Английская Википедия:C
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Pp-semi-indef Шаблон:Pp-move-indef Шаблон:Technical reasons Шаблон:Infobox grapheme Шаблон:Latin letter info
C, or c, is the third letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is cee (pronounced Шаблон:IPAc-en). Cees is the plural form for this letter. [1]
History
| Egyptian | Phoenician gaml |
Greek Gamma |
Etruscan C |
Old Latin C (G) |
Latin C |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Align | Phoenician gimel | Greek Gamma | Etruscan C | Old Latin | Latin C |
"C" comes from the same letter as "G". The Semites named it gimel. The sign is possibly adapted from an Egyptian hieroglyph for a staff sling, which may have been the meaning of the name gimel. Another possibility is that it depicted a camel, the Semitic name for which was gamal. Barry B. Powell, a specialist in the history of writing, states "It is hard to imagine how gimel = "camel" can be derived from the picture of a camel (it may show his hump, or his head and neck!)".[2]
In the Etruscan language, plosive consonants had no contrastive voicing, so the Greek 'Γ' (Gamma) was adopted into the Etruscan alphabet to represent Шаблон:IPA. Already in the Western Greek alphabet, Gamma first took a 'Файл:Early Etruscan C.svg' form in Early Etruscan, then 'Файл:Classical Etruscan C.gif' in Classical Etruscan. In Latin it eventually took the 'Шаблон:Smallcaps' form in Classical Latin. In the earliest Latin inscriptions, the letters 'Шаблон:Smallcaps' were used to represent the sounds Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA (which were not differentiated in writing). Of these, 'Шаблон:Smallcaps' was used to represent Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA before a rounded vowel, 'Шаблон:Smallcaps' before 'Шаблон:Smallcaps', and 'Шаблон:Smallcaps' elsewhere.[3] During the 3rd century BC, a modified character was introduced for Шаблон:IPA, and 'Шаблон:Smallcaps' itself was retained for Шаблон:IPA. The use of 'Шаблон:Smallcaps' (and its variant 'Шаблон:Smallcaps') replaced most usages of 'Шаблон:Smallcaps' and 'Шаблон:Smallcaps'. Hence, in the classical period and after, 'Шаблон:Smallcaps' was treated as the equivalent of Greek gamma, and 'Шаблон:Smallcaps' as the equivalent of kappa; this shows in the romanization of Greek words, as in 'ΚΑΔΜΟΣ', 'ΚΥΡΟΣ', and 'ΦΩΚΙΣ' came into Latin as 'Шаблон:Smallcaps', 'Шаблон:Smallcaps' and 'Шаблон:Smallcaps', respectively.
Other alphabets have letters homoglyphic to 'c' but not analogous in use and derivation, like the Cyrillic letter Es (С, с) which derives from the lunate sigma, named due to its resemblance to the crescent moon.
Later use
When the Roman alphabet was introduced into Britain, Шаблон:Angbr represented only Шаблон:IPA, and this value of the letter has been retained in loanwords to all the insular Celtic languages: in Welsh,[4] Irish, and Gaelic, Шаблон:Angbr represents only Шаблон:IPA. The Old English Latin-based writing system was learned from the Celts, apparently of Ireland; hence Шаблон:Angbr in Old English also originally represented Шаблон:IPA; the Modern English words kin, break, broken, thick, and seek all come from Old English words written with Шаблон:Angbr: Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang. However, during the course of the Old English period, Шаблон:IPA before front vowels (Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA) was palatalized, having changed by the tenth century to Шаблон:IPA, though Шаблон:Angbr was still used, as in Шаблон:Lang. On the continent, meanwhile, a similar phonetic change before the same two vowels had also been going on in almost all modern romance languages (for example, in Italian).
In Vulgar Latin, Шаблон:IPA became palatalized to Шаблон:IPA in Italy and Dalmatia; in France and the Iberian peninsula, it became Шаблон:IPA. Yet for these new sounds Шаблон:Angbr was still used before the letters Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr. The letter thus represented two distinct values. Subsequently, the Latin phoneme Шаблон:IPA (spelled Шаблон:Angbr) de-labialized to Шаблон:IPA meaning that the various Romance languages had Шаблон:IPA before front vowels. In addition, Norman used the letter Шаблон:Angbr so that the sound Шаблон:IPA could be represented by either Шаблон:Angbr or Шаблон:Angbr, the latter of which could represent either Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA depending on whether it preceded a front vowel letter or not. The convention of using both Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr was applied to the writing of English after the Norman Conquest, causing a considerable re-spelling of the Old English words. Thus while Old English Шаблон:Lang, remained unchanged, Шаблон:Lang, were now (without any change of sound) spelled Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang; even Шаблон:Lang ('knight') was subsequently changed to Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang ('thick') changed to Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang. The Old English Шаблон:Angbr was also at length displaced by the French Шаблон:Angbr so that the Old English Шаблон:Lang ('queen') and Шаблон:Lang ('quick') became Middle English Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, respectively. The sound Шаблон:IPA, to which Old English palatalized Шаблон:IPA had advanced, also occurred in French, chiefly from Latin Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:Angbr. In French it was represented by the digraph Шаблон:Angbr, as in champ (from Latin Шаблон:Lang) and this spelling was introduced into English: the Hatton Gospels, written Шаблон:Circa, have in Matt. i-iii, Шаблон:Lang, for the Шаблон:Lang of the Old English version whence they were copied. In these cases, the Old English Шаблон:Angbr gave way to Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr; on the other hand, Шаблон:Angbr in its new value of Шаблон:IPA appeared largely in French words like Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, and was also substituted for Шаблон:Angbr in a few Old English words, as Шаблон:Lang, in early Middle English Шаблон:Lang. By the end of the thirteenth century both in France and England, this sound Шаблон:IPA de-affricated to Шаблон:IPA; and from that time Шаблон:Angbr has represented Шаблон:IPA before front vowels either for etymological reasons, as in lance, cent, or to avoid the ambiguity due to the "etymological" use of Шаблон:Angbr for Шаблон:IPA, as in ace, mice, once, pence, defence.
Thus, to show etymology, English spelling has advise, devise (instead of *advize, *devize), while advice, device, dice, ice, mice, twice, etc., do not reflect etymology; example has extended this to hence, pence, defence, etc., where there is no etymological reason for using Шаблон:Angbr. Former generations also wrote sence for sense. Hence, today the Romance languages and English have a common feature inherited from Vulgar Latin spelling conventions where Шаблон:Angbr takes on either a "hard" or "soft" value depending on the following letter.
Pronunciation and use
English
In English orthography, Шаблон:Angbr generally represents the "soft" value of Шаблон:IPAc-en before the letters Шаблон:Angbr (including the Latin-derived digraphs Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr, or the corresponding ligatures Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr), Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr, and a "hard" value of Шаблон:IPAc-en before any other letters or at the end of a word. However, there are a number of exceptions in English: "soccer" and "Celt" are words that have Шаблон:IPAc-en where Шаблон:IPAc-en would be expected.
The "soft" Шаблон:Angbr may represent the Шаблон:IPAc-en sound in the digraph Шаблон:Angbr when this precedes a vowel, as in the words 'delicious' and 'appreciate', and also in the word "ocean" and its derivatives.
The digraph Шаблон:Angbr most commonly represents Шаблон:IPAc-en, but can also represent Шаблон:IPAc-en (mainly in words of Greek origin) or Шаблон:IPAc-en (mainly in words of French origin). For some dialects of English, it may also represent Шаблон:IPAc-en in words like loch, while other speakers pronounce the final sound as Шаблон:IPAc-en. The trigraph Шаблон:Angbr always represents Шаблон:IPAc-en.
The digraph Шаблон:Angbr is often used to represent the sound Шаблон:IPAc-en after short vowels, like "wicket".
C is the twelfth most frequently used letter in the English language (after E, T, A, O, I, N, S, H, R, D, and L), with a frequency of about 2.8% in words.
Other languages
In the Romance languages French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian and Portuguese, Шаблон:Angbr generally has a "hard" value of Шаблон:IPA and a "soft" value whose pronunciation varies by language. In French, Portuguese, Catalan and Spanish from Latin America and some places in Spain, the soft Шаблон:Angbr value is Шаблон:IPA as it is in English. In the Spanish spoken in most of Spain, the soft Шаблон:Angbr is a voiceless dental fricative Шаблон:IPA. In Italian and Romanian, the soft Шаблон:Angbr is Шаблон:IPA.
Germanic languages usually use Шаблон:Angbr for Romance loans or digraphs, such as Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr, but the rules vary across languages. Of all the Germanic languages, only English uses initial Шаблон:Angbr in native Germanic words like come. Other than English, Dutch uses Шаблон:Angbr the most, for most Romance loans and the digraph Шаблон:Angbr. German uses Шаблон:Angbr in the digraphs Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr, and the trigraph Шаблон:Angbr, but by itself only in unassimilated loanwords and proper names. Danish keeps soft Шаблон:Angbr in Romance words but changes hard Шаблон:Angbr to Шаблон:Angbr. Swedish has the same rules for soft and hard Шаблон:Angbr as Danish, and also uses Шаблон:Angbr in the digraph Шаблон:Angbr and the very common word och, "and". Norwegian, Afrikaans, and Icelandic are the most restrictive, replacing all cases of Шаблон:Angbr with Шаблон:Angbr or Шаблон:Angbr, and reserving Шаблон:Angbr for unassimilated loanwords and names.
All Balto-Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet, as well as Albanian, Hungarian, Pashto, several Sami languages, Esperanto, Ido, Interlingua, and Americanist phonetic notation (and those aboriginal languages of North America whose practical orthography derives from it) use Шаблон:Angbr to represent Шаблон:IPA, the voiceless alveolar or voiceless dental sibilant affricate. In Hanyu Pinyin, the standard romanization of Mandarin Chinese, the letter represents an aspirated version of this sound, Шаблон:IPA.
Among non-European languages that have adopted the Latin alphabet, Шаблон:Angbr represents a variety of sounds. Yup'ik, Indonesian, Malay, and a number of African languages such as Hausa, Fula, and Manding share the soft Italian value of Шаблон:IPA. In Azeri, Crimean Tatar, Kurmanji Kurdish, and Turkish Шаблон:Angbr stands for the voiced counterpart of this sound, the voiced postalveolar affricate Шаблон:IPA. In Yabem and similar languages, such as Bukawa, Шаблон:Angbr stands for a glottal stop Шаблон:IPA. Xhosa and Zulu use this letter to represent the click Шаблон:IPA. In some other African languages, such as Berber languages, Шаблон:Angbr is used for Шаблон:IPA. In Fijian, Шаблон:Angbr stands for a voiced dental fricative Шаблон:IPA, while in Somali it has the value of Шаблон:IPA.
The letter Шаблон:Angbr is also used as a transliteration of Cyrillic Шаблон:Angbr in the Latin forms of Serbian, Macedonian, and sometimes Ukrainian, along with the digraph Шаблон:Angbr.
Other systems
As a phonetic symbol, lowercase Шаблон:Angbr IPA is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and X-SAMPA symbol for the voiceless palatal plosive, and capital Шаблон:Angbr is the X-SAMPA symbol for the voiceless palatal fricative.
Digraphs
There are several common digraphs with Шаблон:Angbr, the most common being Шаблон:Angbr, which in some languages (such as German) is far more common than Шаблон:Angbr alone. Шаблон:Angbr takes various values in other languages.
As in English, Шаблон:Angbr, with the value Шаблон:IPA, is often used after short vowels in other Germanic languages such as German and Swedish (other Germanic languages, such as Dutch and Norwegian, use Шаблон:Angbr instead). The digraph Шаблон:Angbr is found in Polish and Шаблон:Angbr in Hungarian, representing Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA respectively. The digraph Шаблон:Angbr represents Шаблон:IPA in Old English, Italian, and a few languages related to Italian (where this only happens before front vowels, while otherwise it represents Шаблон:IPA). The trigraph Шаблон:Angbr represents Шаблон:IPA in German.
Related characters
Ancestors, descendants and siblings
- 𐤂 : Semitic letter Gimel, from which the following symbols originally derive
- Шаблон:Lang : Greek letter Gamma, from which C derives
- Phonetic alphabet symbols related to C:
- Шаблон:IPA link : Small c with curl
- ʗ : Stretched c
- 𝼏 : Stretched c with curl - Used by Douglas Beach for a nasal click in his phonetic description of Khoekhoe[5]
- 𝼝 : Small letter c with retroflex hook - Para-IPA version of the IPA retroflex tʂ[6]
- ꟲ : Modifier letter capital c - Used to mark tone for the Chatino orthography in Oaxaca, Mexico; Used as a generic transcription for a falling tone; Used in para-IPA notation[7]
- ᶜ : Modifier letter small c[8]
- ᶝ : Modifier letter small c with curl[8]
- ᴄ : Small capital c is used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet.[9]
- Ꞔ ꞔ : C with palatal hook, used for writing Mandarin Chinese using the early draft version of pinyin romanization during the mid-1950s[10]
Add to C with diacritics
Derived ligatures, abbreviations, signs and symbols
- © : copyright symbol
- ℃ : degree Celsius
- ¢ : cent
- ₡ : colón (currency)
- ₢ : Brazilian cruzeiro (currency)
- ₵ : Ghana cedi (currency)
- ₠ : European Currency Unit CE
- <math>\mathbb{C}</math> : blackboard bold C, denoting the complex numbers
- ℭ : blackletter C
- Ꜿ ꜿ : Medieval abbreviation for Latin syllables con- and com-, Portuguese -us and -os[12]
Code points
These are the code points for the forms of the letter in various systems Шаблон:Charmap
In Unicode, C is also encoded in various font styles for mathematical purposes; see Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols.
Other representations
Use as a number
In the hexadecimal (base 16) numbering system, C is a number that corresponds to the number 12 in decimal (base 10) counting.
In the Roman numeral system, C represents 100.
See also
References
External links
Шаблон:EB9 Poster Шаблон:Wikisource1911Enc
- ↑ "C" Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (1989); Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (1993); "cee", op. cit.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 8,0 8,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
