation, semantic parsing and tokenization followed by part-of-speech tagging, machine translation systems, text keying/input, text recognition and text display methods.Шаблон:Sfn The scope for further research too has been explored for areas of parallel corpus development as well as development of search engine and WordNet for the Burmese language.Шаблон:Sfn

Classification

Burmese belongs to the Southern Burmish branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages, of which Burmese is the most widely spoken of the non-Sinitic languages.Шаблон:Sfn Burmese was the fifth of the Sino-Tibetan languages to develop a writing system, after Classical Chinese, Pyu, Old Tibetan and Tangut.Шаблон:Sfn

Dialects

The majority of Burmese speakers, who live throughout the Irrawaddy River Valley, use a number of largely similar dialects, while a minority speak non-standard dialects found in the peripheral areas of the country. These dialects include:

Arakanese (Rakhine) in Rakhine State and Marma in Bangladesh are also sometimes considered dialects of Burmese and sometimes as separate languages.

Despite vocabulary and pronunciation differences, there is mutual intelligibility among Burmese dialects, as they share a common set of tones, consonant clusters, and written script. However, several Burmese dialects differ substantially from standard Burmese with respect to vocabulary, lexical particles, and rhymes.

Irrawaddy River valley

Spoken Burmese is remarkably uniform among Burmese speakers,Шаблон:Sfn particularly those living in the Irrawaddy valley, all of whom use variants of Standard Burmese. The standard dialect of Burmese (the Mandalay-Yangon dialect continuum) comes from the Irrawaddy River valley. Regional differences between speakers from Upper Burma (e.g., Mandalay dialect), called anya tha (Шаблон:Lang) and speakers from Lower Burma (e.g., Yangon dialect), called auk tha (Шаблон:Lang), largely occur in vocabulary choice, not in pronunciation. Minor lexical and pronunciation differences exist throughout the Irrawaddy River valley.Шаблон:Sfn For instance, for the term Шаблон:Lang, "food offering [to a monk]", Lower Burmese speakers use Шаблон:IPA-my instead of Шаблон:IPA-my, which is the pronunciation used in Upper Burma.

The standard dialect is represented by the Yangon dialect because of the modern city's media influence and economic clout. In the past, the Mandalay dialect represented standard Burmese. The most noticeable feature of the Mandalay dialect is its use of the first person pronoun Шаблон:Lang, kya.nau Шаблон:IPA-my by both men and women, whereas in Yangon, the said pronoun is used only by male speakers while Шаблон:Lang, kya.ma. Шаблон:IPA-my is used by female speakers. Moreover, with regard to kinship terminology, Upper Burmese speakers differentiate the maternal and paternal sides of a family, whereas Lower Burmese speakers do not.

The Mon language has also influenced subtle grammatical differences between the varieties of Burmese spoken in Lower and Upper Burma.Шаблон:Sfn In Lower Burmese varieties, the verb ပေး ('to give') is colloquially used as a permissive causative marker, like in other Southeast Asian languages, but unlike in other Tibeto-Burman languages.Шаблон:Sfn This usage is hardly used in Upper Burmese varieties, and is considered a sub-standard construct.Шаблон:Sfn

Outside the Irrawaddy basin

Шаблон:Main More distinctive non-standard varieties emerge as one moves farther away from the Irrawaddy River valley toward peripheral areas of the country. These varieties include the Yaw, Palaw, Myeik (Merguese), Tavoyan and Intha dialects. Despite substantial vocabulary and pronunciation differences, there is mutual intelligibility among most Burmese dialects. Below is a summary of lexical similarity between major Burmese dialects:[4]

Burmese Danu Intha Rakhine Taungyo
Burmese 100% 93% 95% 91% 89%
Danu 93% 100% 93% 85-94% 91%
Intha 95% 93% 100% 90% 89%
Rakhine 91% 85-94% 90% 100% 84-92%
Taungyo 89% N/A 89% 84-92% 100%
Marma N/A N/A N/A 85% N/A

Dialects in Tanintharyi Region, including Palaw, Merguese, and Tavoyan, are especially conservative in comparison to Standard Burmese. The Tavoyan and Intha dialects have preserved the Шаблон:IPA medial, which is otherwise only found in Old Burmese inscriptions. They also often reduce the intensity of the glottal stop. Beik has 250,000 speakers[5] while Tavoyan has 400,000. The grammatical constructs of Burmese dialects in Southern Myanmar show greater Mon influence than Standard Burmese.Шаблон:Sfn

The most pronounced feature of the Arakanese language of Rakhine State is its retention of the Шаблон:IPAblink sound, which has become Шаблон:IPAblink in standard Burmese. Moreover, Arakanese features a variety of vowel differences, including the merger of the Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA vowels. Hence, a word like "blood" Шаблон:Lang is pronounced Шаблон:IPA-my in standard Burmese and Шаблон:IPA-my in Arakanese.

History

The Burmese language's early forms include Old Burmese and Middle Burmese. Old Burmese dates from the 11th to the 16th century (Pagan to Ava dynasties); Middle Burmese from the 16th to the 18th century (Toungoo to early Konbaung dynasties); modern Burmese from the mid-18th century to the present. Word order, grammatical structure, and vocabulary have remained markedly stable well into Modern Burmese, with the exception of lexical content (e.g., function words).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Old Burmese

Шаблон:Main Шаблон:Further

Файл:Myazedi-Inscription-Burmese.JPG
The Myazedi inscription, dated to AD 1113, is the oldest surviving stone inscription of the Burmese language.

The earliest attested form of the Burmese language is called Old Burmese, dating to the 11th and 12th century stone inscriptions of Pagan. The earliest evidence of the Burmese alphabet is dated to 1035, while a casting made in the 18th century of an old stone inscription points to 984.Шаблон:Sfn

Owing to the linguistic prestige of Old Pyu in the Pagan Kingdom era, Old Burmese borrowed a substantial corpus of vocabulary from Pali via the Pyu language.Шаблон:Sfn These indirect borrowings can be traced back to orthographic idiosyncrasies in these loanwords, such as the Burmese word "to worship", which is spelt ပူဇော် (Шаблон:IAST) instead of ပူဇာ (Шаблон:IAST), as would be expected by the original Pali orthography.Шаблон:Sfn

Middle Burmese

Шаблон:Main The transition to Middle Burmese occurred in the 16th century.Шаблон:Sfn The transition to Middle Burmese included phonological changes (e.g. mergers of sound pairs that were distinct in Old Burmese) as well as accompanying changes in the underlying orthography.Шаблон:Sfn

From the 1500s onward, Burmese kingdoms saw substantial gains in the populace's literacy rate, which manifested itself in greater participation of laymen in scribing and composing legal and historical documents, domains that were traditionally the domain of Buddhist monks, and drove the ensuing proliferation of Burmese literature, both in terms of genres and works.Шаблон:Sfn During this period, the Burmese alphabet began employing cursive-style circular letters typically used in palm-leaf manuscripts, as opposed to the traditional square block-form letters used in earlier periods.Шаблон:Sfn The orthographic conventions used in written Burmese today can largely be traced back to Middle Burmese.

Modern Burmese

Modern Burmese emerged in the mid-18th century. By this time, male literacy in Burma stood at nearly 50%, which enabled the wide circulation of legal texts, royal chronicles, and religious texts.Шаблон:Sfn A major reason for the uniformity of the Burmese language was the near-universal presence of Buddhist monasteries (called kyaung) in Burmese villages. These kyaung served as the foundation of the pre-colonial monastic education system, which fostered uniformity of the language throughout the Upper Irrawaddy valley, the traditional homeland of Burmese speakers. The 1891 Census of India, conducted five years after the annexation of the entire Konbaung Kingdom, found that the former kingdom had an "unusually high male literacy" rate of 62.5% for Upper Burmans aged 25 and above. For all of British Burma, the literacy rate was 49% for men and 5.5% for women (by contrast, British India more broadly had a male literacy rate of 8.44%).Шаблон:Sfn

The expansion of the Burmese language into Lower Burma also coincided with the emergence of Modern Burmese. As late as the mid-1700s, Mon, an Austroasiatic language, was the principal language of Lower Burma, employed by the Mon people who inhabited the region. Lower Burma's shift from Mon to Burmese was accelerated by the Burmese-speaking Konbaung Dynasty's victory over the Mon-speaking Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom in 1757. By 1830, an estimated 90% of the population in Lower Burma self-identified as Burmese-speaking Bamars; huge swaths of former Mon-speaking territory, from the Irrawaddy Delta to upriver in the north, spanning Bassein (now Pathein) and Rangoon (now Yangon) to Tharrawaddy, Toungoo, Prome (now Pyay), and Henzada (now Hinthada), were now Burmese-speaking.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The language shift has been ascribed to a combination of population displacement, intermarriage, and voluntary changes in self-identification among increasingly Mon–Burmese bilingual populations in the region.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Standardized tone marking in written Burmese was not achieved until the 18th century. From the 19th century onward, orthographers created spellers to reform Burmese spelling, because of ambiguities that arose over transcribing sounds that had been merged.Шаблон:Sfn British rule saw continued efforts to standardize Burmese spelling through dictionaries and spellers.

Britain's gradual annexation of Burma throughout the 19th century, in addition to concomitant economic and political instability in Upper Burma (e.g., increased tax burdens from the Burmese crown, British rice production incentives, etc.) also accelerated the migration of Burmese speakers from Upper Burma into Lower Burma.Шаблон:Sfn British rule in Burma eroded the strategic and economic importance of the Burmese language; Burmese was effectively subordinated to the English language in the colonial educational system, especially in higher education.Шаблон:Sfn

In the 1930s, the Burmese language saw a linguistic revival, precipitated by the establishment of an independent University of Rangoon in 1920 and the inception of a Burmese language major at the university by Pe Maung Tin, modeled on Anglo Saxon language studies at the University of Oxford.Шаблон:Sfn Student protests in December of that year, triggered by the introduction of English into matriculation examinations, fueled growing demand for Burmese to become the medium of education in British Burma; a short-lived but symbolic parallel system of "national schools" that taught in Burmese, was subsequently launched.Шаблон:Sfn The role and prominence of the Burmese language in public life and institutions was championed by Burmese nationalists, intertwined with their demands for greater autonomy and independence from the British in the lead-up to the independence of Burma in 1948.Шаблон:Sfn

The 1948 Constitution of Burma prescribed Burmese as the official language of the newly independent nation. The Burma Translation Society and Rangoon University's Department of Translation and Publication were established in 1947 and 1948, respectively, with the joint goal of modernizing the Burmese language in order to replace English across all disciplines.Шаблон:Sfn Anti-colonial sentiment throughout the early post-independence era led to a reactionary switch from English to Burmese as the national medium of education, a process that was accelerated by the Burmese Way to Socialism.Шаблон:Sfn In August 1963, the socialist Union Revolutionary Government established the Literary and Translation Commission (the immediate precursor of the Myanmar Language Commission) to standardize Burmese spelling, diction, composition, and terminology. The latest spelling authority, named the Myanma Salonpaung Thatpon Kyan (Шаблон:Lang), was compiled in 1978 by the commission.Шаблон:Sfn

Registers

Burmese is a diglossic language with two distinguishable registers (or diglossic varieties):Шаблон:Sfn

  1. Literary High (H) formШаблон:Sfn (Шаблон:Lang mranma ca): the high variety (formal and written), used in literature (formal writing), newspapers, radio broadcasts, and formal speeches
  2. Spoken Low (L) formШаблон:Sfn (Шаблон:Lang mranma ca.ka:): the low variety (informal and spoken), used in daily conversation, television, comics and literature (informal writing)

The literary form of Burmese retains archaic and conservative grammatical structures and modifiers (including affixes and pronouns) no longer used in the colloquial form.Шаблон:Sfn Literary Burmese, which has not changed significantly since the 13th century, is the register of Burmese taught in schools.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In most cases, the corresponding affixes in the literary and spoken forms are totally unrelated to each other.Шаблон:Sfn Examples of this phenomenon include the following lexical terms:

Historically the literary register was preferred for written Burmese on the grounds that "the spoken style lacks gravity, authority, dignity". In the mid-1960s, some Burmese writers spearheaded efforts to abandon the literary form, asserting that the spoken vernacular form ought to be used.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Some Burmese linguists such as Minn Latt, a Czech academic, proposed moving away from the high form of Burmese altogether.Шаблон:Sfn Although the literary form is heavily used in written and official contexts (literary and scholarly works, radio news broadcasts, and novels), the recent trend has been to accommodate the spoken form in informal written contexts.Шаблон:Sfn Nowadays, television news broadcasts, comics, and commercial publications use the spoken form or a combination of the spoken and simpler, less ornate formal forms.Шаблон:Sfn

The following sample sentence reveals that differences between literary and spoken Burmese mostly occur in affixes:

"When the 8888 Uprising occurred, approximately 3,000 people died."
noun verb Affix noun Affix adj. Affix verb Affix Affix part.
Literary
Шаблон:Small 		Шаблон:Lang
hracle:lum:a.re:a.hkang:		 Шаблон:Lang
hprac		 Шаблон:Lang
sau:a.hkaka.		 Шаблон:Lang
lu		 Шаблон:Lang
u:re		 Шаблон:Lang
3000		 Шаблон:Lang
hmya.		 Шаблон:Lang
sehcum:		 Шаблон:Lang
hkai.		 Шаблон:Lang
kra.		 Шаблон:Lang
sany
Spoken
Шаблон:Small 		Шаблон:Lang
tum:ka.		 Шаблон:Lang
a.yauk		 Шаблон:Lang
lauk		 Шаблон:Lang
se		 - Шаблон:Lang
tai
Gloss The Four Eights Uprising happen when people measure word 3,000 approximately die past tense plural marker sentence final

Burmese has politeness levels and honorifics that take the speaker's status and age in relation to the audience into account. The suffix Шаблон:Lang pa is frequently used after a verb to express politeness.Шаблон:Sfn Moreover, Burmese pronouns relay varying degrees of deference or respect.Шаблон:Sfn In many instances, polite speech (e.g., addressing teachers, officials, or elders) employs feudal-era third person pronouns or kinship terms in lieu of first- and second-person pronouns.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Furthermore, with regard to vocabulary choice, spoken Burmese clearly distinguishes the Buddhist clergy (monks) from the laity (householders), especially when speaking to or about bhikkhus (monks).Шаблон:Sfn The following are examples of varying vocabulary used for Buddhist clergy and for laity:

Vocabulary

Burmese primarily has a monosyllabic received Sino-Tibetan vocabulary. Nonetheless, many words, especially loanwords from Indo-European languages like English, are polysyllabic, and others, from Mon, an Austroasiatic language, are sesquisyllabic.Шаблон:Sfn Burmese loanwords are overwhelmingly in the form of nouns.Шаблон:Sfn

Historically, Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, had a profound influence on Burmese vocabulary. Burmese has readily adopted words of Pali origin; this may be due to phonotactic similarities between the two languages, alongside the fact that the script used for Burmese can be used to reproduce Pali spellings with complete accuracy.Шаблон:Sfn Pali loanwords are often related to religion, government, arts, and science.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Primary source inline

Burmese loanwords from Pali primarily take four forms:

  1. Direct loan: direct import of Pali words with no alteration in orthography
  2. Abbreviated loan: import of Pali words with accompanied syllable reduction and alteration in orthography (usually by means of a placing a diacritic, called athat Шаблон:Lang (lit. 'nonexistence') atop the last letter in the syllable to suppress the consonant's inherent vowelШаблон:Sfn
  3. Double loan: adoption of two different terms derived from the same Pali wordШаблон:Sfn
  4. Hybrid loan (e.g., neologisms or calques): construction of compounds combining native Burmese words with Pali or combine Pali words:Шаблон:Sfn

Burmese has also adapted numerous words from Mon, traditionally spoken by the Mon people, who until recently formed the majority in Lower Burma. Most Mon loanwords are so well assimilated that they are not distinguished as loanwords, as Burmese and Mon were used interchangeably for several centuries in pre-colonial Burma.Шаблон:Sfn Mon loans are often related to flora, fauna, administration, textiles, foods, boats, crafts, architecture, and music.Шаблон:Sfn

As a natural consequence of British rule in Burma, English has been another major source of vocabulary, especially with regard to technology, measurements, and modern institutions. English loanwords tend to take one of three forms:

  1. Direct loan: adoption of an English word, adapted to the Burmese phonologyШаблон:Sfn
  2. Neologism or calque: translation of an English word using native Burmese constituent wordsШаблон:Sfn
  3. Hybrid loan: construction of compound words by joining native Burmese words to English wordsШаблон:Sfn

To a lesser extent, Burmese has also imported words from Sanskrit (religion), Hindi (food, administration, and shipping), and Chinese (games and food).Шаблон:Sfn Burmese has also imported a handful of words from other European languages such as Portuguese.

Here is a sample of loan words found in Burmese:

Since the end of British rule, the Burmese government has attempted to limit usage of Western loans (especially from English) by coining new words (neologisms). For instance, for the word "television", Burmese publications are mandated to use the term Шаблон:Lang (lit. 'see picture, hear sound') in lieu of Шаблон:Lang, a direct English transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn Another example is the word "vehicle", which is officially Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (derived from Pali) but Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (from English car) in spoken Burmese. Some previously common English loanwords have fallen out of use with the adoption of neologisms. An example is the word "university", formerly Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, from English university, now Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, a Pali-derived neologism recently created by the Burmese government and derived from the Pali spelling of Taxila (Шаблон:Lang Takkasīla), an ancient university town in modern-day Pakistan.Шаблон:Sfn

Some words in Burmese may have many synonyms, each having certain usages, such as formal, literary, colloquial, and poetic. One example is the word "moon", which can be Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (native Tibeto-Burman), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (derivatives of Pali canda 'moon'), or Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (Sanskrit).Шаблон:Sfn

Phonology

Шаблон:Main

Consonants

The consonants of Burmese are as follows:

Consonant phonemesШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Post-al./
Palatal 		Velar Laryngeal
Nasal Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Stop/
Affricate 		Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Fricative Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPAlink ([[[:Шаблон:IPAlink]]~Шаблон:IPAlink]) Шаблон:IPAlink
Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPAlink ([[[:Шаблон:IPAlink]]~Шаблон:IPAlink]) Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Approximant Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink

According to Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, contrary to their use of symbols θ and ð, consonants of Шаблон:Lang are dental stops (Шаблон:IPA), rather than fricatives (Шаблон:IPA) or affricates.Шаблон:Sfn

An alveolar Шаблон:IPA can occur as an alternate of Шаблон:IPA in some loanwords.

The final nasal Шаблон:IPA is the value of the four native final nasals: Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA, as well as the retroflex Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA (used in Pali loans) and nasalisation mark anusvara demonstrated here above ka (က → ကံ) which most often stands in for a homorganic nasal word medially as in တံခါး tankhá ('door', and တံတား tantá ('bridge') or else replaces final -m Шаблон:Angbr in both Pali and native vocabulary, especially after the OB vowel *u e.g. ငံ ngam ('salty'), သုံး thóum ('three; use'), and ဆုံး sóum ('end'). It does not, however, apply to Шаблон:Angbr which is never realised as a nasal, but rather as an open front vowel Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA. The final nasal is usually realised as nasalisation of the vowel. It may also allophonically appear as a homorganic nasal before stops. For example, in Шаблон:IPA ('storm'), which is pronounced Шаблон:IPA.

Vowels

The vowels of Burmese are:

Vowel phonemes
Monophthongs Diphthongs
Front Central Back Front offglide Back offglide
Close Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Close-mid Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Open-mid Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Open Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA

The monophthongs Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA occur only in open syllables (those without a syllable coda); the diphthongs Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA occur only in closed syllables (those with a syllable coda). Шаблон:IPA only occurs in a minor syllable, and is the only vowel that is permitted in a minor syllable (see below).

The close vowels Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA and the close portions of the diphthongs are somewhat mid-centralized (Шаблон:IPA) in closed syllables, i.e. before Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. Thus Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('two') is phonetically Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('cat') is phonetically Шаблон:IPA.

Tones

Burmese is a tonal language, which means phonemic contrasts can be made on the basis of the tone of a vowel. In Burmese, these contrasts involve not only pitch, but also phonation, intensity (loudness), duration, and vowel quality. However, some linguists consider Burmese a pitch-register language like Shanghainese.Шаблон:Sfn

There are four contrastive tones in Burmese. In the following table, the tones are shown marked on the vowel Шаблон:IPA as an example.

Tone Burmese IPA
(shown on a)		 Symbol
(shown on a)		 Phonation Duration Intensity Pitch
Low Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA modal medium low low, often slightly risingШаблон:Sfn
High Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA sometimes slightly breathy long high high, often with a fall before a pauseШаблон:Sfn
Creaky Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA tense or creaky, sometimes with lax glottal stop medium high high, often slightly fallingШаблон:Sfn
Checked Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA centralized vowel quality, final glottal stop short high high (in citation; can vary in context)Шаблон:Sfn

For example, the following words are distinguished from each other only on the basis of tone:

In syllables ending with Шаблон:IPA, the checked tone is excluded:

In spoken Burmese, some linguists classify two real tones (there are four nominal tones transcribed in written Burmese), "high" (applied to words that terminate with a stop or check, high-rising pitch) and "ordinary" (unchecked and non-glottal words, with falling or lower pitch), with those tones encompassing a variety of pitches.Шаблон:Sfn The "ordinary" tone consists of a range of pitches. Linguist L. F. Taylor concluded that "conversational rhythm and euphonic intonation possess importance" not found in related tonal languages and that "its tonal system is now in an advanced state of decay."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Syllable structure

The syllable structure of Burmese is C(G)V((V)C), which is to say the onset consists of a consonant optionally followed by a glide, and the rime consists of a monophthong alone, a monophthong with a consonant, or a diphthong with a consonant. The only consonants that can stand in the coda are Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. Some representative words are:

A minor syllable has some restrictions:

  • It contains Шаблон:IPA as its only vowel
  • It must be an open syllable (no coda consonant)
  • It cannot bear tone
  • It has only a simple (C) onset (no glide after the consonant)
  • It must not be the final syllable of the word

Some examples of words containing minor syllables:

Writing system

Шаблон:Main

Файл:Vendeurs de plantes médicinales vers Kyaiktiyo Paya.jpg
Sampling of various Burmese script styles

The Burmese alphabet consists of 33 letters and 12 vowels and is written from left to right. It requires no spaces between words, although modern writing usually contains spaces after each clause to enhance readability. Characterized by its circular letters and diacritics, the script is an abugida, with all letters having an inherent vowel Шаблон:Lang a. Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA. The consonants are arranged into six consonant groups (called Шаблон:Lang) based on articulation, like other Brahmi scripts. Tone markings and vowel modifications are written as diacritics placed to the left, right, top, and bottom of letters.Шаблон:Sfn

Orthographic changes subsequent to shifts in phonology (such as the merging of the Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA medials) rather than transformations in Burmese grammatical structure and phonology, which by contrast, has remained stable between Old Burmese and modern Burmese.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Clarify For example, during the Pagan era, the medial Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang was transcribed in writing, which has been replaced by medials Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang in modern Burmese (e.g. "school" in old Burmese Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA in modern Burmese).Шаблон:Sfn Likewise, written Burmese has preserved all nasalized finals Шаблон:IPA, which have merged to Шаблон:IPA in spoken Burmese. (The exception is Шаблон:IPA, which, in spoken Burmese, can be one of many open vowels Шаблон:IPA.) Similarly, other consonantal finals Шаблон:IPA have been reduced to Шаблон:IPA. Similar mergers are seen in other Sino-Tibetan languages like Shanghainese, and to a lesser extent, Cantonese.

Written Burmese dates to the early Pagan period. Burmese orthography originally followed a square block format, but the cursive format took hold from the 17th century when increased literacy and the resulting explosion of Burmese literature led to the wider use of palm leaves and folded paper known as parabaiks (Шаблон:Lang).Шаблон:Sfn

Grammar

The basic word order of the Burmese language is subject-object-verb. Pronouns in Burmese vary according to the gender and status of the audience, although pronouns are often omitted. Affixes are used to convey information. Verbs are almost always suffixed and nouns declined.

Case affixes

Burmese is an agglutinative language with an extensive case system in which nouns are suffixed to determine their syntactic function in a sentence or clause. Sometimes the case markers are different between the two registers.[6]

The case markers are:

High register Low register
Subject thi (သည်), ká (က), hma (မှာ) ha (ဟာ), ká (က)
Object ko (ကို) ko (ကို)
Recipient à (အား)
Allative thó (သို့)
Ablative hmá (မှ), ká (က) ká (က)
Locative hnai (၌), hma (မှာ), twin (တွင်) hma (မှာ)
Comitative hnín (နှင့်) né (နဲ့)
Instrumental hpyin (ဖြင့်), hnin (နှင့်)
Possessive í (၏) yé (ရဲ့)

Adjectives

Burmese does not have adjectives per se. Rather, it has verbs that carry the meaning "to be X", where X is an English adjective. These verbs can modify a noun by means of the suffix Шаблон:Lang tai. Шаблон:IPA in colloquial Burmese (literary form: Шаблон:Lang sau: Шаблон:IPA), which is suffixed as follows:

Colloquial: Шаблон:Lang hkyau: tai. lu Шаблон:IPA
Formal: Шаблон:Lang hkyau: so: lu
Gloss: "beautiful" + adjective particle + 'person'

Adjectives may also form a compound with the noun (e.g. Шаблон:Lang lu hkyau: Шаблон:IPA 'person' + 'be beautiful').

Comparatives are usually ordered: X + Шаблон:Lang htak pui Шаблон:IPA + adjective, where X is the object being compared to. Superlatives are indicated with the prefix Шаблон:Lang a. Шаблон:IPA + adjective + Шаблон:Lang hcum: Шаблон:IPA.

Verbs

The roots of Burmese verbs almost always have affixes which convey information like tense, aspect, intention, politeness, mood, etc. Many of these affixes also have formal/literary and colloquial equivalents. In fact, the only time in which no suffix is attached to a verb is in imperative commands.

The most commonly used verb affixes and their usage are shown below with an example verb root Шаблон:Lang ca: Шаблон:IPA ('to eat'). Alone, the statement Шаблон:Lang is imperative.

The affix Шаблон:Lang tai Шаблон:IPA (literary form: Шаблон:Lang sany Шаблон:IPA) can be viewed as an affix marking the present tense and/or a factual statement:

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

The affix Шаблон:Lang hkai. Шаблон:IPA denotes that the action took place in the past. However, this affix is not always necessary to indicate the past tense such that it can convey the same information without it. But to emphasize that the action happened before another event that is also currently being discussed, the affix becomes imperative. The affix Шаблон:Lang tai Шаблон:IPA in this case denotes a factual statement rather than the present tense:

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

The affix Шаблон:Lang ne Шаблон:IPA is used to denote an action in progression. It is equivalent to the English '-ing'.

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

This affix Шаблон:Lang pri Шаблон:IPA, which is used when an action that had been expected to be performed by the subject is now finally being performed, has no equivalent in English. So in the above example, if someone had been expecting the subject to eat, and the subject has finally started eating, the affix Шаблон:Lang is used as follows:

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

The affix Шаблон:Lang mai Шаблон:IPA (literary form: Шаблон:Lang many Шаблон:IPA) is used to indicate the future tense or an action which is yet to be performed:

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

The affix Шаблон:Lang tau. Шаблон:IPA is used when the action is about to be performed immediately when used in conjunction with Шаблон:Lang. Therefore, it could be termed as the "immediate future tense suffix".

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

When Шаблон:Lang is used alone, however, it is imperative:

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

Verbs are negated by the prefix Шаблон:Lang ma. Шаблон:IPA. Generally speaking, there are other suffixes on verb, along with Шаблон:Lang.

The verb suffix Шаблон:Lang nai. Шаблон:IPA (literary form: Шаблон:Lang hnang. Шаблон:IPA) indicates a command:

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

The verb suffix Шаблон:Lang bhu: Шаблон:IPA indicates a statement:

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

Nouns

Nouns in Burmese are pluralized by suffixing Шаблон:Lang twe Шаблон:IPA (or Шаблон:IPA if the word ends in a glottal stop) in colloquial Burmese or Шаблон:Lang mya: Шаблон:IPA in formal Burmese. The suffix Шаблон:Lang tou. Шаблон:IPA, which indicates a group of persons or things, is also suffixed to the modified noun. An example is below:

Plural suffixes are not used when the noun is quantified with a number.

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

Although Burmese does not have grammatical gender (e.g. masculine or feminine nouns), a distinction is made between the sexes, especially in animals and plants, by means of suffix particles. Nouns are masculinized with the following suffixes: Шаблон:Lang hti: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang hpa Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:Lang hpui Шаблон:IPA, depending on the noun, and feminized with the suffix Шаблон:Lang ma. Шаблон:IPA. Examples of usage are below:

Numerical classifiers

Шаблон:Main Like its neighboring languages such as Thai, Bengali, and Chinese, Burmese uses numerical classifiers (also called measure words) when nouns are counted or quantified. This approximately equates to English expressions such as "two slices of bread" or "a cup of coffee". Classifiers are required when counting nouns, so Шаблон:Lang hka.le: nga: Шаблон:IPA (lit. 'child five') is incorrect, since the measure word for people Шаблон:Lang yauk Шаблон:IPA is missing; it needs to suffix the numeral.

The standard word order of quantified words is: quantified noun + numeral adjective + classifier, except in round numbers (numbers that end in zero), in which the word order is flipped, where the quantified noun precedes the classifier: quantified noun + classifier + numeral adjective. The only exception to this rule is the number 10, which follows the standard word order.

Measurements of time, such as "hour", Шаблон:Lang "day", Шаблон:Lang or "month", Шаблон:Lang do not require classifiers.

Below are some of the most commonly used classifiers in Burmese.

Burmese MLC IPA Usage Remarks
Шаблон:Lang yauk Шаблон:IPA for people Used in informal context
Шаблон:Lang u: Шаблон:IPA for people Used in formal context and also used for monks and nuns
Шаблон:Lang pa: Шаблон:IPA for people Used exclusively for monks and nuns of the Buddhist order
Шаблон:Lang kaung Шаблон:IPA for animals
Шаблон:Lang hku. Шаблон:IPA general classifier Used with almost all nouns except for animate objects
Шаблон:Lang lum: Шаблон:IPA for round objects
Шаблон:Lang pra: Шаблон:IPA for flat objects
Шаблон:Lang cu. Шаблон:IPA for groups Can be Шаблон:IPA.

Affixes

The Burmese language makes prominent usage of affixes (called Шаблон:Lang in Burmese), which are untranslatable words that are suffixed or prefixed to words to indicate tense, aspect, case, formality etc. For example, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA is a suffix used to indicate the imperative mood. While Шаблон:Lang ('work' + suffix indicating politeness) does not indicate the imperative, Шаблон:Lang ('work' + suffix indicating imperative mood + suffix indicating politeness) does. Affixes are often stacked next to each other

Some affixes modify the word's part of speech. Among the most prominent of these is the prefix Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, which is prefixed to verbs and adjectives to form nouns or adverbs. For instance, the word Шаблон:Lang means "to enter", but combined with Шаблон:Lang, it means "entrance" Шаблон:Lang. Moreover, in colloquial Burmese, there is a tendency to omit the second Шаблон:Lang in words that follow the pattern Шаблон:Lang + noun/adverb + Шаблон:Lang + noun/adverb, like Шаблон:Lang, which is pronounced Шаблон:IPA and formally pronounced Шаблон:IPA.

Pronouns

Шаблон:Main Subject pronouns begin sentences, though the subject is generally omitted in the imperative forms and in conversation. Grammatically speaking, subject markers (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA in colloquial, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA in formal) must be attached to the subject pronoun, although they are also generally omitted in conversation. Object pronouns must have an object marker (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA in colloquial, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA in formal) attached immediately after the pronoun. Proper nouns are often substituted for pronouns. One's status in relation to the audience determines the pronouns used, with certain pronouns used for different audiences.

Polite pronouns are used to address elders, teachers, and strangers, through the use of feudal-era third person pronouns in lieu of first- and second-person pronouns. In such situations, one refers to oneself in third person: Шаблон:Lang kya. nau Шаблон:IPA for men and Шаблон:Lang kya. ma. Шаблон:IPA for women, both meaning "your servant", and refer to the addressee as Шаблон:Lang min Шаблон:IPA ('your highness'), Шаблон:Lang khang bya: Шаблон:IPA ('master, lord') (Шаблон:Etymology) or Шаблон:Lang hrang Шаблон:IPA "ruler/master".Шаблон:Sfn So ingrained are these terms in the daily polite speech that people use them as the first and second person pronouns without giving a second thought to the root meaning of these pronouns.

When speaking to a person of the same status or of younger age, Шаблон:Lang nga Шаблон:IPA ('I/me') and Шаблон:Lang nang Шаблон:IPA ('you') may be used, although most speakers choose to use third person pronouns.Шаблон:Sfn For example, an older person may use Шаблон:Lang dau le: Шаблон:IPA ('aunt') or Шаблон:Lang u: lei: Шаблон:IPA ('uncle') to refer to himself, while a younger person may use either Шаблон:Lang sa: Шаблон:IPA ('son') or Шаблон:Lang sa.mi: Шаблон:IPA ('daughter').

The basic pronouns are:

Person Singular Plural*
Informal Formal Informal Formal
First person Шаблон:Lang
nga
Шаблон:IPA 		Шаблон:Lang‡
kywan to
Шаблон:IPA

Шаблон:Lang†
kywan ma.
Шаблон:IPA 		Шаблон:Lang
nga tui.
Шаблон:IPA 		Шаблон:Lang‡
kywan to tui.
Шаблон:IPA

Шаблон:Lang†
kywan ma. tui.
Шаблон:IPA
Second person Шаблон:Lang
nang
Шаблон:IPA

Шаблон:Lang
mang:
Шаблон:IPA 		Шаблон:Lang‡
khang bya:
Шаблон:IPA

Шаблон:Lang†
hrang
Шаблон:IPA 		Шаблон:Lang
nang tui.
Шаблон:IPA 		Шаблон:Lang‡
khang bya: tui.
Шаблон:IPA

Шаблон:Lang†
hrang tui.
Шаблон:IPA
Third person Шаблон:Lang
su
Шаблон:IPA 		Шаблон:Lang
(a.) sang
Шаблон:IPA 		Шаблон:Lang
su tui.
Шаблон:IPA 		Шаблон:Lang
sang tui.
Шаблон:IPA
* The basic particle to indicate plurality is Шаблон:Lang tui., colloquial Шаблон:Lang dui..
‡ Used by male speakers.
† Used by female speakers.

Other pronouns are reserved for speaking with bhikkhus (Buddhist monks). When speaking to a bhikkhu, pronouns like Шаблон:Lang bhun: bhun: (from Шаблон:Lang phun: kri: 'monk'), Шаблон:Lang chara dau Шаблон:IPA ('royal teacher'), and Шаблон:Lang a.hrang bhu.ra: Шаблон:IPA ('your lordship') are used depending on their status Шаблон:Lang. When referring to oneself, terms like Шаблон:Lang ta. paey. tau ('royal disciple') or Шаблон:Lang da. ka Шаблон:IPA, ('donor') are used. When speaking to a monk, the following pronouns are used:

Person Singular
Informal Formal
First person Шаблон:Lang†
ta.paey. tau 		Шаблон:Lang†
da. ka
Шаблон:IPA
Second person Шаблон:Lang
bhun: bhun:
Шаблон:IPA

Шаблон:Lang
(u:) pasang:
Шаблон:IPA 		Шаблон:Lang
a.hrang bhu.ra:
Шаблон:IPA

Шаблон:Lang‡
chara dau
Шаблон:IPA
† The particle ma. Шаблон:Lang is suffixed for women.
‡ Typically reserved for the chief monk of a kyaung (monastery).

In colloquial Burmese, possessive pronouns are contracted when the root pronoun itself is low toned. This does not occur in literary Burmese, which uses ၏ Шаблон:IPA as postpositional marker for possessive case instead of Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA. Examples include the following:

The contraction also occurs in some low toned nouns, making them possessive nouns (e.g. Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, "mother's" and "Myanmar's" respectively).

Kinship terms

Шаблон:Main Minor pronunciation differences do exist within regions of Irrawaddy valley. For example, the pronunciation Шаблон:IPA of Шаблон:Lang "food offering [to a monk]" is preferred in Lower Burma, instead of Шаблон:IPA, which is preferred in Upper Burma. However, the most obvious difference between Upper Burmese and Lower Burmese is that Upper Burmese speech still differentiates maternal and paternal sides of a family:

Term Upper Burmese Lower Burmese Myeik dialect
  • Paternal aunt (older)
  • Paternal aunt (younger)
  • Maternal aunt (older)
  • Maternal aunt (younger)
  • Paternal uncle (older)
  • Paternal uncle (younger)
  • Maternal uncle (older)
  • Maternal uncle (younger)

1 The youngest (paternal or maternal) aunt may be called Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, and the youngest paternal uncle Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA.

In a testament to the power of media, the Yangon-based speech is gaining currency even in Upper Burma. Upper Burmese-specific usage, while historically and technically accurate, is increasingly viewed as distinctly rural or regional speech. In fact, some usages are already considered strictly regional Upper Burmese speech and are likely to die out. For example:

Term Upper Burmese Standard Burmese
  • Elder brother (to a male)
  • Elder brother (to a female)
  • Younger brother (to a male)
  • Younger brother (to a female)
  • Elder sister (to a male)
  • Elder sister (to a female)
  • Younger sister (to a male)
  • Younger sister (to a female)

In general, the male-centric names of old Burmese for familial terms have been replaced in standard Burmese with formerly female-centric terms, which are now used by both sexes. One holdover is the use of Шаблон:Lang ('younger brother to a male') and Шаблон:Lang ('younger brother to a female'). Terms like Шаблон:Lang ('elder brother to a male') and Шаблон:Lang ('younger sister to a male') now are used in standard Burmese only as part of compound words like Шаблон:Lang ('brothers') or Шаблон:Lang ('brother and sister').

Reduplication

Reduplication is prevalent in Burmese and is used to intensify or weaken adjectives' meanings. For example, if Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "beautiful" is reduplicated, then the intensity of the adjective's meaning increases. Many Burmese words, especially adjectives with two syllables, such as Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "beautiful", when reduplicated (Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA) become adverbs. This is also true of some Burmese verbs and nouns (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'a moment' → Шаблон:Lang 'frequently'), which become adverbs when reduplicated.

Some nouns are also reduplicated to indicate plurality. For instance, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('country'), but when reduplicated to Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, it means "many countries", as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('international'). Another example is Шаблон:Lang, which means "a kind", but the reduplicated form Шаблон:Lang means "multiple kinds".

A few measure words can also be reduplicated to indicate "one or the other":

Numerals

Шаблон:Main Burmese digits are traditionally written using a set of numerals unique to the Mon–Burmese script, although Arabic numerals are also used in informal contexts. The cardinal forms of Burmese numerals are primarily inherited from the Proto-Sino-Tibetan language, with cognates with modern-day Sino-Tibetan languages, including the Chinese and Tibetan. Numerals beyond 'ten million' are borrowed from Indic languages like Sanskrit or Pali. Similarly, the ordinal forms of primary Burmese numerals (i.e., from first to tenth) are borrowed from Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism.[7] Ordinal numbers beyond ten are suffixed Шаблон:My (Шаблон:Lit).

Burmese numerals follow the nouns they modify, with the exception of round numbers, which precede the nouns they modify. Moreover, numerals are subject to several tone sandhi and voicing rules that involve tone changes (low tone → creaky tone) and voicing shifts depending on the pronunciation of surrounding words. A more thorough explanation is found on Burmese numerals.

Romanization and transcription

Шаблон:Main There is no official romanization system for Burmese.Шаблон:Citation needed There have been attempts to make one, but none have been successful. Replicating Burmese sounds in the Latin script is complicated. There is a Pali-based transcription system in existence, MLC Transcription System which was devised by the Myanmar Language Commission (MLC). However, it only transcribes sounds in formal Burmese and is based on the Burmese alphabet rather than the phonology.

Several colloquial transcription systems have been proposed, but none is overwhelmingly preferred over others.

Transcription of Burmese is not standardized, as seen in the varying English transcriptions of Burmese names. For instance, a Burmese personal name like Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA may be variously romanized as Win, Winn, Wyn, or Wynn, while Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA may be romanized as Khaing, Khine, or Khain.

Computer fonts and standard keyboard layout

Шаблон:See also

Файл:Myanmar-Keyboard-Layout.png
Myanmar3, the de jure standard Burmese keyboard layout

The Burmese alphabet can be entered from a standard QWERTY keyboard and is supported within the Unicode standard, meaning it can be read and written from most modern computers and smartphones.

Burmese has complex character rendering requirements, where tone markings and vowel modifications are noted using diacritics. These can be placed before consonants (as with Шаблон:Lang), above them (as with Шаблон:Lang) or even around them (as with Шаблон:Lang). These character clusters are built using multiple keystrokes. In particular, the inconsistent placement of diacritics as a feature of the language presents a conflict between an intuitive WYSIWYG typing approach, and a logical consonant-first storage approach.

Since its introduction in 2007, the most popular Burmese font, Zawgyi, has been near-ubiquitous in Myanmar. Linguist Justin Watkins argues that the ubiquitous use of Zawgyi harms Myanmar languages, including Burmese, by preventing efficient sorting, searching, processing and analyzing Myanmar text through flexible diacritic ordering.[8]

Zawgyi is not Unicode-compliant, but occupies the same code space as Unicode Myanmar font. As it is not defined as a standard character encoding, Zawgyi is not built in to any major operating systems as standard. However, allow for its position as the de facto (but largely undocumented) standard within the country, telcos and major smartphone distributors (such as Huawei and Samsung) ship phones with Zawgyi font overwriting standard Unicode-compliant fonts, which are installed on most internationally distributed hardware.[9] Facebook also supports Zawgyi as an additional language encoding for their app and website.[10] As a result, almost all SMS alerts (including those from telcos to their customers), social media posts and other web resources may be incomprehensible on these devices without the custom Zawgyi font installed at the operating system level. These may include devices purchased overseas, or distributed by companies who do not customize software for the local market.

Keyboards which have a Zawgyi keyboard layout printed on them are the most commonly available for purchase domestically.

Until recently, Unicode compliant fonts have been more difficult to type than Zawgyi, as they have a stricter, less forgiving and arguably less intuitive method for ordering diacritics. However, intelligent input software such as Keymagic[11] and recent versions of smartphone soft-keyboards including Gboard and ttKeyboard[12] allow for more forgiving input sequences and Zawgyi keyboard layouts which produce Unicode-compliant text.

A number of Unicode-compliant Burmese fonts exist. The national standard keyboard layout is known as the Myanmar3 layout, and it was published along with the Myanmar3 Unicode font. The layout, developed by the Myanmar Unicode and NLP Research Center, has a smart input system to cover the complex structures of Burmese and related scripts.

In addition to the development of computer fonts and standard keyboard layout, there is still a lot of scope of research for the Burmese language, specifically for Natural Language Processing (NLP) areas like WordNet, Search Engine, development of parallel corpus for Burmese language as well as development of a formally standardized and dense domain-specific corpus of Burmese language.Шаблон:Sfn

The Myanmar government has designated 1 October 2019 as "U-Day" to officially switch to Unicode.[13] The full transition is estimated to take two years.[14]

Example Text

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Burmese:[15]

လူတိုင်းသည် တူညီ လွတ်လပ်သော ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာဖြင့် လည်းကောင်း၊ တူညီလွတ်လပ်သော အခွင့်အရေးများဖြင့် လည်းကောင်း၊ မွေးဖွားလာသူများ ဖြစ်သည်။ ထိုသူတို့၌ ပိုင်းခြား ဝေဖန်တတ်သော ဉာဏ်နှင့် ကျင့်ဝတ် သိတတ်သော စိတ်တို့ရှိကြ၍ ထိုသူတို့သည် အချင်းချင်း မေတ္တာထား၍ ဆက်ဆံကျင့်သုံးသင့်၏။

The romanization of the text into Latin alphabet:

lutuing:sany tu-nyi lwatlapsau: gun.sikhka.hprang. lany:kaung:| tu-nyi-lwatlapsau: ahkwang.-are:mya:hprang. lany:kaung:| mwe:hpwa:la.su-mya: hpracsany|| htuisutui.hnai puing:hkra: wehpantatsau: nyanhnang. kyang.wat si.tatsau: cittui.hri.kra.rwe htuisutui.sany ahkyang:hkyang: mettahta:rwe hcakhcamkyang.sum:sang.e||

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:[16]

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

See also

Шаблон:Portal

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

References

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

Bibliography

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

External links

Шаблон:InterWiki Шаблон:Wiktionary category Шаблон:EB1911 poster Шаблон:Wikivoyage

Шаблон:Burmese language Шаблон:Lolo-Burmese languages Шаблон:Languages of Burma Шаблон:Authority control Шаблон:Burma (Myanmar) topics Шаблон:Asia in topic

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar (2008), Chapter XV, Provision 450
  2. ↑ Mikael Parkvall, "Världens 100 största språk 2007" (The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007), in Nationalencyklopedin
  3. ↑ Шаблон:E25
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  5. ↑ Bradley, D. 2007a. East and Southeast Asia. In C. Moseley (ed.), Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages , pp. 349–424. London: Routledge.
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  13. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  15. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  16. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:Burmese_language&oldid=13685226