Английская Википедия:COVID-19
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Cs1 config Шаблон:Pp-extended Шаблон:Pp-move Шаблон:EngvarB Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox medical condition Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a contagious disease caused by the virus SARS-CoV-2. The first known case was identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019.[1] The disease quickly spread worldwide, resulting in the COVID-19 pandemic.
The symptoms of COVID‑19 are variable but often include fever,[2] cough, headache,[3] fatigue, breathing difficulties, loss of smell, and loss of taste.[4][5][6] Symptoms may begin one to fourteen days after exposure to the virus. At least a third of people who are infected do not develop noticeable symptoms.[7][8] Of those who develop symptoms noticeable enough to be classified as patients, most (81%) develop mild to moderate symptoms (up to mild pneumonia), while 14% develop severe symptoms (dyspnea, hypoxia, or more than 50% lung involvement on imaging), and 5% develop critical symptoms (respiratory failure, shock, or multiorgan dysfunction).[9] Older people are at a higher risk of developing severe symptoms. Some people continue to experience a range of effects (long COVID) for months or years after infection, and damage to organs has been observed.[10] Multi-year studies are underway to further investigate the long-term effects of the disease.[11]
COVID‑19 transmits when infectious particles are breathed in or come into contact with the eyes, nose, or mouth. The risk is highest when people are in close proximity, but small airborne particles containing the virus can remain suspended in the air and travel over longer distances, particularly indoors. Transmission can also occur when people touch their eyes, nose or mouth after touching surfaces or objects that have been contaminated by the virus. People remain contagious for up to 20 days and can spread the virus even if they do not develop symptoms.[12]
Testing methods for COVID-19 to detect the virus's nucleic acid include real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RTШаблон:NbhyphPCR),[13][14] transcription-mediated amplification,[13][14][15] and reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RTШаблон:NbhyphLAMP)[13][14] from a nasopharyngeal swab.[16]
Several COVID-19 vaccines have been approved and distributed in various countries, which have initiated mass vaccination campaigns. Other preventive measures include physical or social distancing, quarantining, ventilation of indoor spaces, use of face masks or coverings in public, covering coughs and sneezes, hand washing, and keeping unwashed hands away from the face. While work is underway to develop drugs that inhibit the virus, the primary treatment is symptomatic. Management involves the treatment of symptoms through supportive care, isolation, and experimental measures.
Nomenclature
Шаблон:Main During the initial outbreak in Wuhan, the virus and disease were commonly referred to as "coronavirus" and "Wuhan coronavirus",[17][18][19] with the disease sometimes called "Wuhan pneumonia".[20][21] In the past, many diseases have been named after geographical locations, such as the Spanish flu,[22] Middle East respiratory syndrome, and Zika virus.[23] In January 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended 2019-nCoV[24] and 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease[25] as interim names for the virus and disease per 2015 guidance and international guidelines against using geographical locations or groups of people in disease and virus names to prevent social stigma.[26][27][28] The official names COVID‑19 and SARS-CoV-2 were issued by the WHO on 11 February 2020 with COVID-19 being shorthand for "coronavirus disease 2019".[29][30] The WHO additionally uses "the COVID‑19 virus" and "the virus responsible for COVID‑19" in public communications.[29][31]
Symptoms and signs
Complications
Complications may include pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), multi-organ failure, septic shock, and death.[32][33][34][35] Cardiovascular complications may include heart failure, arrhythmias (including atrial fibrillation), heart inflammation, and thrombosis, particularly venous thromboembolism.[36][37][38][39][40][41] Approximately 20–30% of people who present with COVID‑19 have elevated liver enzymes, reflecting liver injury.[42][43]
Neurologic manifestations include seizure, stroke, encephalitis, and Guillain–Barré syndrome (which includes loss of motor functions).[44][45] Following the infection, children may develop paediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome, which has symptoms similar to Kawasaki disease, which can be fatal.[46][47] In very rare cases, acute encephalopathy can occur, and it can be considered in those who have been diagnosed with COVID‑19 and have an altered mental status.[48]
According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, pregnant women are at increased risk of becoming seriously ill from COVID‑19.[49] This is because pregnant women with COVID‑19 appear to be more likely to develop respiratory and obstetric complications that can lead to miscarriage, premature delivery and intrauterine growth restriction.[49]
Fungal infections such as aspergillosis, candidiasis, cryptococcosis and mucormycosis have been recorded in patients recovering from COVID‑19.[50][51]
Cause
COVID‑19 is caused by infection with a strain of coronavirus known as 'Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus 2' (SARS-CoV-2).[52]
Transmission
Virology
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirusШаблон:Spaces2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. It was first isolated from three people with pneumonia connected to the cluster of acute respiratory illness cases in Wuhan.[53] All structural features of the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus particle occur in related coronaviruses in nature,[54] particularly in Rhinolophus sinicus aka Chinese horseshoe bats.[55]
Outside the human body, the virus is destroyed by household soap which bursts its protective bubble.[56] Hospital disinfectants, alcohols, heat, povidone-iodine, and ultraviolet-C (UV-C) irradiation are also effective disinfection methods for surfaces.[57]
SARS-CoV-2 is closely related to the original SARS-CoV.[58] It is thought to have an animal (zoonotic) origin. Genetic analysis has revealed that the coronavirus genetically clusters with the genus Betacoronavirus, in subgenus Sarbecovirus (lineage B) together with two bat-derived strains. It is 96% identical at the whole genome level to other bat coronavirus samples (BatCov RaTG13).[59][60][61] The structural proteins of SARS-CoV-2 include membrane glycoprotein (M), envelope protein (E), nucleocapsid protein (N), and the spike protein (S). The M protein of SARS-CoV-2 is about 98% similar to the M protein of bat SARS-CoV, maintains around 98% homology with pangolin SARS-CoV, and has 90% homology with the M protein of SARS-CoV; whereas, the similarity is only around 38% with the M protein of MERS-CoV.[62]
SARS-CoV-2 variants
The many thousands of SARS-CoV-2 variants are grouped into either clades or lineages.[63][64] The WHO, in collaboration with partners, expert networks, national authorities, institutions and researchers, have established nomenclature systems for naming and tracking SARS-CoV-2 genetic lineages by GISAID, Nextstrain and Pango. The expert group convened by the WHO recommended the labelling of variants using letters of the Greek alphabet, for example, Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Gamma, giving the justification that they "will be easier and more practical to discussed by non-scientific audiences."[65] Nextstrain divides the variants into five clades (19A, 19B, 20A, 20B, and 20C), while GISAID divides them into seven (L, O, V, S, G, GH, and GR).[66] The Pango tool groups variants into lineages, with many circulating lineages being classed under the B.1 lineage.[64][67]
Several notable variants of SARS-CoV-2 emerged throughout 2020.[68][69] Cluster 5 emerged among minks and mink farmers in Denmark.[70] After strict quarantines and a mink euthanasia campaign, the cluster was assessed to no longer be circulating among humans in Denmark as of 1 February 2021.[71]
Шаблон:As of, there are five dominant variants of SARS-CoV-2 spreading among global populations: the Alpha variant (B.1.1.7, formerly called the UK variant), first found in London and Kent, the Beta variant (B.1.351, formerly called the South Africa variant), the Gamma variant (P.1, formerly called the Brazil variant), the Delta variant (B.1.617.2, formerly called the India variant),[72] and the Omicron variant (B.1.1.529), which had spread to 57 countries as of 7 December.[73][74]
On December 19, 2023, the WHO declared that another distinctive variant, JN.1, had emerged as a "variant of interest." Though the WHO expects an increase in cases globally, particularly for countries entering winter, the current overall global health risk (as of December 21, 2023) remains low.[75][76]
Pathophysiology
The SARS-CoV-2 virus can infect a wide range of cells and systems of the body. COVID‑19 is most known for affecting the upper respiratory tract (sinuses, nose, and throat) and the lower respiratory tract (windpipe and lungs).[77] The lungs are the organs most affected by COVID‑19 because the virus accesses host cells via the receptor for the enzyme angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), which is most abundant on the surface of type II alveolar cells of the lungs.[78] The virus uses a special surface glycoprotein called a "spike" to connect to the ACE2 receptor and enter the host cell.[79]
Respiratory tract
Following viral entry, COVID‑19 infects the ciliated epithelium of the nasopharynx and upper airways.[80]
Autopsies of people who died of COVID‑19 have found diffuse alveolar damage, and lymphocyte-containing inflammatory infiltrates within the lung.[81]
Nervous system
One common symptom, loss of smell, results from infection of the support cells of the olfactory epithelium, with subsequent damage to the olfactory neurons.[82] The involvement of both the central and peripheral nervous system in COVID‑19 has been reported in many medical publications.[83] It is clear that many people with COVID-19 exhibit neurological or mental health issues. The virus is not detected in the central nervous system (CNS) of the majority of COVID-19 patients with neurological issues. However, SARS-CoV-2 has been detected at low levels in the brains of those who have died from COVID‑19, but these results need to be confirmed.[84] While virus has been detected in cerebrospinal fluid of autopsies, the exact mechanism by which it invades the CNS remains unclear and may first involve invasion of peripheral nerves given the low levels of ACE2 in the brain.[85][86][87] The virus may also enter the bloodstream from the lungs and cross the blood–brain barrier to gain access to the CNS, possibly within an infected white blood cell.[84]
Research conducted when Alpha was the dominant variant has suggested COVID-19 may cause brain damage.[88] Later research showed that all variants studied (including Omicron) killed brain cells, but the exact cells killed varied by variant.[89] It is unknown if such damage is temporary or permanent.[90][91] Observed individuals infected with COVID-19 (most with mild cases) experienced an additional 0.2% to 2% of brain tissue lost in regions of the brain connected to the sense of smell compared with uninfected individuals, and the overall effect on the brain was equivalent on average to at least one extra year of normal ageing; infected individuals also scored lower on several cognitive tests. All effects were more pronounced among older ages.[92]
Gastrointestinal tract
The virus also affects gastrointestinal organs as ACE2 is abundantly expressed in the glandular cells of gastric, duodenal and rectal epithelium[93] as well as endothelial cells and enterocytes of the small intestine.[94]
Cardiovascular system
The virus can cause acute myocardial injury and chronic damage to the cardiovascular system.[95][96] An acute cardiac injury was found in 12% of infected people admitted to the hospital in Wuhan, China,[97] and is more frequent in severe disease.[98] Rates of cardiovascular symptoms are high, owing to the systemic inflammatory response and immune system disorders during disease progression, but acute myocardial injuries may also be related to ACE2 receptors in the heart.[96] ACE2 receptors are highly expressed in the heart and are involved in heart function.[96][99]
A high incidence of thrombosis and venous thromboembolism occurs in people transferred to intensive care units with COVID‑19 infections, and may be related to poor prognosis.[100] Blood vessel dysfunction and clot formation (as suggested by high D-dimer levels caused by blood clots) may have a significant role in mortality, incidents of clots leading to pulmonary embolisms, and ischaemic events (strokes) within the brain found as complications leading to death in people infected with COVID‑19.[101] Infection may initiate a chain of vasoconstrictive responses within the body, including pulmonary vasoconstriction Шаблон:Ndash a possible mechanism in which oxygenation decreases during pneumonia.[101] Furthermore, damage of arterioles and capillaries was found in brain tissue samples of people who died from COVID‑19.[102][103]
COVIDШаблон:Nbhyph19 may also cause substantial structural changes to blood cells, sometimes persisting for months after hospital discharge.[104] A low level of blood lymphocytes may result from the virus acting through ACE2-related entry into lymphocytes.[105]
Kidneys
Another common cause of death is complications related to the kidneys.[101] Early reports show that up to 30% of hospitalised patients both in China and in New York have experienced some injury to their kidneys, including some persons with no previous kidney problems.[106]
Immunopathology
Although SARS-CoV-2 has a tropism for ACE2-expressing epithelial cells of the respiratory tract, people with severe COVID‑19 have symptoms of systemic hyperinflammation. Clinical laboratory findings of elevated [[Interleukin 2|ILШаблон:Nbh2]], [[Interleukin 7|ILШаблон:Nbh7]], [[Interleukin 6|ILШаблон:Nbh6]], granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GMШаблон:NbhCSF), [[CXCL10|interferon gamma-induced proteinШаблон:Spaces10]] (IPШаблон:Nbh10), [[Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1|monocyte chemoattractant proteinШаблон:Spaces1]] (MCP1), [[CCL3|macrophage inflammatory protein 1Шаблон:Nbhalpha]] (MIPШаблон:Nbh1Шаблон:Nbhalpha), and tumour necrosis factor (TNFШаблон:Nbhα) indicative of cytokine release syndrome (CRS) suggest an underlying immunopathology.[97]
Interferon alpha plays a complex, Janus-faced role in the pathogenesis of COVID-19. Although it promotes the elimination of virus-infected cells, it also upregulates the expression of ACE-2, thereby facilitating the SARS-Cov2 virus to enter cells and to replicate.[107][108] A competition of negative feedback loops (via protective effects of interferon alpha) and positive feedback loops (via upregulation of ACE-2) is assumed to determine the fate of patients suffering from COVID-19.[109]
Additionally, people with COVID‑19 and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) have classical serum biomarkers of CRS, including elevated C-reactive protein (CRP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), D-dimer, and ferritin.[110]
Systemic inflammation results in vasodilation, allowing inflammatory lymphocytic and monocytic infiltration of the lung and the heart. In particular, pathogenic GM-CSF-secreting T cells were shown to correlate with the recruitment of inflammatory IL-6-secreting monocytes and severe lung pathology in people with COVID‑19.[111] Lymphocytic infiltrates have also been reported at autopsy.[81]
Viral and host factors
Virus proteins
Multiple viral and host factors affect the pathogenesis of the virus. The S-protein, otherwise known as the spike protein, is the viral component that attaches to the host receptor via the ACE2 receptors. It includes two subunits: S1 and S2. S1 determines the virus-host range and cellular tropism via the receptor-binding domain. S2 mediates the membrane fusion of the virus to its potential cell host via the H1 and HR2, which are heptad repeat regions. Studies have shown that S1 domain induced IgG and IgA antibody levels at a much higher capacity. It is the focus spike proteins expression that are involved in many effective COVID‑19 vaccines.[112]
The M protein is the viral protein responsible for the transmembrane transport of nutrients. It is the cause of the bud release and the formation of the viral envelope.[113] The N and E protein are accessory proteins that interfere with the host's immune response.[113]
Host factors
Human angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) is the host factor that SARS-CoV-2 virus targets causing COVID‑19. Theoretically, the usage of angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB) and ACE inhibitors upregulating ACE2 expression might increase morbidity with COVID‑19, though animal data suggest some potential protective effect of ARB; however no clinical studies have proven susceptibility or outcomes. Until further data is available, guidelines and recommendations for hypertensive patients remain.[114]
The effect of the virus on ACE2 cell surfaces leads to leukocytic infiltration, increased blood vessel permeability, alveolar wall permeability, as well as decreased secretion of lung surfactants. These effects cause the majority of the respiratory symptoms. However, the aggravation of local inflammation causes a cytokine storm eventually leading to a systemic inflammatory response syndrome.[115]
Among healthy adults not exposed to SARS-CoV-2, about 35% have CD4+ T cells that recognise the SARS-CoV-2 S protein (particularly the S2 subunit) and about 50% react to other proteins of the virus, suggesting cross-reactivity from previous common colds caused by other coronaviruses.[116]
It is unknown whether different persons use similar antibody genes in response to COVID‑19.[117]
Host cytokine response
The severity of the inflammation can be attributed to the severity of what is known as the cytokine storm.[118] Levels of [[Interleukin 1 beta|interleukinШаблон:Spaces1B]], interferon-gamma, interferon-inducible protein 10, and monocyte chemoattractant proteinШаблон:Spaces1 were all associated with COVID‑19 disease severity. Treatment has been proposed to combat the cytokine storm as it remains to be one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in COVID‑19 disease.[119]
A cytokine storm is due to an acute hyperinflammatory response that is responsible for clinical illness in an array of diseases but in COVID‑19, it is related to worse prognosis and increased fatality. The storm causes acute respiratory distress syndrome, blood clotting events such as strokes, myocardial infarction, encephalitis, acute kidney injury, and vasculitis. The production of IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, TNF-alpha, and interferon-gamma, all crucial components of normal immune responses, inadvertently become the causes of a cytokine storm. The cells of the central nervous system, the microglia, neurons, and astrocytes, are also involved in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines affecting the nervous system, and effects of cytokine storms toward the CNS are not uncommon.[120]
Pregnancy response
There are many unknowns for pregnant women during the COVID-19 pandemic. Given that they are prone to have complications and severe disease infection with other types of coronaviruses, they have been identified as a vulnerable group and advised to take supplementary preventive measures.[121]
Physiological responses to pregnancy can include:
- Immunological: The immunological response to COVID-19, like other viruses, depends on a working immune system. It adapts during pregnancy to allow the development of the foetus whose genetic load is only partially shared with their mother, leading to a different immunological reaction to infections during the course of pregnancy.[121]
- Respiratory: Many factors can make pregnant women more vulnerable to hard respiratory infections. One of them is the total reduction of the lungs' capacity and inability to clear secretions.[121]
- Coagulation: During pregnancy, there are higher levels of circulating coagulation factors, and the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection can be implicated. The thromboembolic events with associated mortality are a risk for pregnant women.[121]
However, from the evidence base, it is difficult to conclude whether pregnant women are at increased risk of grave consequences of this virus.[121]
In addition to the above, other clinical studies have proved that SARS-CoV-2 can affect the period of pregnancy in different ways. On the one hand, there is little evidence of its impact up to 12 weeks gestation. On the other hand, COVID-19 infection may cause increased rates of unfavourable outcomes in the course of the pregnancy. Some examples of these could be foetal growth restriction, preterm birth, and perinatal mortality, which refers to the foetal death past 22 or 28 completed weeks of pregnancy as well as the death among live-born children up to seven completed days of life.[121] For preterm birth, a 2023 review indicates that there appears to be a correlation with COVID-19.[122]
Unvaccinated women in later stages of pregnancy with COVID-19 are more likely than other patients to need very intensive care. Babies born to mothers with COVID-19 are more likely to have breathing problems. Pregnant women are strongly encouraged to get vaccinated.[123]
Diagnosis
COVID‑19 can provisionally be diagnosed on the basis of symptoms and confirmed using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) or other nucleic acid testing of infected secretions.[16][124] Along with laboratory testing, chest CT scans may be helpful to diagnose COVID‑19 in individuals with a high clinical suspicion of infection.[125] Detection of a past infection is possible with serological tests, which detect antibodies produced by the body in response to the infection.[16]
Viral testing
The standard methods of testing for presence of SARS-CoV-2 are nucleic acid tests,[16][126] which detects the presence of viral RNA fragments.[127] As these tests detect RNA but not infectious virus, its "ability to determine duration of infectivity of patients is limited."[128] The test is typically done on respiratory samples obtained by a nasopharyngeal swab; however, a nasal swab or sputum sample may also be used.[129][130] Results are generally available within hours.[16] The WHO has published several testing protocols for the disease.[131]
Several laboratories and companies have developed serological tests, which detect antibodies produced by the body in response to infection. Several have been evaluated by Public Health England and approved for use in the UK.[132]
The University of Oxford's CEBM has pointed to mounting evidence[133][134] that "a good proportion of 'new' mild cases and people re-testing positives after quarantine or discharge from hospital are not infectious, but are simply clearing harmless virus particles which their immune system has efficiently dealt with" and have called for "an international effort to standardize and periodically calibrate testing"[135] In September 2020, the UK government issued "guidance for procedures to be implemented in laboratories to provide assurance of positive SARS-CoV-2 RNA results during periods of low prevalence, when there is a reduction in the predictive value of positive test results".[136]
Imaging
Chest CT scans may be helpful to diagnose COVID‑19 in individuals with a high clinical suspicion of infection but are not recommended for routine screening.[125][137] Bilateral multilobar ground-glass opacities with a peripheral, asymmetric, and posterior distribution are common in early infection.[125][138] Subpleural dominance, crazy paving (lobular septal thickening with variable alveolar filling), and consolidation may appear as the disease progresses.[125][139] Characteristic imaging features on chest radiographs and computed tomography (CT) of people who are symptomatic include asymmetric peripheral ground-glass opacities without pleural effusions.[140]
Many groups have created COVID‑19 datasets that include imagery such as the Italian Radiological Society which has compiled an international online database of imaging findings for confirmed cases.[141] Due to overlap with other infections such as adenovirus, imaging without confirmation by rRT-PCR is of limited specificity in identifying COVID‑19.[140] A large study in China compared chest CT results to PCR and demonstrated that though imaging is less specific for the infection, it is faster and more sensitive.[124]
Coding
In late 2019, the WHO assigned emergency ICD-10 disease codes U07.1 for deaths from lab-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection and U07.2 for deaths from clinically or epidemiologically diagnosed COVID‑19 without lab-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection.[142]
Pathology
The main pathological findings at autopsy are:
- Macroscopy: pericarditis, lung consolidation and pulmonary oedema[81]
- Lung findings:
- minor serous exudation, minor fibrin exudation[81]
- pulmonary oedema, pneumocyte hyperplasia, large atypical pneumocytes, interstitial inflammation with lymphocytic infiltration and multinucleated giant cell formation[81]
- diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) with diffuse alveolar exudates. DAD is the cause of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and severe hypoxaemia.[81]
- organisation of exudates in alveolar cavities and pulmonary interstitial fibrosis[81]
- plasmocytosis in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL)[143]
- Blood and vessels: disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC);[144] leukoerythroblastic reaction,[145] endotheliitis,[146] hemophagocytosis[146]
- Heart: cardiac muscle cell necrosis[146]
- Liver: microvesicular steatosis[81]
- Nose: shedding of olfactory epithelium[82]
- Brain: infarction[146]
- Kidneys: acute tubular damage.[146]
- Spleen: white pulp depletion.[146]
Prevention
Preventive measures to reduce the chances of infection include getting vaccinated, staying at home, wearing a mask in public, avoiding crowded places, keeping distance from others, ventilating indoor spaces, managing potential exposure durations,[148] washing hands with soap and water often and for at least twenty seconds, practising good respiratory hygiene, and avoiding touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands.[149][150]
Those diagnosed with COVID‑19 or who believe they may be infected are advised by the CDC to stay home except to get medical care, call ahead before visiting a healthcare provider, wear a face mask before entering the healthcare provider's office and when in any room or vehicle with another person, cover coughs and sneezes with a tissue, regularly wash hands with soap and water and avoid sharing personal household items.[151][152]
The first COVID‑19 vaccine was granted regulatory approval on 2Шаблон:SpacesDecember 2020 by the UK medicines regulator MHRA.[153] It was evaluated for emergency use authorisation (EUA) status by the US FDA, and in several other countries.[154] Initially, the US National Institutes of Health guidelines do not recommend any medication for prevention of COVID‑19, before or after exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 virus, outside the setting of a clinical trial.[155][43] Without a vaccine, other prophylactic measures, or effective treatments, a key part of managing COVID‑19 is trying to decrease and delay the epidemic peak, known as "flattening the curve".[156] This is done by slowing the infection rate to decrease the risk of health services being overwhelmed, allowing for better treatment of active cases, and delaying additional cases until effective treatments or a vaccine become available.[156][157]
Vaccine
Face masks and respiratory hygiene
Indoor ventilation and avoiding crowded indoor spaces
The CDC states that avoiding crowded indoor spaces reduces the risk of COVID-19 infection.[159] When indoors, increasing the rate of air change, decreasing recirculation of air and increasing the use of outdoor air can reduce transmission.[159][160] The WHO recommends ventilation and air filtration in public spaces to help clear out infectious aerosols.[161][162][163]
Exhaled respiratory particles can build-up within enclosed spaces with inadequate ventilation. The risk of COVID‑19 infection increases especially in spaces where people engage in physical exertion or raise their voice (e.g., exercising, shouting, singing) as this increases exhalation of respiratory droplets. Prolonged exposure to these conditions, typically more than 15 minutes, leads to higher risk of infection.[159]
Displacement ventilation with large natural inlets can move stale air directly to the exhaust in laminar flow while significantly reducing the concentration of droplets and particles. Passive ventilation reduces energy consumption and maintenance costs but may lack controllability and heat recovery. Displacement ventilation can also be achieved mechanically with higher energy and maintenance costs. The use of large ducts and openings helps to prevent mixing in closed environments. Recirculation and mixing should be avoided because recirculation prevents dilution of harmful particles and redistributes possibly contaminated air, and mixing increases the concentration and range of infectious particles and keeps larger particles in the air.[164]
Hand-washing and hygiene
Thorough hand hygiene after any cough or sneeze is required.[165] The WHO also recommends that individuals wash hands often with soap and water for at least twenty seconds, especially after going to the toilet or when hands are visibly dirty, before eating and after blowing one's nose.[166] When soap and water are not available, the CDC recommends using an alcohol-based hand sanitiser with at least 60% alcohol.[167] For areas where commercial hand sanitisers are not readily available, the WHO provides two formulations for local production. In these formulations, the antimicrobial activity arises from ethanol or isopropanol. Hydrogen peroxide is used to help eliminate bacterial spores in the alcohol; it is "not an active substance for hand antisepsis." Glycerol is added as a humectant.[168]
Social distancing
Шаблон:Main Social distancing (also known as physical distancing) includes infection control actions intended to slow the spread of the disease by minimising close contact between individuals. Methods include quarantines; travel restrictions; and the closing of schools, workplaces, stadiums, theatres, or shopping centres. Individuals may apply social distancing methods by staying at home, limiting travel, avoiding crowded areas, using no-contact greetings, and physically distancing themselves from others.[169]
In 2020, outbreaks occurred in prisons due to crowding and an inability to enforce adequate social distancing.[170][171] In the United States, the prisoner population is ageing and many of them are at high risk for poor outcomes from COVID‑19 due to high rates of coexisting heart and lung disease, and poor access to high-quality healthcare.[170]
Surface cleaning
After being expelled from the body, coronaviruses can survive on surfaces for hours to days. If a person touches the dirty surface, they may deposit the virus at the eyes, nose, or mouth where it can enter the body and cause infection.[172] Evidence indicates that contact with infected surfaces is not the main driver of COVID‑19,[173][174][175] leading to recommendations for optimised disinfection procedures to avoid issues such as the increase of antimicrobial resistance through the use of inappropriate cleaning products and processes.[176][177] Deep cleaning and other surface sanitation has been criticised as hygiene theatre, giving a false sense of security against something primarily spread through the air.[178][179]
The amount of time that the virus can survive depends significantly on the type of surface, the temperature, and the humidity.[180] Coronaviruses die very quickly when exposed to the UV light in sunlight.[180] Like other enveloped viruses, SARS-CoV-2 survives longest when the temperature is at room temperature or lower, and when the relative humidity is low (<50%).[180]
On many surfaces, including glass, some types of plastic, stainless steel, and skin, the virus can remain infective for several days indoors at room temperature, or even about a week under ideal conditions.[180][181] On some surfaces, including cotton fabric and copper, the virus usually dies after a few hours.[180] The virus dies faster on porous surfaces than on non-porous surfaces due to capillary action within pores and faster aerosol droplet evaporation.[182][175][180] However, of the many surfaces tested, two with the longest survival times are N95 respirator masks and surgical masks, both of which are considered porous surfaces.[180]
The CDC says that in most situations, cleaning surfaces with soap or detergent, not disinfecting, is enough to reduce risk of transmission.[183][184] The CDC recommends that if a COVID‑19 case is suspected or confirmed at a facility such as an office or day care, all areas such as offices, bathrooms, common areas, shared electronic equipment like tablets, touch screens, keyboards, remote controls, and ATMs used by the ill persons should be disinfected.[185] Surfaces may be decontaminated with 62–71 per cent ethanol, 50–100 per cent isopropanol, 0.1 per cent sodium hypochlorite, 0.5 per cent hydrogen peroxide, 0.2–7.5 per cent povidone-iodine, or 50–200 ppm hypochlorous acid. Other solutions, such as benzalkonium chloride and chlorhexidine gluconate, are less effective. Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation may also be used,[161] although popular devices require Шаблон:Val exposure and may deteriorate some materials over time.[186] A datasheet comprising the authorised substances to disinfection in the food industry (including suspension or surface tested, kind of surface, use dilution, disinfectant and inoculum volumes) can be seen in the supplementary material of.[176]
Self-isolation
Self-isolation at home has been recommended for those diagnosed with COVID‑19 and those who suspect they have been infected. Health agencies have issued detailed instructions for proper self-isolation.[187] Many governments have mandated or recommended self-quarantine for entire populations. The strongest self-quarantine instructions have been issued to those in high-risk groups.[188] Those who may have been exposed to someone with COVID‑19 and those who have recently travelled to a country or region with the widespread transmission have been advised to self-quarantine for 14 days from the time of last possible exposure.[189]
A 2021 Cochrane rapid review found that based upon low-certainty evidence, international travel-related control measures such as restricting cross-border travel may help to contain the spread of COVID‑19.[190] Additionally, symptom/exposure-based screening measures at borders may miss many positive cases.[190] While test-based border screening measures may be more effective, it could also miss many positive cases if only conducted upon arrival without follow-up. The review concluded that a minimum 10-day quarantine may be beneficial in preventing the spread of COVID‑19 and may be more effective if combined with an additional control measure like border screening.[190]
Treatment
Prognosis and risk factors
The severity of COVID‑19 varies. The disease may take a mild course with few or no symptoms, resembling other common upper respiratory diseases such as the common cold. In 3–4% of cases (7.4% for those over age 65) symptoms are severe enough to cause hospitalisation.[191] Mild cases typically recover within two weeks, while those with severe or critical diseases may take three to six weeks to recover. Among those who have died, the time from symptom onset to death has ranged from two to eight weeks.[59] The Italian Istituto Superiore di Sanità reported that the median time between the onset of symptoms and death was twelve days, with seven being hospitalised. However, people transferred to an ICU had a median time of ten days between hospitalisation and death.[192] Abnormal sodium levels during hospitalisation with COVID-19 are associated with poor prognoses: high sodium with a greater risk of death, and low sodium with an increased chance of needing ventilator support.[193][194] Prolonged prothrombin time and elevated C-reactive protein levels on admission to the hospital are associated with severe course of COVID‑19 and with a transfer to ICU.[195][196]
Some early studies suggest 10% to 20% of people with COVID‑19 will experience symptoms lasting longer than a month.[197][198] A majority of those who were admitted to hospital with severe disease report long-term problems including fatigue and shortness of breath.[199] On 30 October 2020, WHO chief Tedros Adhanom warned that "to a significant number of people, the COVID virus poses a range of serious long-term effects." He has described the vast spectrum of COVID‑19 symptoms that fluctuate over time as "really concerning". They range from fatigue, a cough and shortness of breath, to inflammation and injury of major organsШаблон:Sndincluding the lungs and heart, and also neurological and psychologic effects. Symptoms often overlap and can affect any system in the body. Infected people have reported cyclical bouts of fatigue, headaches, months of complete exhaustion, mood swings, and other symptoms. Tedros therefore concluded that a strategy of achieving herd immunity by infection, rather than vaccination, is "morally unconscionable and unfeasible".[200]
In terms of hospital readmissions about 9% of 106,000 individuals had to return for hospital treatment within two months of discharge. The average to readmit was eight days since first hospital visit. There are several risk factors that have been identified as being a cause of multiple admissions to a hospital facility. Among these are advanced age (above 65 years of age) and presence of a chronic condition such as diabetes, COPD, heart failure or chronic kidney disease.[201][202]
According to scientific reviews smokers are more likely to require intensive care or die compared to non-smokers.[203][204] Acting on the same ACE2 pulmonary receptors affected by smoking, air pollution has been correlated with the disease.[204] Short-term[205] and chronic[206] exposure to air pollution seems to enhance morbidity and mortality from COVID‑19.[207][208][209] Pre-existing heart and lung diseases[210] and also obesity, especially in conjunction with fatty liver disease, contributes to an increased health risk of COVID‑19.[204][211][212][213]
It is also assumed that those that are immunocompromised are at higher risk of getting severely sick from SARS-CoV-2.[214] One research study that looked into the COVID‑19 infections in hospitalised kidney transplant recipients found a mortality rate of 11%.[215]
Men with untreated hypogonadism were 2.4 times more likely than men with eugonadism to be hospitalised if they contracted COVID-19; Hypogonad men treated with testosterone were less likely to be hospitalised for COVID-19 than men who were not treated for hypogonadism.[216]
Genetic risk factors
Genetics plays an important role in the ability to fight off Covid.[217] For instance, those that do not produce detectable type I interferons or produce auto-antibodies against these may get much sicker from COVID‑19.[218][219] Genetic screening is able to detect interferon effector genes.[220] Some genetic variants are risk factors in specific populations. For instance, an allele of the DOCK2 gene (dedicator of cytokinesis 2 gene) is a common risk factor in Asian populations but much less common in Europe. The mutation leads to lower expression of DOCK2 especially in younger patients with severe Covid.[221] In fact, many other genes and genetic variants have been found that determine the outcome of SARS-CoV-2 infections.[222]
Children
While very young children have experienced lower rates of infection, older children have a rate of infection that is similar to the population as a whole.[223][224] Children are likely to have milder symptoms and are at lower risk of severe disease than adults.[225] The CDC reports that in the US roughly a third of hospitalised children were admitted to the ICU,[226] while a European multinational study of hospitalised children from June 2020, found that about 8% of children admitted to a hospital needed intensive care.[227] Four of the 582 children (0.7%) in the European study died, but the actual mortality rate may be "substantially lower" since milder cases that did not seek medical help were not included in the study.[228][229]
Long-term effects
Around 10% to 30% of non-hospitalised people with COVID-19 go on to develop long COVID. For those that do need hospitalisation, the incidence of long-term effects is over 50%.[10] Long COVID is an often severe multisystem disease with a large set of symptoms. There are likely various, possibly coinciding, causes.[10] Organ damage from the acute infection can explain a part of the symptoms, but long COVID is also observed in people where organ damage seems to be absent.[230]
By a variety of mechanisms, the lungs are the organs most affected in COVIDШаблон:Nbhyph19.[231] In people requiring hospital admission, up to 98% of CT scans performed show lung abnormalities after 28 days of illness even if they had clinically improved.[232] People with advanced age, severe disease, prolonged ICU stays, or who smoke are more likely to have long-lasting effects, including pulmonary fibrosis.[233] Overall, approximately one-third of those investigated after four weeks will have findings of pulmonary fibrosis or reduced lung function as measured by DLCO, even in asymptomatic people, but with the suggestion of continuing improvement with the passing of more time.[231] After severe disease, lung function can take anywhere from three months to a year or more to return to previous levels.[234]
The risks of cognitive deficit, dementia, psychotic disorders, and epilepsy or seizures persists at an increased level two years after infection.[235]
Immunity
The immune response by humans to SARS-CoV-2 virus occurs as a combination of the cell-mediated immunity and antibody production,[236] just as with most other infections.[237] B cells interact with T cells and begin dividing before selection into the plasma cell, partly on the basis of their affinity for antigen.[238] Since SARS-CoV-2 has been in the human population only since December 2019, it remains unknown if the immunity is long-lasting in people who recover from the disease.[239] The presence of neutralising antibodies in blood strongly correlates with protection from infection, but the level of neutralising antibody declines with time. Those with asymptomatic or mild disease had undetectable levels of neutralising antibody two months after infection. In another study, the level of neutralising antibodies fell four-fold one to four months after the onset of symptoms. However, the lack of antibodies in the blood does not mean antibodies will not be rapidly produced upon reexposure to SARS-CoV-2. Memory B cells specific for the spike and nucleocapsid proteins of SARS-CoV-2 last for at least six months after the appearance of symptoms.[239]
As of August 2021, reinfection with COVID‑19 was possible but uncommon. The first case of reinfection was documented in August 2020.[240] A systematic review found 17 cases of confirmed reinfection in medical literature as of May 2021.[240] With the Omicron variant, as of 2022, reinfections have become common, albeit it is unclear how common.[241] COVID-19 reinfections are thought to likely be less severe than primary infections, especially if one was previously infected by the same variant.[241]Шаблон:Additional citation needed
Mortality
Several measures are commonly used to quantify mortality.[242] These numbers vary by region and over time and are influenced by the volume of testing, healthcare system quality, treatment options, time since the initial outbreak, and population characteristics such as age, sex, and overall health.[243]
The mortality rate reflects the number of deaths within a specific demographic group divided by the population of that demographic group. Consequently, the mortality rate reflects the prevalence as well as the severity of the disease within a given population. Mortality rates are highly correlated to age, with relatively low rates for young people and relatively high rates among the elderly.[244][245][246] In fact, one relevant factor of mortality rates is the age structure of the countries' populations. For example, the case fatality rate for COVID‑19 is lower in India than in the US since India's younger population represents a larger percentage than in the US.[247]
Case fatality rate
The case fatality rate (CFR) reflects the number of deaths divided by the number of diagnosed cases within a given time interval. Based on Johns Hopkins University statistics, the global death-to-case ratio is Шаблон:Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic (Шаблон:Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic/Шаблон:Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic) as of Шаблон:Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic.Шаблон:Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic The number varies by region.[248][249]
-
Total confirmed cases over time
-
Total confirmed cases of COVID‑19 per million people[250]
-
Total confirmed deaths over time
-
Total confirmed deaths due to COVID‑19 per million people[251]
Infection fatality rate
A key metric in gauging the severity of COVID‑19 is the infection fatality rate (IFR), also referred to as the infection fatality ratio or infection fatality risk.[252][253][254] This metric is calculated by dividing the total number of deaths from the disease by the total number of infected individuals; hence, in contrast to the CFR, the IFR incorporates asymptomatic and undiagnosed infections as well as reported cases.[255]
Estimates
A December 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis estimated that population IFR during the first wave of the pandemic was about 0.5% to 1% in many locations (including France, Netherlands, New Zealand, and Portugal), 1% to 2% in other locations (Australia, England, Lithuania, and Spain), and exceeded 2% in Italy.[256] That study also found that most of these differences in IFR reflected corresponding differences in the age composition of the population and age-specific infection rates; in particular, the metaregression estimate of IFR is very low for children and younger adults (e.g., 0.002% at age 10 and 0.01% at age 25) but increases progressively to 0.4% at age 55, 1.4% at age 65, 4.6% at age 75, and 15% at age 85.[256] These results were also highlighted in a December 2020 report issued by the WHO.[257]
| Age group | IFR |
|---|---|
| 0–34 | 0.004% |
| 35–44 | 0.068% |
| 45–54 | 0.23% |
| 55–64 | 0.75% |
| 65–74 | 2.5% |
| 75–84 | 8.5% |
| 85 + | 28.3% |
An analysis of those IFR rates indicates that COVIDШаблон:Nbhyph19 is hazardous not only for the elderly but also for middle-aged adults, for whom the infection fatality rate of COVID-19 is two orders of magnitude greater than the annualised risk of a fatal automobile accident and far more dangerous than seasonal influenza.[256]
Earlier estimates of IFR
At an early stage of the pandemic, the World Health Organization reported estimates of IFR between 0.3% and 1%.[258][259] On 2Шаблон:SpacesJuly, The WHO's chief scientist reported that the average IFR estimate presented at a two-day WHO expert forum was about 0.6%.[260][261] In August, the WHO found that studies incorporating data from broad serology testing in Europe showed IFR estimates converging at approximately 0.5–1%.[262] Firm lower limits of IFRs have been established in a number of locations such as New York City and Bergamo in Italy since the IFR cannot be less than the population fatality rate. (After sufficient time however, people can get reinfected).[263] As of 10 July, in New York City, with a population of 8.4 million, 23,377 individuals (18,758 confirmed and 4,619 probable) have died with COVID‑19 (0.3% of the population).[264] Antibody testing in New York City suggested an IFR of ≈0.9%,[265] and ≈1.4%.[266] In Bergamo province, 0.6% of the population has died.[267] In September 2020, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported preliminary estimates of age-specific IFRs for public health planning purposes.[268]
Sex differences
| Percentage of infected people who are hospitalised | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0–19 | 20–29 | 30–39 | 40–49 | 50–59 | 60–69 | 70–79 | 80+ | Total | |
| Female | Шаблон:Shade (0.07–0.2) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.3–0.8) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.5–1.5) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.7–2.1) |
Шаблон:Shade (1.5–4.2) |
Шаблон:Shade (2.9–8.3) |
Шаблон:Shade (4.4–12.8) |
Шаблон:Shade (10.9–31.6) |
Шаблон:Shade (1.5–4.3) |
| Male | Шаблон:Shade (0.08–0.2) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.3–0.9) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.7–1.9) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.9–2.6) |
Шаблон:Shade (1.8–5.2) |
Шаблон:Shade (3.7–10.9) |
Шаблон:Shade (6.2–17.9) |
Шаблон:Shade (21.1–61.3) |
Шаблон:Shade (1.8–5.3) |
| Total | Шаблон:Shade (0.08–0.2) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.3–0.8) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.6–1.7) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.8–2.3) |
Шаблон:Shade (1.6–4.7) |
Шаблон:Shade (3.3–9.5) |
Шаблон:Shade (5.2–15.1) |
Шаблон:Shade (14.8–42.7) |
Шаблон:Shade (1.7–4.8) |
| Percentage of hospitalised people who go to Intensive Care Unit | |||||||||
| 0–19 | 20–29 | 30–39 | 40–49 | 50–59 | 60–69 | 70–79 | 80+ | Total | |
| Female | Шаблон:Shade (14.3–19.3) |
Шаблон:Shade (7.5–9.9) |
Шаблон:Shade (10.9–13.0) |
Шаблон:Shade (15.6–17.7) |
Шаблон:Shade (19.8–21.6) |
Шаблон:Shade (22.2–24.0) |
Шаблон:Shade (18.0–19.5) |
Шаблон:Shade (4.0–4.5) |
Шаблон:Shade (13.9–14.7) |
| Male | Шаблон:Shade (23.1–31.1) |
Шаблон:Shade (12.2–16.0) |
Шаблон:Shade (17.6–20.9) |
Шаблон:Shade (25.4–28.4) |
Шаблон:Shade (32.0–34.8) |
Шаблон:Shade (36.0–38.6) |
Шаблон:Shade (29.1–31.3) |
Шаблон:Shade (6.5–7.2) |
Шаблон:Shade (22.6–23.6) |
| Total | Шаблон:Shade (19.1–25.7) |
Шаблон:Shade (10.1–13.2) |
Шаблон:Shade (14.5–17.3) |
Шаблон:Shade (21.0–23.5) |
Шаблон:Shade (26.5–28.7) |
Шаблон:Shade (29.8–31.8) |
Шаблон:Shade (24.1–25.8) |
Шаблон:Shade (5.3–5.9) |
Шаблон:Shade (18.7–19.44) |
| Percent of hospitalised people who die | |||||||||
| 0–19 | 20–29 | 30–39 | 40–49 | 50–59 | 60–69 | 70–79 | 80+ | Total | |
| Female | Шаблон:Shade (0.2–1.0) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.5–1.3) |
Шаблон:Shade (1.2–1.9) |
Шаблон:Shade (2.3–3.0) |
Шаблон:Shade (4.8–5.6) |
Шаблон:Shade (9.5–10.6) |
Шаблон:Shade (16.0–17.4) |
Шаблон:Shade (24.4–26.0) |
Шаблон:Shade (14.0–14.8) |
| Male | Шаблон:Shade (0.3–1.5) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.8–1.9) |
Шаблон:Shade (1.7–2.7) |
Шаблон:Shade (3.3–4.4) |
Шаблон:Shade (7.0–8.2) |
Шаблон:Shade (14.1–15.6) |
Шаблон:Shade (23.7–25.6) |
Шаблон:Shade (36.1–38.2) |
Шаблон:Shade (20.8–21.7) |
| Total | Шаблон:Shade (0.2–1.3) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.7–1.6) |
Шаблон:Shade (1.5–2.3) |
Шаблон:Shade (2.9–3.8) |
Шаблон:Shade (6.0–7.0) |
Шаблон:Shade (12.0–13.2) |
Шаблон:Shade (20.3–21.7) |
Шаблон:Shade (30.9–32.4) |
Шаблон:Shade (17.8–18.4) |
| Percent of infected people who dieШаблон:Sndinfection fatality rate (IFR) | |||||||||
| 0–19 | 20–29 | 30–39 | 40–49 | 50–59 | 60–69 | 70–79 | 80+ | Total | |
| Female | Шаблон:Shade (<0.001–0.002) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.002–0.007) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.007–0.02) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.02–0.06) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.08–0.2) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.3–0.8) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.7–2.1) |
Шаблон:Shade (2.7–8.0) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.2–0.6) |
| Male | Шаблон:Shade (<0.001–0.003) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.003–0.01) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.02–0.05) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.03–0.1) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.1–0.4) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.6–1.6) |
Шаблон:Shade (1.5–1.4) |
Шаблон:Shade (7.9–22.7) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.4–1.1) |
| Total | Шаблон:Shade (<0.001–0.002) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.003–0.01) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.01–0.03) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.03–0.08) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.1–0.3) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.4–1.2) |
Шаблон:Shade (1.1–3.2) |
Шаблон:Shade (4.7–13.5) |
Шаблон:Shade (0.3–0.9) |
| Numbers in parentheses are 95% credible intervals for the estimates. | |||||||||
COVID‑19 case fatality rates are higher among men than women in most countries. However, in a few countries like India, Nepal, Vietnam, and Slovenia the fatality cases are higher in women than men.[247] Globally, men are more likely to be admitted to the ICU and more likely to die.[270][271] One meta-analysis found that globally, men were more likely to get COVID‑19 than women; there were approximately 55 men and 45 women per 100 infections (CI: 51.43–56.58).[272]
The Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention reported the death rate was 2.8% for men and 1.7% for women.[273] Later reviews in June 2020 indicated that there is no significant difference in susceptibility or in CFR between genders.[274][275] One review acknowledges the different mortality rates in Chinese men, suggesting that it may be attributable to lifestyle choices such as smoking and drinking alcohol rather than genetic factors.[276] Smoking, which in some countries like China is mainly a male activity, is a habit that contributes to increasing significantly the case fatality rates among men.[247] Sex-based immunological differences, lesser prevalence of smoking in women and men developing co-morbid conditions such as hypertension at a younger age than women could have contributed to the higher mortality in men.[277] In Europe as of February 2020, 57% of the infected people were men and 72% of those died with COVID‑19 were men.[278] As of April 2020, the US government is not tracking sex-related data of COVID‑19 infections.[279] Research has shown that viral illnesses like Ebola, HIV, influenza and SARS affect men and women differently.[279]
Ethnic differences
In the US, a greater proportion of deaths due to COVID‑19 have occurred among African Americans and other minority groups.[280] Structural factors that prevent them from practising social distancing include their concentration in crowded substandard housing and in "essential" occupations such as retail grocery workers, public transit employees, health-care workers and custodial staff. Greater prevalence of lacking health insurance and care of underlying conditions such as diabetes,[281] hypertension, and heart disease also increase their risk of death.[282] Similar issues affect Native American and Latino communities.[280] On the one hand, in the Dominican Republic there is a clear example of both gender and ethnic inequality. In this Latin American territory, there is great inequality and precariousness that especially affects Dominican women, with greater emphasis on those of Haitian descent.[283] According to a US health policy non-profit, 34% of American Indian and Alaska Native People (AIAN) non-elderly adults are at risk of serious illness compared to 21% of white non-elderly adults.[284] The source attributes it to disproportionately high rates of many health conditions that may put them at higher risk as well as living conditions like lack of access to clean water.[285]
Leaders have called for efforts to research and address the disparities.[286] In the UK, a greater proportion of deaths due to COVID‑19 have occurred in those of a Black, Asian, and other ethnic minority background.[287][288][289] More severe impacts upon patients including the relative incidence of the necessity of hospitalisation requirements, and vulnerability to the disease has been associated via DNA analysis to be expressed in genetic variants at chromosomal region 3, features that are associated with European Neanderthal heritage. That structure imposes greater risks that those affected will develop a more severe form of the disease.[290] The findings are from Professor Svante Pääbo and researchers he leads at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and the Karolinska Institutet.[290] This admixture of modern human and Neanderthal genes is estimated to have occurred roughly between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago in Southern Europe.[290]
Comorbidities
Biological factors (immune response) and the general behaviour (habits) can strongly determine the consequences of COVID‑19.[247] Most of those who die of COVID‑19 have pre-existing (underlying) conditions, including hypertension, diabetes mellitus,[281] and cardiovascular disease.[291] According to March data from the United States, 89% of those hospitalised had preexisting conditions.[292] The Italian Istituto Superiore di Sanità reported that out of 8.8% of deaths where medical charts were available, 96.1% of people had at least one comorbidity with the average person having 3.4 diseases.[192] According to this report the most common comorbidities are hypertension (66% of deaths), type 2 diabetes (29.8% of deaths), ischaemic heart disease (27.6% of deaths), atrial fibrillation (23.1% of deaths) and chronic renal failure (20.2% of deaths).
Most critical respiratory comorbidities according to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), are: moderate or severe asthma, pre-existing COPD, pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis.[293] Evidence stemming from meta-analysis of several smaller research papers also suggests that smoking can be associated with worse outcomes.[294][295] When someone with existing respiratory problems is infected with COVID‑19, they might be at greater risk for severe symptoms.[296] COVID‑19 also poses a greater risk to people who misuse opioids and amphetamines, insofar as their drug use may have caused lung damage.[297]
In August 2020, the CDC issued a caution that tuberculosis (TB) infections could increase the risk of severe illness or death. The WHO recommended that people with respiratory symptoms be screened for both diseases, as testing positive for COVID‑19 could not rule out co-infections. Some projections have estimated that reduced TB detection due to the pandemic could result in 6.3 million additional TB cases and 1.4 million TB-related deaths by 2025.[298]
History
Шаблон:Update section Шаблон:Main Шаблон:COVID-19 pandemic sidebar The virus is thought to be of natural animal origin, most likely through spillover infection.[54][299][300] A joint-study conducted in early 2021 by the People's Republic of China and the World Health Organization indicated that the virus descended from a coronavirus that infects wild bats, and likely spread to humans through an intermediary wildlife host.[301] There are several theories about where the index case originated and investigations into the origin of the pandemic are ongoing.[302] According to articles published in July 2022 in Science, virus transmission into humans occurred through two spillover events in November 2019 and was likely due to live wildlife trade on the Huanan wet market in the city of Wuhan (Hubei, China).[303][304][305] Doubts about the conclusions have mostly centered on the precise site of spillover.[306] Earlier phylogenetics estimated that SARS-CoV-2 arose in October or November 2019.[307][308][309] A phylogenetic algorithm analysis suggested that the virus may have been circulating in Guangdong before Wuhan.[310]
Most scientists believe the virus spilled into human populations through natural zoonosis, similar to the SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV outbreaks, and consistent with other pandemics in human history.[311][312] According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change several social and environmental factors including climate change, natural ecosystem destruction and wildlife trade increased the likelihood of such zoonotic spillover.[313][314] One study made with the support of the European Union found climate change increased the likelihood of the pandemic by influencing distribution of bat species.[315][316]
Available evidence suggests that the SARS-CoV-2 virus was originally harboured by bats, and spread to humans multiple times from infected wild animals at the Huanan Seafood Market in Wuhan in December 2019.[311][312] A minority of scientists and some members of the U.S intelligence community believe the virus may have been unintentionally leaked from a laboratory such as the Wuhan Institute of Virology.[317][318] The US intelligence community has mixed views on the issue,[319][320] but overall agrees with the scientific consensus that the virus was not developed as a biological weapon and is unlikely to have been genetically engineered.[321][322][323][324] There is no evidence SARS-CoV-2 existed in any laboratory prior to the pandemic.[325][326][327]
The first confirmed human infections were in Wuhan. A study of the first 41 cases of confirmed COVID‑19, published in January 2020 in The Lancet, reported the earliest date of onset of symptoms as 1Шаблон:SpacesDecember 2019.[328][329][330] Official publications from the WHO reported the earliest onset of symptoms as 8Шаблон:SpacesDecember 2019.[331] Human-to-human transmission was confirmed by the WHO and Chinese authorities by 20 January 2020.[332][333] According to official Chinese sources, these were mostly linked to the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, which also sold live animals.[334] In May 2020, George Gao, the director of the CDC, said animal samples collected from the seafood market had tested negative for the virus, indicating that the market was the site of an early superspreading event, but that it was not the site of the initial outbreak.[335] Traces of the virus have been found in wastewater samples that were collected in Milan and Turin, Italy, on 18 December 2019.[336]
By December 2019, the spread of infection was almost entirely driven by human-to-human transmission.[273][337] The number of COVID-19 cases in Hubei gradually increased, reaching sixty by 20 December,[338] and at least 266 by 31 December.[339] On 24 December, Wuhan Central Hospital sent a bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) sample from an unresolved clinical case to sequencing company Vision Medicals. On 27 and 28 December, Vision Medicals informed the Wuhan Central Hospital and the Chinese CDC of the results of the test, showing a new coronavirus.[340] A pneumonia cluster of unknown cause was observed on 26 December and treated by the doctor Zhang Jixian in Hubei Provincial Hospital, who informed the Wuhan Jianghan CDC on 27 December.[341] On 30 December, a test report addressed to Wuhan Central Hospital, from company CapitalBio Medlab, stated an erroneous positive result for SARS, causing a group of doctors at Wuhan Central Hospital to alert their colleagues and relevant hospital authorities of the result. The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission issued a notice to various medical institutions on "the treatment of pneumonia of unknown cause" that same evening.[342] Eight of these doctors, including Li Wenliang (punished on 3Шаблон:SpacesJanuary),[343] were later admonished by the police for spreading false rumours and another, Ai Fen, was reprimanded by her superiors for raising the alarm.[344]
The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission made the first public announcement of a pneumonia outbreak of unknown cause on 31 December, confirming 27 cases[345][346][347]Шаблон:Sndenough to trigger an investigation.[348]
During the early stages of the outbreak, the number of cases doubled approximately every seven and a half days.[349] In early and mid-January 2020, the virus spread to other Chinese provinces, helped by the Chinese New Year migration and Wuhan being a transport hub and major rail interchange.[59] On 20 January, China reported nearly 140 new cases in one day, including two people in Beijing and one in Shenzhen.[350] Later official data shows 6,174 people had already developed symptoms by then,[273] and more may have been infected.[351] A report in The Lancet on 24 January indicated human transmission, strongly recommended personal protective equipment for health workers, and said testing for the virus was essential due to its "pandemic potential".[97][352] On 30 January, the WHO declared COVID-19 a Public Health Emergency of International Concern.[351] By this time, the outbreak spread by a factor of 100 to 200 times.[353]
Italy had its first confirmed cases on 31 January 2020, two tourists from China.[354] Italy overtook China as the country with the most deaths on 19 March 2020.[355] By 26 March the United States had overtaken China and Italy with the highest number of confirmed cases in the world.[356] Research on coronavirus genomes indicates the majority of COVID-19 cases in New York came from European travellers, rather than directly from China or any other Asian country.[357] Retesting of prior samples found a person in France who had the virus on 27 December 2019,[358][359] and a person in the United States who died from the disease on 6Шаблон:SpacesFebruary 2020.[360]
RT-PCR testing of untreated wastewater samples from Brazil and Italy have suggested detection of SARS-CoV-2 as early as November and December 2019, respectively, but the methods of such sewage studies have not been optimised, many have not been peer-reviewed, details are often missing, and there is a risk of false positives due to contamination or if only one gene target is detected.[361] A September 2020 review journal article said, "The possibility that the COVID‑19 infection had already spread to Europe at the end of last year is now indicated by abundant, even if partially circumstantial, evidence", including pneumonia case numbers and radiology in France and Italy in November and December.[362]
Шаблон:As of, Reuters reported that it had estimated the worldwide total number of deaths due to COVID‑19 to have exceeded five million.[363]
The Public Health Emergency of International Concern for COVID-19 ended on May 5, 2023. By this time, everyday life in most countries had returned to how it was before the pandemic.[364][365]
Misinformation
After the initial outbreak of COVIDШаблон:Nbhyph19, misinformation and disinformation regarding the origin, scale, prevention, treatment, and other aspects of the disease rapidly spread online.[366][367][368]
In September 2020, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published preliminary estimates of the risk of death by age groups in the United States, but those estimates were widely misreported and misunderstood.[369][370]
Other species
Humans appear to be capable of spreading the virus to some other animals,[371][372] a type of disease transmission referred to as zooanthroponosis.[373][374]
Some pets, especially cats and ferrets, can catch this virus from infected humans.[375][376] Symptoms in cats include respiratory (such as a cough) and digestive symptoms.[375] Cats can spread the virus to other cats, and may be able to spread the virus to humans, but cat-to-human transmission of SARS-CoV-2 has not been proven.[375][377] Compared to cats, dogs are less susceptible to this infection.[377] Behaviours which increase the risk of transmission include kissing, licking, and petting the animal.[377]
The virus does not appear to be able to infect pigs, ducks, or chickens at all.[375] Mice, rats, and rabbits, if they can be infected at all, are unlikely to be involved in spreading the virus.[377]
Tigers and lions in zoos have become infected as a result of contact with infected humans.[377] As expected, monkeys and great ape species such as orangutans can also be infected with the COVID‑19 virus.[377]
Minks, which are in the same family as ferrets, have been infected.[377] Minks may be asymptomatic, and can also spread the virus to humans.[377] Multiple countries have identified infected animals in mink farms.[378] Denmark, a major producer of mink pelts, ordered the slaughter of all minks over fears of viral mutations,[378] following an outbreak referred to as Cluster 5. A vaccine for mink and other animals is being researched.[378]
Research
International research on vaccines and medicines in COVIDШаблон:Nbhyph19 is underway by government organisations, academic groups, and industry researchers.[379][380] The CDC has classified it to require a BSL3 grade laboratory.[381] There has been a great deal of COVID‑19 research, involving accelerated research processes and publishing shortcuts to meet the global demand.[382]
Шаблон:As of, hundreds of clinical trials have been undertaken, with research happening on every continent except Antarctica.[383] Шаблон:As of, more than 200 possible treatments have been studied in humans.[384]
Transmission and prevention research
Modelling research has been conducted with several objectives, including predictions of the dynamics of transmission,[385] diagnosis and prognosis of infection,[386] estimation of the impact of interventions,[387][388] or allocation of resources.[389] Modelling studies are mostly based on compartmental models in epidemiology,[390] estimating the number of infected people over time under given conditions. Several other types of models have been developed and used during the COVIDШаблон:Nbhyph19 pandemic including computational fluid dynamics models to study the flow physics of COVIDШаблон:Nbhyph19,[391] retrofits of crowd movement models to study occupant exposure,[392] mobility-data based models to investigate transmission,[393] or the use of macroeconomic models to assess the economic impact of the pandemic.[394]
Repurposed antiviral drugs make up most of the research into COVID‑19 treatments.[395][396] Other candidates in trials include vasodilators, corticosteroids, immune therapies, lipoic acid, bevacizumab, and recombinant angiotensin-converting enzyme 2.[396]
In March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) initiated the Solidarity trial to assess the treatment effects of some promising drugs: an experimental drug called remdesivir; anti-malarial drugs chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine; two anti-HIV drugs, lopinavir/ritonavir; and interferon-beta.[397][398] More than 300 active clinical trials are underway as of April 2020.[43]
Research on the antimalarial drugs hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine showed that they were ineffective at best,[399][400] and that they may reduce the antiviral activity of remdesivir.[401] Шаблон:As of, France, Italy, and Belgium had banned the use of hydroxychloroquine as a COVID‑19 treatment.[402]
In June, initial results from the randomised RECOVERY Trial in the United Kingdom showed that dexamethasone reduced mortality by one third for people who are critically ill on ventilators and one fifth for those receiving supplemental oxygen.[403] Because this is a well-tested and widely available treatment, it was welcomed by the WHO, which is in the process of updating treatment guidelines to include dexamethasone and other steroids.[404][405] Based on those preliminary results, dexamethasone treatment has been recommended by the NIH for patients with COVID‑19 who are mechanically ventilated or who require supplemental oxygen but not in patients with COVID‑19 who do not require supplemental oxygen.[406]
In September 2020, the WHO released updated guidance on using corticosteroids for COVID‑19.[407][408] The WHO recommends systemic corticosteroids rather than no systemic corticosteroids for the treatment of people with severe and critical COVID‑19 (strong recommendation, based on moderate certainty evidence).[407] The WHO suggests not to use corticosteroids in the treatment of people with non-severe COVID‑19 (conditional recommendation, based on low certainty evidence).[407] The updated guidance was based on a meta-analysis of clinical trials of critically ill COVID‑19 patients.[409][410]
In September 2020, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) endorsed the use of dexamethasone in adults and adolescents from twelve years of age and weighing at least Шаблон:Convert who require supplemental oxygen therapy.[411][412] Dexamethasone can be taken by mouth or given as an injection or infusion (drip) into a vein.[411]
In November 2020, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an emergency use authorisation for the investigational monoclonal antibody therapy bamlanivimab for the treatment of mild-to-moderate COVID‑19.[413] Bamlanivimab is authorised for people with positive results of direct SARS-CoV-2 viral testing who are twelve years of age and older weighing at least Шаблон:Convert, and who are at high risk for progressing to severe COVID‑19 or hospitalisation.[413] This includes those who are 65 years of age or older, or who have chronic medical conditions.[413]
In February 2021, the FDA issued an emergency use authorisation (EUA) for bamlanivimab and etesevimab administered together for the treatment of mild to moderate COVID‑19 in people twelve years of age or older weighing at least Шаблон:Convert who test positive for SARS‑CoV‑2 and who are at high risk for progressing to severe COVID‑19. The authorised use includes treatment for those who are 65 years of age or older or who have certain chronic medical conditions.[414]
In April 2021, the FDA revoked the emergency use authorisation (EUA) that allowed for the investigational monoclonal antibody therapy bamlanivimab, when administered alone, to be used for the treatment of mild-to-moderate COVID‑19 in adults and certain paediatric patients.[415]
Cytokine storm
A cytokine storm can be a complication in the later stages of severe COVID‑19. A cytokine storm is a potentially deadly immune reaction where a large amount of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines are released too quickly. A cytokine storm can lead to ARDS and multiple organ failure.[416] Data collected from Jin Yin-tan Hospital in Wuhan, China indicates that patients who had more severe responses to COVID‑19 had greater amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in their system than patients who had milder responses. These high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines indicate presence of a cytokine storm.[417]
Tocilizumab has been included in treatment guidelines by China's National Health Commission after a small study was completed.[418][419] It is undergoing a [[Phase IIb|PhaseШаблон:SpacesII]] non-randomised trial at the national level in Italy after showing positive results in people with severe disease.[420][421] Combined with a serum ferritin blood test to identify a cytokine storm (also called cytokine storm syndrome, not to be confused with cytokine release syndrome), it is meant to counter such developments, which are thought to be the cause of death in some affected people.[422] The interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R) antagonist was approved by the FDA to undergo a PhaseШаблон:SpacesIII clinical trial assessing its effectiveness on COVID‑19 based on retrospective case studies for the treatment of steroid-refractory cytokine release syndrome induced by a different cause, CAR T cell therapy, in 2017.[423] There is no randomised, controlled evidence that tocilizumab is an efficacious treatment for CRS. Prophylactic tocilizumab has been shown to increase serum IL-6 levels by saturating the IL-6R, driving IL-6 across the blood–brain barrier, and exacerbating neurotoxicity while having no effect on the incidence of CRS.[424]
Lenzilumab, an anti-GM-CSF monoclonal antibody, is protective in murine models for CAR T cell-induced CRS and neurotoxicity and is a viable therapeutic option due to the observed increase of pathogenic GM-CSF secreting TШаблон:Spacescells in hospitalised patients with COVID‑19.[425]
Passive antibodies
Transferring purified and concentrated antibodies produced by the immune systems of those who have recovered from COVID‑19 to people who need them is being investigated as a non-vaccine method of passive immunisation.[426][427] Viral neutralisation is the anticipated mechanism of action by which passive antibody therapy can mediate defence against SARS-CoV-2. The spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 is the primary target for neutralising antibodies.[428] As of 8Шаблон:SpacesAugust 2020, eight neutralising antibodies targeting the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 have entered clinical studies.[429] It has been proposed that selection of broad-neutralising antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV might be useful for treating not only COVID‑19 but also future SARS-related CoV infections.[428] Other mechanisms, however, such as antibody-dependant cellular cytotoxicity or phagocytosis, may be possible.[426] Other forms of passive antibody therapy, for example, using manufactured monoclonal antibodies, are in development.[426]
The use of passive antibodies to treat people with active COVIDШаблон:Nbhyph19 is also being studied. This involves the production of convalescent serum, which consists of the liquid portion of the blood from people who recovered from the infection and contains antibodies specific to this virus, which is then administered to active patients.[426] This strategy was tried for SARS with inconclusive results.[426] An updated Cochrane review in May 2023 found high certainty evidence that, for the treatment of people with moderate to severe COVID‑19, convalescent plasma did not reduce mortality or bring about symptom improvement.[427] There continues to be uncertainty about the safety of convalescent plasma administration to people with COVID‑19 and differing outcomes measured in different studies limits their use in determining efficacy.[427]
Bioethics
Since the outbreak of the COVID‑19 pandemic, scholars have explored the bioethics, normative economics, and political theories of healthcare policies related to the public health crisis.[430] Academics have pointed to the moral distress of healthcare workers, ethics of distributing scarce healthcare resources such as ventilators,[431] and the global justice of vaccine diplomacies.Шаблон:Citation needed The socio-economic inequalities between genders,[432] races,[433] groups with disabilities,[434] communities,[435] regions, countries,[436] and continents have also drawn attention in academia and the general public.
See also
- Coronavirus diseases, a group of closely related syndromes
- Disease X, a WHO term
- Шаблон:Annotated link
- Шаблон:Annotated link
References
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- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Islam MA |date=April 2021 |title=Prevalence and characteristics of fever in adult and paediatric patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A systematic review and meta-analysis of 17515 patients |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=e0249788 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1649788I |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0249788 |pmc=8023501 |pmid=33822812 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}
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- ↑ {{#invoke:cite web||date=6 April 2020|title=Interim Clinical Guidance for Management of Patients with Confirmed Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/clinical-guidance-management-patients.html%7Curl-status=live%7Carchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302201644/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/clinical-guidance-management-patients.html%7Carchive-date=2 March 2020|access-date=19 April 2020|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)}}
- ↑ 10,0 10,1 10,2 {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Davis HE, McCorkell L, Vogel JM, Topol EJ |date=March 2023 |title=Long COVID: major findings, mechanisms and recommendations |journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=133–146 |doi=10.1038/s41579-022-00846-2 |pmc=9839201 |pmid=36639608}}
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- ↑ 14,0 14,1 14,2 {{#invoke:cite web||title=Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests (NAATs)|publisher=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|date=11 February 2020|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/naats.html%7Caccess-date=31 July 2022}}
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- ↑ 16,0 16,1 16,2 16,3 16,4 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Li C, Zhao C, Bao J, Tang B, Wang Y, Gu B | title = Laboratory diagnosis of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) | journal = Clinica Chimica Acta; International Journal of Clinical Chemistry | volume = 510 | pages = 35–46 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 32621814 | pmc = 7329657 | doi = 10.1016/j.cca.2020.06.045 }}
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- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news||url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/05/asia/wuhan-coronavirus-update-death-toll-spike-intl-hnk/index.html%7Ctitle=Wuhan coronavirus deaths spike again as outbreak shows no signs of slowing| vauthors = Griffiths J | publisher=CNN|access-date=4 April 2020 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Jiang S, Xia S, Ying T, Lu L |date=May 2020 |title=A novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) causing pneumonia-associated respiratory syndrome |journal=Cellular & Molecular Immunology |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=554 |doi=10.1038/s41423-020-0372-4 |pmc=7091741 |pmid=32024976 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KK, Chu H, Yang J, Xing F, Liu J, Yip CC, Poon RW, Tsoi HW, Lo SK, Chan KH, Poon VK, Chan WM, Ip JD, Cai JP, Cheng VC, Chen H, Hui CK, Yuen KY |date=February 2020 |title=A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster |journal=Lancet |volume=395 |issue=10223 |pages=514–523 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30154-9 |pmc=7159286 |pmid=31986261 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Shablovsky S |date=September 2017 |title=The legacy of the Spanish flu |journal=Science |volume=357 |issue=6357 |pages=1245 |bibcode=2017Sci...357.1245S |doi=10.1126/science.aao4093 |issn=0036-8075 |doi-access=free |s2cid=44116811 |title-link=doi}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||title=Stop the coronavirus stigma now |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-01009-0 |access-date=16 April 2020 |journal=Nature |date=7 April 2020 |volume=580 |issue=7802 |pages=165 |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-01009-0|pmid=32265571 |bibcode=2020Natur.580..165. |s2cid=214809950}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200121-sitrep-1-2019-ncov.pdf%7Ctitle=Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Situation Report – 1|date=21 January 2020|website=World Health Organization (WHO)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200130-sitrep-10-ncov.pdf%7Ctitle=Novel Coronavirus(2019-nCoV) Situation Report – 10 |date=30 January 2020|website=World Health Organization (WHO)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||title=Novel coronavirus named 'Covid-19': WHO |url=https://www.todayonline.com/world/wuhan-novel-coronavirus-named-covid-19-who |access-date=11 February 2020 |work=Today|location=Singapore |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200321085608/https://www.todayonline.com/world/wuhan-novel-coronavirus-named-covid-19-who |archive-date=21 March 2020 |url-status=live}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||title=The coronavirus spreads racism against – and among – ethnic Chinese |url=https://www.economist.com/china/2020/02/17/the-coronavirus-spreads-racism-against-and-among-ethnic-chinese |newspaper=The Economist |date=17 February 2020 |access-date=17 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217223902/https://www.economist.com/china/2020/02/17/the-coronavirus-spreads-racism-against-and-among-ethnic-chinese |archive-date=17 February 2020 |url-status=live}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite report||url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/163636/WHO_HSE_FOS_15.1_eng.pdf%7Ctitle=World Health Organization Best Practices for the Naming of New Human Infectious Diseases |date=May 2015|publisher=World Health Organization (WHO) |hdl=10665/163636 |hdl-access=free}}
- ↑ 29,0 29,1 {{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it%7Ctitle=Naming the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the virus that causes it|website=World Health Organization (WHO)|access-date=13 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228035651/https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it%7Carchive-date=28 February 2020|url-status=live}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite web ||title=Novel Coronavirus(2019-nCoV) Situation Report – 22 |url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200211-sitrep-22-ncov.pdf |publisher=WHO |date=11 February 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Gover AR, Harper SB, Langton L |date=July 2020 |title=Anti-Asian Hate Crime During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Exploring the Reproduction of Inequality |journal=American Journal of Criminal Justice |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=647–667 |doi=10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1 |pmc=7364747 |pmid=32837171}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Hui DS, I Azhar E, Madani TA, Ntoumi F, Kock R, Dar O, Ippolito G, Mchugh TD, Memish ZA, Drosten C, Zumla A, Petersen E | title = The continuing 2019-nCoV epidemic threat of novel coronaviruses to global health – The latest 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China | journal = International Journal of Infectious Diseases | volume = 91 | pages = 264–266 | date = February 2020 | pmid = 31953166 | pmc = 7128332 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.01.009 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Murthy S, Gomersall CD, Fowler RA | title = Care for Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19 | journal = JAMA | volume = 323 | issue = 15 | pages = 1499–1500 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32159735 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2020.3633 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite book||title=StatPearls|vauthors=Cascella M, Rajnik M, Cuomo A, Dulebohn SC, Di Napoli R|date=2020|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|location=Treasure Island (FL)|chapter=Features, Evaluation and Treatment Coronavirus (COVID-19)|pmid=32150360|access-date=18 March 2020|chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554776/}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Heymann DL, Shindo N | title = COVID-19: what is next for public health? | journal = Lancet | volume = 395 | issue = 10224 | pages = 542–545 | date = February 2020 | pmid = 32061313 | pmc = 7138015 | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30374-3 | collaboration = WHO Scientific and Technical Advisory Group for Infectious Hazards }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Romiti GF, Corica B, Lip GY, Proietti M | title = Prevalence and Impact of Atrial Fibrillation in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | journal = Journal of Clinical Medicine | volume = 10 | issue = 11 | pages = 2490 | date = June 2021 | pmid = 34199857 | doi = 10.3390/jcm10112490 | pmc = 8200114 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Wen W, Zhang H, Zhou M, Cheng Y, Ye L, Chen J, Wang M, Feng Z | title = Arrhythmia in patients with severe coronavirus disease (COVID-19): a meta-analysis | journal = European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences | volume = 24 | issue = 21 | pages = 11395–11401 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 33215461 | doi = 10.26355/eurrev_202011_23632 | s2cid = 227077132 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Long B, Brady WJ, Koyfman A, Gottlieb M | title = Cardiovascular complications in COVID-19 | journal = The American Journal of Emergency Medicine | volume = 38 | issue = 7 | pages = 1504–1507 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32317203 | pmc = 7165109 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajem.2020.04.048 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Puntmann VO, Carerj ML, Wieters I, Fahim M, Arendt C, Hoffmann J, Shchendrygina A, Escher F, Vasa-Nicotera M, Zeiher AM, Vehreschild M, Nagel E | title = Outcomes of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Patients Recently Recovered From Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) | journal = JAMA Cardiology | volume = 5 | issue = 11 | pages = 1265–1273 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 32730619 | pmc = 7385689 | doi = 10.1001/jamacardio.2020.3557 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Lindner D, Fitzek A, Bräuninger H, Aleshcheva G, Edler C, Meissner K, Scherschel K, Kirchhof P, Escher F, Schultheiss HP, Blankenberg S, Püschel K, Westermann D | title = Association of Cardiac Infection With SARS-CoV-2 in Confirmed COVID-19 Autopsy Cases | journal = JAMA Cardiology | volume = 5 | issue = 11 | pages = 1281–1285 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 32730555 | pmc = 7385672 | doi = 10.1001/jamacardio.2020.3551 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Siripanthong B, Nazarian S, Muser D, Deo R, Santangeli P, Khanji MY, Cooper LT, Chahal CA | title = Recognizing COVID-19-related myocarditis: The possible pathophysiology and proposed guideline for diagnosis and management | journal = Heart Rhythm | volume = 17 | issue = 9 | pages = 1463–1471 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32387246 | pmc = 7199677 | doi = 10.1016/j.hrthm.2020.05.001 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Xu L, Liu J, Lu M, Yang D, Zheng X | title = Liver injury during highly pathogenic human coronavirus infections | journal = Liver International | volume = 40 | issue = 5 | pages = 998–1004 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32170806 | pmc = 7228361 | doi = 10.1111/liv.14435 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}
- ↑ 43,0 43,1 43,2 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Sanders JM, Monogue ML, Jodlowski TZ, Cutrell JB | title = Pharmacologic Treatments for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Review | journal = JAMA | volume = 323 | issue = 18 | pages = 1824–1836 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32282022 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2020.6019 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Carod-Artal FJ | title = Neurological complications of coronavirus and COVID-19 | journal = Revista de Neurología | volume = 70 | issue = 9 | pages = 311–322 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32329044 | doi = 10.33588/rn.7009.2020179 | s2cid = 226200547 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Toscano G, Palmerini F, Ravaglia S, Ruiz L, Invernizzi P, Cuzzoni MG, Franciotta D, Baldanti F, Daturi R, Postorino P, Cavallini A, Micieli G | title = Guillain-Barré Syndrome Associated with SARS-CoV-2 | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 382 | issue = 26 | pages = 2574–2576 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32302082 | pmc = 7182017 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMc2009191 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children and adolescents temporally related to COVID-19 |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/multisystem-inflammatory-syndrome-in-children-and-adolescents-with-covid-19 |website=World Health Organization (WHO) |date=15 May 2020|access-date=20 May 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite report ||title=HAN Archive – 00432 |url=https://emergency.cdc.gov/han/2020/han00432.asp |website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) |access-date=20 May 2020 |date=15 May 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Poyiadji N, Shahin G, Noujaim D, Stone M, Patel S, Griffith B | title = COVID-19-associated Acute Hemorrhagic Necrotizing Encephalopathy: Imaging Features | journal = Radiology | volume = 296 | issue = 2 | pages = E119–E120 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32228363 | pmc = 7233386 | doi = 10.1148/radiol.2020201187 }}
- ↑ 49,0 49,1 {{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Córdoba-Vives S, Peñaranda G|date=April 2020|title=COVID-19 y Embarazo|url=https://revistamedicacr.com/index.php/rmcr/article/viewFile/288/265%7Cjournal=Medical Journal of Costa Rica |pages=629 |language=es|access-date=14 February 2022|archive-date=18 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618082133/http://revistamedicacr.com/index.php/rmcr/article/viewFile/288/265%7Curl-status=dead}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Das S, Dhar S |title=Mucormycosis Following COVID-19 Infections: an Insight |journal=The Indian Journal of Surgery |volume=84| pages=585–586 |date=July 2021 |issue=3 |pmid=34276145 |pmc=8270771 |doi=10.1007/s12262-021-03028-1 |s2cid=235782159}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Baruah C, Devi P, Deka B, Sharma DK |date=June 2021|title=Mucormycosis and Aspergillosis have been Linked to Covid-19-Related Fungal Infections in India |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352554687 |journal=Advancements in Case Studies|volume=3|issue=1|doi=10.31031/AICS.2021.03.000555|s2cid=244678882|issn=2639-0531|via=ResearchGate}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Hu B, Guo H, Zhou P, Shi ZL |date=March 2021 |title=Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 |journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=141–154 |doi=10.1038/s41579-020-00459-7 |pmc=7537588 |pmid=33024307}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/SARS-CoV-2-risk-assessment-14-feb-2020.pdf |title=Outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): increased transmission beyond China – fourth update |publisher=European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control |date=14 February 2020 |access-date=8 March 2020}}
- ↑ 54,0 54,1 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Andersen KG, Rambaut A, Lipkin WI, Holmes EC, Garry RF | title = The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2 | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 450–452 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32284615 | pmc = 7095063 | doi = 10.1038/s41591-020-0820-9 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7|title=A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin |year=2020 |last1=Zhou |first1=Peng |last2=Yang |first2=Xing-Lou |last3=Wang |first3=Xian-Guang |last4=Hu |first4=Ben |last5=Zhang |first5=Lei |last6=Zhang |first6=Wei |last7=Si |first7=Hao-Rui |last8=Zhu |first8=Yan |last9=Li |first9=Bei |last10=Huang |first10=Chao-Lin |last11=Chen |first11=Hui-Dong |last12=Chen |first12=Jing |last13=Luo |first13=Yun |last14=Guo |first14=Hua |last15=Jiang |first15=Ren-Di |last16=Liu |first16=Mei-Qin |last17=Chen |first17=Ying |last18=Shen |first18=Xu-Rui |last19=Wang |first19=Xi |last20=Zheng |first20=Xiao-Shuang |last21=Zhao |first21=Kai |last22=Chen |first22=Quan-Jiao |last23=Deng |first23=Fei |last24=Liu |first24=Lin-Lin |last25=Yan |first25=Bing |last26=Zhan |first26=Fa-Xian |last27=Wang |first27=Yan-Yi |last28=Xiao |first28=Geng-Fu |last29=Shi |first29=Zheng-Li |journal=Nature |volume=579 |issue=7798 |pages=270–273 |pmid=32015507 |pmc=7095418 |bibcode=2020Natur.579..270Z }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/03/why-soap-preferable-bleach-fight-against-coronavirus/ |vauthors=Gibbens S |title=Why soap is preferable to bleach in the fight against coronavirus |date=18 March 2020 |website=National Geographic |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402001042/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/03/why-soap-preferable-bleach-fight-against-coronavirus/ |archive-date=2 April 2020 |access-date=2 April 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||last1=Viana Martins |first1=C. P. |last2=Xavier |first2=C. S. F. |last3=Cobrado |first3=L. |date=2022 |title=Disinfection methods against SARS-CoV-2: a systematic review |url= |journal=The Journal of Hospital Infection |volume=119 |pages=84–117 |doi=10.1016/j.jhin.2021.07.014 |issn=1532-2939 |pmc=8522489 |pmid=34673114}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, Zhao X, Huang B, Shi W, Lu R, Niu P, Zhan F, Ma X, Wang D, Xu W, Wu G, Gao GF, Tan W |title=A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019 |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=382 |issue=8 |pages=727–733 |date=February 2020 |pmid=31978945 |pmc=7092803 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2001017}}
- ↑ 59,0 59,1 59,2 {{#invoke:cite report ||url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/who-china-joint-mission-on-covid-19-final-report.pdf |title=Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) |date=February 2020 |publisher=World Health Organization (WHO) |access-date=21 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229221222/https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/who-china-joint-mission-on-covid-19-final-report.pdf |archive-date=29 February 2020 |url-status=live}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| title=Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) | publisher=World Health Organization (WHO) | url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/report-of-the-who-china-joint-mission-on-coronavirus-disease-2019-(covid-19) | access-date=25 January 2022}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Rathore JS, Ghosh C | title = Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), a newly emerged pathogen: an overview | journal = Pathogens and Disease | volume = 78 | issue = 6 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32840560 | pmc = 7499575 | doi = 10.1093/femspd/ftaa042 | oclc = 823140442 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Thomas S | title = The Structure of the Membrane Protein of SARS-CoV-2 Resembles the Sugar Transporter SemiSWEET | journal = Pathogens & Immunity | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 342–363 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 33154981 | pmc = 7608487 | doi = 10.20411/pai.v5i1.377 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors = Koyama T, Platt D, Parida L |title=Variant analysis of SARS-CoV-2 genomes |journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization |volume=98 |issue=7 |pages=495–504 |date=July 2020 |pmid=32742035 |pmc=7375210 |doi=10.2471/BLT.20.253591 |quote=We detected in total 65776 variants with 5775 distinct variants.}}
- ↑ 64,0 64,1 {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Rambaut A, Holmes EC, O'Toole Á, Hill V, McCrone JT, Ruis C, du Plessis L, Pybus OG |title=A dynamic nomenclature proposal for SARS-CoV-2 lineages to assist genomic epidemiology |journal=Nature Microbiology |volume=5 |issue=11 |pages=1403–1407 |date=November 2020 |pmid=32669681 |pmc=7610519 |doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0770-5}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=1 July 2021|title=Tracking SARS-CoV-2 variants|url=https://www.who.int/activities/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants%7Caccess-date=5 July 2021|website=World Health Organization}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Alm E, Broberg EK, Connor T, Hodcroft EB, Komissarov AB, Maurer-Stroh S, Melidou A, Neher RA, O'Toole Á, Pereyaslov D |title=Geographical and temporal distribution of SARS-CoV-2 clades in the WHO European Region, January to June 2020 |journal=Euro Surveillance |volume=25 |issue=32 |date=August 2020 |pmid=32794443 |pmc=7427299 |doi=10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.32.2001410}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=PANGO lineages|url=https://cov-lineages.org/pango_lineages.html%7Caccess-date=9 May 2021|url-status=dead |website=cov-lineages.org|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510111318/https://cov-lineages.org/pango_lineages.html}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Lauring AS, Hodcroft EB |title=Genetic Variants of SARS-CoV-2-What Do They Mean? |journal=JAMA |volume=325 |issue=6 |pages=529–531 |date=February 2021 |pmid=33404586 |s2cid=230783233 |doi=10.1001/jama.2020.27124 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Abdool Karim SS, de Oliveira T |title=New SARS-CoV-2 Variants – Clinical, Public Health, and Vaccine Implications |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=384 |issue=19 |pages=1866–1868 |date=May 2021 |pmid=33761203 |doi=10.1056/nejmc2100362| issn=0028-4793 |publisher=Massachusetts Medical Society |pmc=8008749}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Mallapaty S |title=COVID mink analysis shows mutations are not dangerous – yet |journal=Nature |volume=587 |issue=7834 |pages=340–341 |date=November 2020 |pmid=33188367 |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-03218-z |doi-access=free |s2cid=226947606 |bibcode=2020Natur.587..340M}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Larsen HD, Fonager J, Lomholt FK, Dalby T, Benedetti G, Kristensen B, Urth TR, Rasmussen M, Lassaunière R, Rasmussen TB, Strandbygaard B, Lohse L, Chaine M, Møller KL, Berthelsen AN, Nørgaard SK, Sönksen UW, Boklund AE, Hammer AS, Belsham GJ, Krause TG, Mortensen S, Bøtner A, Fomsgaard A, Mølbak K |title=Preliminary report of an outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 in mink and mink farmers associated with community spread, Denmark, June to November 2020 |journal=Euro Surveillance |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=2100009 |date=February 2021 |pmid=33541485 |pmc=7863232 |doi=10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2021.26.5.210009 |quote=As at 1 February 2021, we assess that the cluster 5 variant is no longer circulating among humans in Denmark.}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=New COVID-19 Variants|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/transmission/variant.html%7Caccess-date=15 July 2021|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|date=28 June 2021|orig-date=First published 11 February 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/weekly-epidemiological-update-on-covid-19---7-december-2021 |title=COVID-19 Weekly Epidemiological Update Edition 69 |website=World Health Organization (WHO) |date=7 December 2021}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Classification of Omicron (B.1.1.529): SARS-CoV-2 Variant of Concern |url=https://www.who.int/news/item/26-11-2021-classification-of-omicron-(b.1.1.529)-sars-cov-2-variant-of-concern |access-date=9 December 2021 |website=World Health Organization (WHO)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web ||author-link=World Health Organization |date=December 19, 2023 |title=JN.1 |url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/18122023_jn.1_ire_clean.pdf?sfvrsn=6103754a_3 |access-date=December 21, 2023}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web ||last=Benadjaoud |first=Youri |date=2023-12-19 |title=COVID variant JN.1 listed as 'variant of interest' by World Health Organization |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/covid-variant-jn1-listed-variant-interest-world-health/story?id=105782742 |access-date=2023-12-22 |website=ABC News |language=en}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Harrison AG, Lin T, Wang P | title = Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 Transmission and Pathogenesis | journal = Trends in Immunology | volume = 41 | issue = 12 | pages = 1100–1115 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33132005 | pmc = 7556779 | doi = 10.1016/j.it.2020.10.004 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Verdecchia P, Cavallini C, Spanevello A, Angeli F | title = The pivotal link between ACE2 deficiency and SARS-CoV-2 infection | journal = European Journal of Internal Medicine | volume = 76 | pages = 14–20 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32336612 | pmc = 7167588 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejim.2020.04.037 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Letko M, Marzi A, Munster V | title = Functional assessment of cell entry and receptor usage for SARS-CoV-2 and other lineage B betacoronaviruses | journal = Nature Microbiology | volume = 5 | issue = 4 | pages = 562–569 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32094589 | pmc = 7095430 | doi = 10.1038/s41564-020-0688-y | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Marik PE, Iglesias J, Varon J, Kory P | title = A scoping review of the pathophysiology of COVID-19 | journal = International Journal of Immunopathology and Pharmacology | volume = 35 | pages = 20587384211048026 | date = January 2021 | pmid = 34569339 | pmc = 8477699 | doi = 10.1177/20587384211048026 }}
- ↑ 81,0 81,1 81,2 81,3 81,4 81,5 81,6 81,7 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Eketunde AO, Mellacheruvu SP, Oreoluwa P | title = A Review of Postmortem Findings in Patients With COVID-19 | journal = Cureus | volume = 12 | issue = 7 | pages = e9438 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32864262 | pmc = 7451084 | doi = 10.7759/cureus.9438 | publisher = Cureus, Inc. | s2cid = 221352704 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ 82,0 82,1 {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors = Meunier N, Briand L, Jacquin-Piques A, Brondel L, Pénicaud L |title = COVID 19-Induced Smell and Taste Impairments: Putative Impact on Physiology |journal = Frontiers in Physiology |volume = 11 |pages = 625110 |date = June 2020 |pmid = 33574768 |pmc = 7870487 |doi = 10.3389/fphys.2020.625110 |doi-access = free |title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors = Guerrero JI, Barragán LA, Martínez JD, Montoya JP, Peña A, Sobrino FE, Tovar-Spinoza Z, Ghotme KA |title = Central and peripheral nervous system involvement by COVID-19: a systematic review of the pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, neuropathology, neuroimaging, electrophysiology, and cerebrospinal fluid findings |journal = BMC Infectious Diseases |date = June 2021 |volume = 21 |issue = 1 |page = 515 |doi = 10.1186/s12879-021-06185-6| pmid = 34078305 |pmc = 8170436 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi }}
- ↑ 84,0 84,1 {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors = Pezzini A, Padovani A |title = Lifting the mask on neurological manifestations of COVID-19 |journal = Nature Reviews. Neurology |volume = 16 |issue = 11 |pages = 636–644 |date = November 2020 |pmid = 32839585 |pmc = 7444680 |doi = 10.1038/s41582-020-0398-3 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors = Li YC, Bai WZ, Hashikawa T |title = The neuroinvasive potential of SARS-CoV2 may play a role in the respiratory failure of COVID-19 patients |journal = Journal of Medical Virology |volume = 92 |issue = 6 |pages = 552–555 |date = June 2020 |pmid = 32104915 |pmc = 7228394 |doi = 10.1002/jmv.25728 |title-link = doi |doi-access = free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors = Baig AM, Khaleeq A, Ali U, Syeda H |title = Evidence of the COVID-19 Virus Targeting the CNS: Tissue Distribution, Host-Virus Interaction, and Proposed Neurotropic Mechanisms |journal = ACS Chemical Neuroscience |volume = 11 |issue = 7 |pages = 995–998 |date = April 2020 |pmid = 32167747 |pmc = 7094171 |doi= 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00122 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors = Yavarpour-Bali H, Ghasemi-Kasman M |title = Update on neurological manifestations of COVID-19 |journal = Life Sciences |volume = 257 |pages = 118063 |date = September 2020 |pmid = 32652139 |pmc = 7346808 |doi = 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118063 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite journal ||last1=Douaud |first1=Gwenaëlle |last2=Lee |first2=Soojin |last3=Alfaro-Almagro |first3=Fidel |last4=Arthofer |first4=Christoph |last5=Wang |first5=Chaoyue |last6=McCarthy |first6=Paul |last7=Lange |first7=Frederik |last8=Andersson |first8=Jesper L. R. |last9=Griffanti |first9=Ludovica |last10=Duff |first10=Eugene |last11=Jbabdi |first11=Saad |last12=Taschler |first12=Bernd |last13=Keating |first13=Peter |last14=Winkler |first14=Anderson M. |last15=Collins |first15=Rory |last16=Matthews |first16= Paul M. |last17=Naomi |first17=Allen |last18=Miller |first18=Karla L. |last19=Nichols |first19=Thomas E. |last20=Smith |first20=Stephen M. |date=March 2022 |title=SARS-CoV-2 is associated with changes in brain structure in UK Biobank |journal=Nature |volume=604 |issue=7907 |pages=697–707 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04569-5 |issn=1476-4687 |lccn=12037118 |oclc=01586310 |pmc=9046077 |pmid=35255491 |bibcode=2022Natur.604..697D |doi-access=free}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite journal ||last1=Proust |first1=Alizé |last2= Queval|first2= Christophe J. |last3= Harvey|first3= Ruth |last4= Adams|first4= Lorin |last5= Bennett|first5= Michael |last6= Wilkinson |first6= Robert J.|date= 2023 |title= Diferential efects of SARS-CoV-2 variants on central nervous system cells and blood–brain barrier functions|journal= Journal of Neuroinflammation |volume=20 |issue=184 |page=184 |doi=10.1186/s12974-023-02861-3 |pmid=37537664 |pmc=10398935 |doi-access=free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite news ||last1=Geddes |first1=Linda |last2=Sample |first2=Ian |date=7 March 2022 |title=Covid can shrink brain and damage its tissue, finds research |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/07/covid-can-shrink-brain-and-damage-its-tissue-finds-research |url-status=live |access-date=4 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307161107/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/07/covid-can-shrink-brain-and-damage-its-tissue-finds-research |archive-date=7 March 2022}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite news ||last=Morelle |first=Rebecca |date=7 March 2022 |title=Scans reveal how Covid may change the brain |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-60591487 |url-status= |access-date=4 September 2023}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/long-covid-even-mild-covid-linked-damage-brain-months-infection-rcna18959%7Ctitle=Even mild Covid is linked to brain damage months after illness, scans show |date=7 March 2022 |publisher=NBC News}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Gu J, Han B, Wang J | title = COVID-19: Gastrointestinal Manifestations and Potential Fecal-Oral Transmission | journal = Gastroenterology | volume = 158 | issue = 6 | pages = 1518–1519 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32142785 | pmc = 7130192 | doi = 10.1053/j.gastro.2020.02.054 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Mönkemüller K, Fry L, Rickes S | title = COVID-19, coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2 and the small bowel | journal = Revista Espanola de Enfermedades Digestivas | volume = 112 | issue = 5 | pages = 383–388 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32343593 | doi = 10.17235/reed.2020.7137/2020 | s2cid = 216645754 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Almamlouk R, Kashour T, Obeidat S, Bois MC, Maleszewski JJ, Omrani OA, Tleyjeh R, Berbari E, Chakhachiro Z, Zein-Sabatto B, Gerberi D, Tleyjeh IM, Paniz Mondolfi AE, Finn AV, Duarte-Neto AN, Rapkiewicz AV, Frustaci A, Keresztesi AA, Hanley B, Märkl B, Lardi C, Bryce C, Lindner D, Aguiar D, Westermann D, Stroberg E, Duval EJ, Youd E, Bulfamante GP, Salmon I, Auer J, Maleszewski JJ, Hirschbühl K, Absil L, Barton LM, Ferraz da Silva LF, Moore L, Dolhnikoff M, Lammens M, Bois MC, Osborn M, Remmelink M, Nascimento Saldiva PH, Jorens PG, Craver R, Aparecida de Almeida Monteiro R, Scendoni R, Mukhopadhyay S, Suzuki T, Mauad T, Fracasso T, Grimes Z | title = COVID-19-Associated cardiac pathology at the postmortem evaluation: a collaborative systematic review | journal = Clinical Microbiology and Infection | volume = 28 | issue = 8 | pages = 1066–1075 | date = August 2022 | pmid = 35339672 | pmc = 8941843 | doi = 10.1016/j.cmi.2022.03.021 }}
- ↑ 96,0 96,1 96,2 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Zheng YY, Ma YT, Zhang JY, Xie X | title = COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system | journal = Nature Reviews. Cardiology | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 259–260 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32139904 | pmc = 7095524 | doi = 10.1038/s41569-020-0360-5 }}
- ↑ 97,0 97,1 97,2 {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X, Cheng Z, Yu T, Xia J, Wei Y, Wu W, Xie X, Yin W, Li H, Liu M, Xiao Y, Gao H, Guo L, Xie J, Wang G, Jiang R, Gao Z, Jin Q, Wang J, Cao B |title=Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China |journal=Lancet |volume=395 |issue=10223 |pages=497–506 |date=February 2020 |pmid=31986264 |pmc=7159299 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| title=Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): Myocardial infarction and other coronary artery disease issues | website=UpToDate | url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19-myocardial-infarction-and-other-coronary-artery-disease-issues | access-date=28 September 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Turner AJ, Hiscox JA, Hooper NM | title = ACE2: from vasopeptidase to SARS virus receptor | journal = Trends in Pharmacological Sciences | volume = 25 | issue = 6 | pages = 291–4 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15165741 | pmc = 7119032 | doi = 10.1016/j.tips.2004.04.001 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Abou-Ismail MY, Diamond A, Kapoor S, Arafah Y, Nayak L | title = The hypercoagulable state in COVID-19: Incidence, pathophysiology, and management | journal = Thrombosis Research | volume = 194 | pages = 101–115 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32788101 | pmc = 7305763 | doi = 10.1016/j.thromres.2020.06.029 | publisher = Elsevier BV }}
- ↑ 101,0 101,1 101,2 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Wadman M |doi=10.1126/science.abc3208 |title=How does coronavirus kill? Clinicians trace a ferocious rampage through the body, from brain to toes |journal=Science |date=April 2020 |doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||title=NIH study uncovers blood vessel damage and inflammation in COVID-19 patients' brains but no infection |url=https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-study-uncovers-blood-vessel-damage-inflammation-covid-19-patients-brains-no-infection |access-date=17 January 2021 |work=National Institutes of Health (NIH) |date=30 December 2020 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Lee MH, Perl DP, Nair G, Li W, Maric D, Murray H, Dodd SJ, Koretsky AP, Watts JA, Cheung V, Masliah E, Horkayne-Szakaly I, Jones R, Stram MN, Moncur J, Hefti M, Folkerth RD, Nath A | title = Microvascular Injury in the Brains of Patients with Covid-19 | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 384 | issue = 5 | pages = 481–483 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 33378608 | pmc = 7787217 | doi = 10.1056/nejmc2033369 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kubánková M, Hohberger B, Hoffmanns J, Fürst J, Herrmann M, Guck J, Kräter M | title = Physical phenotype of blood cells is altered in COVID-19 | journal = Biophysical Journal | volume = 120 | issue = 14 | pages = 2838–2847 | date = July 2021 | pmid = 34087216 | pmc = 8169220 | doi = 10.1016/j.bpj.2021.05.025 | bibcode = 2021BpJ...120.2838K }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal|| vauthors = Gupta A, Madhavan MV, Sehgal K, Nair N, Mahajan S, Sehrawat TS, Bikdeli B, Ahluwalia N, Ausiello JC, Wan EY, Freedberg DE, Kirtane AJ, Parikh SA, Maurer MS, Nordvig AS, Accili D, Bathon JM, Mohan S, Bauer KA, Leon MB, Krumholz HM, Uriel N, Mehra MR, Elkind MS, Stone GW, Schwartz A, Ho DD, Bilezikian JP, Landry DW |title=Extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19 |journal=Nature Medicine |date=July 2020 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1017–1032 |doi=10.1038/s41591-020-0968-3|pmid=32651579 |s2cid=220462000 | doi-access=free | title-link=doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| title=Coronavirus: Kidney Damage Caused by COVID-19 | website=Johns Hopkins Medicine | date=14 May 2020 | url=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/coronavirus/coronavirus-kidney-damage-caused-by-covid19 | access-date=25 January 2022}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||last1=Ziegler |first1=CGK |last2=Allon |first2=SJ |last3=Nyquist |first3=SK |last4=Mbano |first4=IM |last5=Miao |first5=VN |last6=Tzouanas |first6=CN |last7=Cao |first7=Y |last8=Yousif |first8=AS |last9=Bals |first9=J |last10=Hauser |first10=BM |last11=Feldman |first11=J |last12=Muus |first12=C |last13=Wadsworth |first13=MH |last14=Kazer |first14=SW |last15=Hughes |first15=TK |last16=Doran |first16=B |last17=Gatter |first17=GJ |last18=Vukovic |first18=M |last19=Taliaferro |first19=F |last20=Mead |first20=BE |last21=Guo |first21=Z |last22=Wang |first22=JP |last23=Gras |first23=D |last24=Plaisant |first24=M |last25=Ansari |first25=M |last26=Angelidis |first26=I |last27=Adler |first27=H |last28=Sucre |first28=JMS |last29=Taylor |first29=CJ |last30=Lin |first30=B |last31=Waghray |first31=A |last32=Mitsialis |first32=V |last33=Dwyer |first33=DF |last34=Buchheit |first34=KM |last35=Boyce |first35=JA |last36=Barrett |first36=NA |last37=Laidlaw |first37=TM |last38=Carroll |first38=SL |last39=Colonna |first39=L |last40=Tkachev |first40=V |last41=Peterson |first41=CW |last42=Yu |first42=A |last43=Zheng |first43=HB |last44=Gideon |first44=HP |last45=Winchell |first45=CG |last46=Lin |first46=PL |last47=Bingle |first47=CD |last48=Snapper |first48=SB |last49=Kropski |first49=JA |last50=Theis |first50=FJ |last51=Schiller |first51=HB |last52=Zaragosi |first52=LE |last53=Barbry |first53=P |last54=Leslie |first54=A |last55=Kiem |first55=HP |last56=Flynn |first56=JL |last57=Fortune |first57=SM |last58=Berger |first58=B |last59=Finberg |first59=RW |last60=Kean |first60=LS |last61=Garber |first61=M |last62=Schmidt |first62=AG |last63=Lingwood |first63=D |last64=Shalek |first64=AK |last65=Ordovas-Montanes |first65=J |title=SARS-CoV-2 Receptor ACE2 Is an Interferon-Stimulated Gene in Human Airway Epithelial Cells and Is Detected in Specific Cell Subsets across Tissues. |journal=Cell |series=HCA Lung Biological Network |date=28 May 2020 |volume=181 |issue=5 |pages=1016–1035.e19 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.035 |pmid=32413319|pmc=7252096 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||last1=Sajuthi |first1=SP |last2=DeFord |first2=P |last3=Li |first3=Y |last4=Jackson |first4=ND |last5=Montgomery |first5=MT |last6=Everman |first6=JL |last7=Rios |first7=CL |last8=Pruesse |first8=E |last9=Nolin |first9=JD |last10=Plender |first10=EG |last11=Wechsler |first11=ME |last12=Mak |first12=ACY |last13=Eng |first13=C |last14=Salazar |first14=S |last15=Medina |first15=V |last16=Wohlford |first16=EM |last17=Huntsman |first17=S |last18=Nickerson |first18=DA |last19=Germer |first19=S |last20=Zody |first20=MC |last21=Abecasis |first21=G |last22=Kang |first22=HM |last23=Rice |first23=KM |last24=Kumar |first24=R |last25=Oh |first25=S |last26=Rodriguez-Santana |first26=J |last27=Burchard |first27=EG |last28=Seibold |first28=MA |title=Type 2 and interferon inflammation regulate SARS-CoV-2 entry factor expression in the airway epithelium. |journal=Nature Communications |date=12 October 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5139 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-18781-2 |pmid=33046696|pmc=7550582 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5139S }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||last1=Tretter |first1=F |last2=Peters |first2=EMJ |last3=Sturmberg |first3=J |last4=Bennett |first4=J |last5=Voit |first5=E |last6=Dietrich |first6=JW |last7=Smith |first7=G |last8=Weckwerth |first8=W |last9=Grossman |first9=Z |last10=Wolkenhauer |first10=O |last11=Marcum |first11=JA |title=Perspectives of (/memorandum for) systems thinking on COVID-19 pandemic and pathology. |journal=Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice |date=28 September 2022 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=415–429 |doi=10.1111/jep.13772 |pmid=36168893|pmc=9538129 |s2cid=252566067 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Zhang C, Wu Z, Li JW, Zhao H, Wang GQ | title = Cytokine release syndrome in severe COVID-19: interleukin-6 receptor antagonist tocilizumab may be the key to reduce mortality | journal = International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents | volume = 55 | issue = 5 | pages = 105954 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32234467 | pmc = 7118634 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105954 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Gómez-Rial J, Rivero-Calle I, Salas A, Martinón-Torres F | title = Role of Monocytes/Macrophages in Covid-19 Pathogenesis: Implications for Therapy | journal = Infection and Drug Resistance | volume = 13 | pages = 2485–2493 | year = 2020 | pmid = 32801787 | pmc = 7383015 | doi = 10.2147/IDR.S258639 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Dai L, Gao GF | title = Viral targets for vaccines against COVID-19 | journal = Nature Reviews. Immunology | volume = 21 | issue = 2 | pages = 73–82 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 33340022 | pmc = 7747004 | doi = 10.1038/s41577-020-00480-0 |issn=1474-1733 }}
- ↑ 113,0 113,1 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Boopathi S, Poma AB, Kolandaivel P | title = Novel 2019 coronavirus structure, mechanism of action, antiviral drug promises and rule out against its treatment | journal = Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics | pages = 3409–3418 | date = April 2020 | volume = 39 | issue = 9 | pmid = 32306836 | pmc = 7196923 | doi = 10.1080/07391102.2020.1758788 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kai H, Kai M | title = Interactions of coronaviruses with ACE2, angiotensin II, and RAS inhibitors-lessons from available evidence and insights into COVID-19 | journal = Hypertension Research | volume = 43 | issue = 7 | pages = 648–654 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32341442 | pmc = 7184165 | doi = 10.1038/s41440-020-0455-8 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Chen HX, Chen ZH, Shen HH | title = [Structure of SARS-CoV-2 and treatment of COVID-19] | journal = Sheng Li Xue Bao | volume = 72 | issue = 5 | pages = 617–630 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 33106832 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Jeyanathan M, Afkhami S, Smaill F, Miller MS, Lichty BD, Xing Z |date=4 September 2020 |title=Immunological considerations for COVID-19 vaccine strategies |journal=Nature Reviews Immunology |volume=20 |issue=10 |pages=615–632 |doi=10.1038/s41577-020-00434-6 |pmid=32887954 |pmc=7472682 |issn=1474-1741}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Zhang Q, Ju B, Ge J, Chan JF, Cheng L, Wang R, Huang W, Fang M, Chen P, Zhou B, Song S, Shan S, Yan B, Zhang S, Ge X, Yu J, Zhao J, Wang H, Liu L, Lv Q, Fu L, Shi X, Yuen KY, Liu L, Wang Y, Chen Z, Zhang L, Wang X, Zhang Z | title = Potent and protective IGHV3-53/3-66 public antibodies and their shared escape mutant on the spike of SARS-CoV-2 | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 4210 | date = July 2021 | pmid = 34244522 | pmc = 8270942 | doi = 10.1038/s41467-021-24514-w | bibcode = 2021NatCo..12.4210Z | s2cid = 235786394 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Soy M, Keser G, Atagündüz P, Tabak F, Atagündüz I, Kayhan S | title = Cytokine storm in COVID-19: pathogenesis and overview of anti-inflammatory agents used in treatment | journal = Clinical Rheumatology | volume = 39 | issue = 7 | pages = 2085–2094 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32474885 | pmc = 7260446 | doi = 10.1007/s10067-020-05190-5 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Quirch M, Lee J, Rehman S | title = Hazards of the Cytokine Storm and Cytokine-Targeted Therapy in Patients With COVID-19: Review | journal = Journal of Medical Internet Research | volume = 22 | issue = 8 | pages = e20193 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32707537 | pmc = 7428145 | doi = 10.2196/20193 |doi-access=free}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Bhaskar S, Sinha A, Banach M, Mittoo S, Weissert R, Kass JS, Rajagopal S, Pai AR, Kutty S | title = Cytokine Storm in COVID-19-Immunopathological Mechanisms, Clinical Considerations, and Therapeutic Approaches: The REPROGRAM Consortium Position Paper | journal = Frontiers in Immunology | volume = 11 | pages = 1648 | year = 2020 | pmid = 32754159 | pmc = 7365905 | doi = 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01648 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ 121,0 121,1 121,2 121,3 121,4 121,5 {{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Wastnedge EA, Reynolds RM, van Boeckel SR, Stock SJ, Denison FC, Maybin JA, Critchley HO |date=January 2021|title=Pregnancy and COVID-19|journal=Physiological Reviews|volume=101|issue=1|pages=303–318|doi=10.1152/physrev.00024.2020|pmc=7686875|pmid=32969772}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||last1=Digby |first1=Alyson M. |last2=Dahan |first2=Michael H. |title=Obstetrical and gynecologic implications of COVID-19: what have we learned over the first two years of the pandemic |journal=Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics |date=12 January 2023 |volume=308 |issue=3 |pages=813–819 |doi=10.1007/s00404-022-06847-z|pmid=36633677 |pmc=9838509 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors = Campbell D | title=One in six most critically ill NHS Covid patients are unvaccinated pregnant women | website=The Guardian | date=10 October 2021 | url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2021/oct/11/one-in-six-most-critically-ill-patients-are-unvaccinated-pregnant-women-with-covid | access-date=25 January 2022 }}
- ↑ 124,0 124,1 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Ai T, Yang Z, Hou H, Zhan C, Chen C, Lv W, Tao Q, Sun Z, Xia L | title = Correlation of Chest CT and RT-PCR Testing for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China: A Report of 1014 Cases | journal = Radiology | volume = 296 | issue = 2 | pages = E32–E40 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32101510 | pmc = 7233399 | doi = 10.1148/radiol.2020200642 }}
- ↑ 125,0 125,1 125,2 125,3 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Salehi S, Abedi A, Balakrishnan S, Gholamrezanezhad A | title = Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Systematic Review of Imaging Findings in 919 Patients | journal = AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology | volume = 215 | issue = 1 | pages = 87–93 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32174129 | doi = 10.2214/AJR.20.23034 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=30 January 2020|title=2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Situation Summary|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/summary.html%7Curl-status=live%7Carchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126210549/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-nCoV/summary.html%7Carchive-date=26 January 2020|access-date=30 January 2020|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) technical guidance: Laboratory testing for 2019-nCoV in humans |work=World Health Organization (WHO) |url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/laboratory-guidance |access-date=14 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200315044138/https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/laboratory-guidance |archive-date=15 March 2020 |url-status=live}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Bullard J, Dust K, Funk D, Strong JE, Alexander D, Garnett L, Boodman C, Bello A, Hedley A, Schiffman Z, Doan K, Bastien N, Li Y, Van Caeseele PG, Poliquin G |title=Predicting Infectious Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 From Diagnostic Samples |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |volume=71 |issue=10 |pages=2663–2666 |date=December 2020 |pmid=32442256 |pmc=7314198 |doi=10.1093/cid/ciaa638 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=11 February 2020|title=Interim Guidelines for Collecting, Handling, and Testing Clinical Specimens from Persons for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/guidelines-clinical-specimens.html%7Curl-status=live%7Carchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304165907/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-nCoV/lab/guidelines-clinical-specimens.html%7Carchive-date=4 March 2020|access-date=26 March 2020|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=29 January 2020|title=Real-Time RT-PCR Panel for Detection 2019-nCoV |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/rt-pcr-detection-instructions.html%7Curl-status=live%7Carchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130202031/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/rt-pcr-detection-instructions.html%7Carchive-date=30 January 2020|access-date=1 February 2020|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Laboratory testing for 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in suspected human cases|url=https://www.who.int/publications-detail/laboratory-testing-for-2019-novel-coronavirus-in-suspected-human-cases-20200117%7Curl-status=live%7Carchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317023052/https://www.who.int/publications-detail/laboratory-testing-for-2019-novel-coronavirus-in-suspected-human-cases-20200117%7Carchive-date=17 March 2020|access-date=13 March 2020|website=World Health Organization (WHO)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news||date=14 May 2020|title=NHS staff will be first to get new coronavirus antibody test, medical chief promises|website=The Independent|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/coronavirus-test-antibody-covid-roche-immune-nhs-staff-a9515466.html%7Caccess-date=14 May 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors = Heneghan C, Jefferson T |date=1 September 2020|title=Virological characterization of COVID-19 patients that test re-positive for SARS-CoV-2 by RT-PCR|url=https://www.cebm.net/study/virological-characterization-of-covid-19-patients-that-test-re-positive-for-sars-cov-2-by-rt-pcr%7Caccess-date=19 September 2020|website=CEBM}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Lu J, Peng J, Xiong Q, Liu Z, Lin H, Tan X, Kang M, Yuan R, Zeng L, Zhou P, Liang C, Yi L, du Plessis L, Song T, Ma W, Sun J, Pybus OG, Ke C | title = Clinical, immunological and virological characterization of COVID-19 patients that test re-positive for SARS-CoV-2 by RT-PCR | journal = eBioMedicine | volume = 59 | pages = 102960 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32853988 | pmc = 7444471 | doi = 10.1016/j.ebiom.2020.102960 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors = Spencer E, Jefferson T, Brassey J, Heneghan C |date=11 September 2020|title=When is Covid, Covid?|url=https://www.cebm.net/covid-19/when-is-covid-covid/%7Caccess-date=19 September 2020|website=The Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=SARS-CoV-2 RNA testing: assurance of positive results during periods of low prevalence |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/sars-cov-2-rna-testing-assurance-of-positive-results-during-periods-of-low-prevalence%7Caccess-date=19 September 2020|website=GOV.UK}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=22 March 2020|title=ACR Recommendations for the use of Chest Radiography and Computed Tomography (CT) for Suspected COVID-19 Infection|url=https://www.acr.org/Advocacy-and-Economics/ACR-Position-Statements/Recommendations-for-Chest-Radiography-and-CT-for-Suspected-COVID19-Infection%7Curl-status=live%7Carchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328055813/https://www.acr.org/Advocacy-and-Economics/ACR-Position-Statements/Recommendations-for-Chest-Radiography-and-CT-for-Suspected-COVID19-Infection%7Carchive-date=28 March 2020|website=American College of Radiology}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Pormohammad A, Ghorbani S, Khatami A, Razizadeh MH, Alborzi E, Zarei M, Idrovo JP, Turner RJ | title = Comparison of influenza type A and B with COVID-19: A global systematic review and meta-analysis on clinical, laboratory and radiographic findings | journal = Reviews in Medical Virology | pages = e2179 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 33035373 | pmc = 7646051 | doi = 10.1002/rmv.2179 | s2cid = 222255245 | title-link = doi | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | doi-access = free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Lee EY, Ng MY, Khong PL | title = COVID-19 pneumonia: what has CT taught us? | journal = The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 384–385 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32105641 | pmc = 7128449 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30134-1 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}
- ↑ 140,0 140,1 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Li Y, Xia L | title = Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Role of Chest CT in Diagnosis and Management | journal = AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology | volume = 214 | issue = 6 | pages = 1280–1286 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32130038 | doi = 10.2214/AJR.20.22954 | s2cid = 212416282 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=COVID-19 Database |url=https://www.sirm.org/category/senza-categoria/covid-19/ |website=Società Italiana di Radiologia Medica e Interventistica |access-date=11 March 2020 |language=it}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||year=2019|title=ICD-10 Version:2019|website=World Health Organization (WHO) |url=https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/U07.1%7Caccess-date=31 March 2020 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200331004754/https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en%23/U07.1%7Carchive-date=31 March 2020|quote=U07.2Шаблон:SndCOVID-19, virus not identifiedШаблон:SndCOVID-19 NOSШаблон:SndUse this code when COVID-19 is diagnosed clinically or epidemiologically but laboratory testing is inconclusive or not available. Use additional code, if desired, to identify pneumonia or other manifestations}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Giani M, Seminati D, Lucchini A, Foti G, Pagni F | title = Exuberant Plasmocytosis in Bronchoalveolar Lavage Specimen of the First Patient Requiring Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation for SARS-CoV-2 in Europe | journal = Journal of Thoracic Oncology | volume = 15 | issue = 5 | pages = e65–e66 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32194247 | pmc = 7118681 | doi = 10.1016/j.jtho.2020.03.008 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Lillicrap D | title = Disseminated intravascular coagulation in patients with 2019-nCoV pneumonia | journal = Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 786–787 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32212240 | pmc = 7166410 | doi = 10.1111/jth.14781 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Mitra A, Dwyre DM, Schivo M, Thompson GR, Cohen SH, Ku N, Graff JP | title = Leukoerythroblastic reaction in a patient with COVID-19 infection | journal = American Journal of Hematology | volume = 95 | issue = 8 | pages = 999–1000 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32212392 | pmc = 7228283 | doi = 10.1002/ajh.25793 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}
- ↑ 146,0 146,1 146,2 146,3 146,4 146,5 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Satturwar S, Fowkes M, Farver C, Wilson AM, Eccher A, Girolami I, Pujadas E, Bryce C, Salem F, El Jamal SM, Paniz-Mondolfi A, Petersen B, Gordon RE, Reidy J, Fraggetta F, Marshall DA, Pantanowitz L | title = Postmortem Findings Associated With SARS-CoV-2: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis | journal = The American Journal of Surgical Pathology | volume = 45 | issue = 5 | pages = 587–603 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 33481385 | doi = 10.1097/PAS.0000000000001650 | pmc = 8132567 | s2cid = 231679276 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Maier BF, Brockmann D | title = Effective containment explains subexponential growth in recent confirmed COVID-19 cases in China | journal = Science | volume = 368 | issue = 6492 | pages = 742–746 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32269067 | pmc = 7164388 | doi = 10.1126/science.abb4557| arxiv=2002.07572 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2020Sci...368..742M }} ("...Шаблон:Spacesinitial exponential growth expected for an unconstrained outbreak.")
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://reallycorrect.com/ReallyCorrectWp1/covid-19-safety-information-ideas/#Viral-Load-Exposure-Factors%7Ctitle=Viral Load Exposure Factors|website=ReallyCorrect.com}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=28 June 2020|title=Recommendation Regarding the Use of Cloth Face Coverings, Especially in Areas of Significant Community-Based Transmission|work=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/cloth-face-cover.html}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Scientific Brief: SARS-CoV-2 and Potential Airborne Transmission |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/more/scientific-brief-sars-cov-2.html |website=COVID-19 Published Science and Research |date=11 February 2020 |publisher=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) |access-date=30 October 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=5 April 2020|title=What to Do if You Are Sick|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/if-you-are-sick/steps-when-sick.html%7Curl-status=live%7Carchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214153016/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/steps-when-sick.html%7Carchive-date=14 February 2020|access-date=24 April 2020|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|vauthors=((Centers for Disease Control and Prevention))}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=10 March 2020|title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) – Prevention & Treatment |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/prevention.html%7Curl-status=live%7Carchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311163637/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/prevention.html%7Carchive-date=11 March 2020|access-date=11 March 2020|work=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=UK medicines regulator gives approval for first UK COVID-19 vaccine |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-medicines-regulator-gives-approval-for-first-uk-covid-19-vaccine |publisher=Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, Government of the UK |access-date=2 December 2020 |date=2 December 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Mueller B |title=U.K. Approves Pfizer Coronavirus Vaccine, a First in the West |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/02/world/europe/pfizer-coronavirus-vaccine-approved-uk.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202071559/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/02/world/europe/pfizer-coronavirus-vaccine-approved-uk.html |archive-date=2 December 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=2 December 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=2 December 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines |url=https://covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/introduction/ |website=nih.gov |publisher=National Institutes of Health |access-date=21 April 2020}}
- ↑ 156,0 156,1 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Anderson RM, Heesterbeek H, Klinkenberg D, Hollingsworth TD | title = How will country-based mitigation measures influence the course of the COVID-19 epidemic? | journal = Lancet | volume = 395 | issue = 10228 | pages = 931–934 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 32164834 | pmc = 7158572 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30567-5 | quote = A key issue for epidemiologists is helping policy makers decide the main objectives of mitigationШаблон:Snde.g. minimising morbidity and associated mortality, avoiding an epidemic peak that overwhelms health-care services, keeping the effects on the economy within manageable levels, and flattening the epidemic curve to wait for vaccine development and manufacture on scale and antiviral drug therapies. | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors = Wiles S |title=After 'Flatten the Curve', we must now 'Stop the Spread'. Here's what that means |url=https://thespinoff.co.nz/society/14-03-2020/after-flatten-the-curve-we-must-now-stop-the-spread-heres-what-that-means/ |website=The Spinoff |access-date=13 March 2020 |date=14 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326232315/https://thespinoff.co.nz/society/14-03-2020/after-flatten-the-curve-we-must-now-stop-the-spread-heres-what-that-means/ |archive-date=26 March 2020 |url-status=live}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite web ||title=Data on COVID-19 mortality by vaccination status |url=https://ourworldindata.org/covid-deaths-by-vaccination |publisher=Our World in Data (CDC data) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016112249/https://ourworldindata.org/covid-deaths-by-vaccination |archive-date=16 October 2023 |date=April 2023 |quote=Data source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Vaccine Breakthrough/Surveillance and Analytics Team. |url-status=live }}
- ↑ 159,0 159,1 159,2 {{#invoke:Cite web||last=CDC|date=11 February 2020|title=Scientific Brief: SARS-CoV-2 Transmission|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/science/science-briefs/sars-cov-2-transmission.html%7Caccess-date=10 May 2021|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=7 September 2020|title=Transmission of COVID-19 |url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/covid-19/latest-evidence/transmission%7Caccess-date=14 October 2020|publisher=European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control}}
- ↑ 161,0 161,1 {{#invoke:Cite web||date=9 July 2020|title=COVID-19 Employer Information for Office Buildings|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/office-buildings.html%7Caccess-date=9 July 2020|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|vauthors=((National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases (NCIRD)))}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite AV media ||date=30 October 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XJC1f7F4qtc |title=WHO's Science in 5 on COVID-19 – Ventilation – 30 October 2020 |publisher=World Health Organization (WHO) |via=YouTube |access-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221025043909/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XJC1f7F4qtc |archive-date=25 October 2022 |url-status=live}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Somsen GA, van Rijn C, Kooij S, Bem RA, Bonn D|date=July 2020|title=Small droplet aerosols in poorly ventilated spaces and SARS-CoV-2 transmission|journal=The Lancet. Respiratory Medicine|publisher=Elsesier|volume=8|issue=7|pages=658–659 |doi=10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30245-9|pmc=7255254|pmid=32473123}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Lipinski T, Ahmad D, Serey N, Jouhara H |date=1 November 2020 |title=Review of ventilation strategies to reduce the risk of disease transmission in high occupancy buildings |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S266620272030032X |journal=International Journal of Thermofluids |volume=7–8 |pages=100045 |doi=10.1016/j.ijft.2020.100045 |s2cid=221642242 |issn=2666-2027}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=2 June 2020|title=Social distancing: what you need to do – Coronavirus (COVID-19) |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/coronavirus-covid-19/social-distancing/what-you-need-to-do/%7Caccess-date=18 August 2020|website=nhs.uk}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Advice for the public on COVID-19 – World Health Organization|url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public%7Caccess-date=18 August 2020|website=World Health Organization (WHO)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=11 February 2020|title=COVID-19 and Your Health|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/hand-sanitizer.html%7Caccess-date=23 March 2021|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|quote=To prevent the spread of germs, including COVID-19, CDC recommends washing hands with soap and water whenever possible because it reduces the amount of many types of germs and chemicals on hands. But if soap and water are not readily available, using a hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol can help you avoid getting sick and spreading germs to others.}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite book||title=WHO Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care: First Global Patient Safety Challenge Clean Care Is Safer Care|date=19 March 2009|publisher=World Health Organization (WHO)|chapter=WHO-recommended handrub formulations|access-date=19 March 2020|chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK144054/}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Nussbaumer-Streit B, Mayr V, Dobrescu AI, Chapman A, Persad E, Klerings I, Wagner G, Siebert U, Ledinger D, Zachariah C, Gartlehner G |date=September 2020 |title=Quarantine alone or in combination with other public health measures to control COVID-19: a rapid review |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2020 |issue=9 |pages=CD013574 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD013574.pub2 |issn=1469-493X |pmc=8133397 |pmid=33959956 }}
- ↑ 170,0 170,1 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Hawks L, Woolhandler S, McCormick D | title = COVID-19 in Prisons and Jails in the United States | journal = JAMA Internal Medicine | volume = 180 | issue = 8 | pages = 1041–1042 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32343355 | doi = 10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.1856 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors = Waldstein D |title=To Fight Virus in Prisons, C.D.C. Suggests More Screenings |website=The New York Times |date=6 May 2020 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/06/health/coronavirus-prisons-cdc.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507161241/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/06/health/coronavirus-prisons-cdc.html |archive-date=7 May 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=14 May 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/how-covid-spreads.html |title=How COVID-19 Spreads |date=18 September 2020 |website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919224920/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/how-covid-spreads.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcoronavirus%2F2019-ncov%2Fprepare%2Ftransmission.html |archive-date=19 September 2020 |access-date=20 September 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Goldman E | title = Exaggerated risk of transmission of COVID-19 by fomites | journal = The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume = 20 | issue = 8 | pages = 892–893 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32628907 | pmc = 7333993 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30561-2 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors = Weixel N |date=5 April 2021|title=CDC says risk of COVID-19 transmission on surfaces 1 in 10,000|url=https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/546541-cdc-risk-of-covid-transmission-on-surfaces-is-low%7Caccess-date=19 December 2021|website=The Hill}}
- ↑ 175,0 175,1 {{#invoke:Cite web||date=5 April 2021|title=Science Brief: SARS-CoV-2 and Surface (Fomite) Transmission for Indoor Community Environments|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/more/science-and-research/surface-transmission.html%7Curl-status=live |website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210405151126/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/more/science-and-research/surface-transmission.html |archive-date=5 April 2021 }}
- ↑ 176,0 176,1 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Pedreira A, Taşkın Y, García MR | title = A Critical Review of Disinfection Processes to Control SARS-CoV-2 Transmission in the Food Industry | journal = Foods | volume = 10 | issue = 2 | page = 283 | date = January 2021 | pmid = 33572531 | pmc = 7911259 | doi = 10.3390/foods10020283 | s2cid = 231900820 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Rezasoltani S, Yadegar A, Hatami B, Asadzadeh Aghdaei H, Zali MR | title = Antimicrobial Resistance as a Hidden Menace Lurking Behind the COVID-19 Outbreak: The Global Impacts of Too Much Hygiene on AMR | journal = Frontiers in Microbiology | volume = 11 | pages = 590683 | year = 2020 | pmid = 33384670 | pmc = 7769770 | doi = 10.3389/fmicb.2020.590683 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors = Thompson D |date=8 February 2021|title=Hygiene Theater Is Still a Huge Waste of Time|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/02/hygiene-theater-still-waste/617939/%7Caccess-date=27 February 2021|website=The Atlantic }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors = Thompson D |date=27 July 2020|title=Hygiene Theater Is a Huge Waste of Time |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/07/scourge-hygiene-theater/614599/%7Caccess-date=27 February 2021|website=The Atlantic }}
- ↑ 180,0 180,1 180,2 180,3 180,4 180,5 180,6 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Bueckert M, Gupta R, Gupta A, Garg M, Mazumder A | title = Infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 and Other Coronaviruses on Dry Surfaces: Potential for Indirect Transmission | journal = Materials | volume = 13 | issue = 22 | page = 5211 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 33218120 | pmc = 7698891 | doi = 10.3390/ma13225211 | bibcode = 2020Mate...13.5211B | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Bhardwaj R, Agrawal A | title = How coronavirus survives for days on surfaces | journal = Physics of Fluids | volume = 32 | issue = 11 | pages = 111706 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 33281435 | pmc = 7713872 | doi = 10.1063/5.0033306 | bibcode = 2020PhFl...32k1706B }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Chatterjee S, Murallidharan JS, Agrawal A, Bhardwaj R | title = Why coronavirus survives longer on impermeable than porous surfaces | journal = Physics of Fluids | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 021701 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 33746485 | pmc = 7978145 | doi = 10.1063/5.0037924 | bibcode = 2021PhFl...33b1701C }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||last=CDC|date=11 February 2020|title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/more/science-and-research/surface-transmission.html%7Caccess-date=12 April 2021|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Anthes E |date=8 April 2021|title=Has the Era of Overzealous Cleaning Finally Come to an End?|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/08/health/coronavirus-hygiene-cleaning-surfaces.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/08/health/coronavirus-hygiene-cleaning-surfaces.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited|access-date=12 April 2021| url-status=live }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=11 February 2020|title=Interim Recommendations for US Community Facilities with Suspected/Confirmed Coronavirus Disease 2019|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/organizations/cleaning-disinfection.html%7Caccess-date=4 April 2020|publisher=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||title=Yes, UV phone sanitizers work. That doesn't mean you need one. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/2021/02/16/uv-sanitizer-phone-covid-germs/ |access-date=29 April 2022 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=16 February 2021}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Patiño-Lugo DF, Vélez M, Velásquez Salazar P, Vera-Giraldo CY, Vélez V, Marín IC, Ramírez PA, Quintero SP, Castrillón Martínez E, Pineda Higuita DA, Henandez G|date=June 2020|title=Non-pharmaceutical interventions for containment, mitigation and suppression of COVID-19 infection|journal=Colombia Medica|volume=51|issue=2|pages=e4266|doi=10.25100/cm.v51i2.4266|pmc=7518730 |pmid=33012884}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=COVID-19 Informational Resources for High-Risk Groups | Keeping Education ACTIVE | Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease|url=https://www.fightchronicdisease.org/resources/covid-19-informational-resources-high-risk-groups%7Caccess-date=31 May 2020|website=fightchronicdisease.org}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/if-you-are-sick/quarantine.html |title=Quarantine and Isolation |date=29 July 2021 |publisher=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) |access-date=12 August 2021 }}
- ↑ 190,0 190,1 190,2 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Burns J, Movsisyan A, Stratil JM, Biallas RL, Coenen M, Emmert-Fees KM, Geffert K, Hoffmann S, Horstick O, Laxy M, Klinger C, Kratzer S, Litwin T, Norris S, Pfadenhauer LM, von Philipsborn P, Sell K, Stadelmaier J, Verboom B, Voss S, Wabnitz K, Rehfuess E | title = International travel-related control measures to contain the COVID-19 pandemic: a rapid review | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2021 | pages = CD013717 | date = March 2021 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33763851 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD013717.pub2 | pmc = 8406796 | s2cid = 232356197 | collaboration = Cochrane Public Health Group }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Doshi P | title = Will covid-19 vaccines save lives? Current trials aren't designed to tell us | journal = BMJ | volume = 371 | pages = m4037 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 33087398 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.m4037 | s2cid = 224817161 }}
- ↑ 192,0 192,1 {{#invoke:cite report||url=https://www.epicentro.iss.it/en/coronavirus/bollettino/Report-COVID-2019_22_July_2020.pdf%7Ctitle=Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 patients dying in Italy Report based on available data on July 22nd, 2020|date=22 July 2020|publisher=Istituto Superiore di Sanità|access-date=4 October 2020|vauthors=Palmieri L, Andrianou X, Barbariol P, Bella A, Bellino S, Benelli E, Bertinato L, Boros S, Brambilla G, Calcagnini G, Canevelli M, Castrucci MR, Censi F, Ciervo A, Colaizzo E, D'Ancona F, Del Manso M, Donfrancesco C, Fabiani M, Filia A, Floridia M, Giuliano M, Grisetti T, Langer M, Lega I, Lo Noce C, Maiozzi P, Malchiodi Albedi F, Manno V, Martini M, Mateo Urdiales A, Mattei E, Meduri C, Meli P, Minelli G, Nebuloni M, Nisticò L, Nonis M, Onder G, Palmisano L, Petrosillo N, Pezzotti P, Pricci F, Punzo O, Puro V, Raparelli V, Rezza G, Riccardo F, Rota MC, Salerno P, Serra D, Siddu A, Stefanelli P, Tamburo De Bella M, Tiple D, Unim B, Vaianella L, Vanacore N, Vichi M, Villani ER, Brusaferro S}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Tzoulis P, Waung JA, Bagkeris E, Hussein Z, Biddanda A, Cousins J, Dewsnip A, Falayi K, McCaughran W, Mullins C, Naeem A, Nwokolo M, Quah H, Bitat S, Deyab E, Ponnampalam S, Bouloux PM, Montgomery H, Baldeweg SE | title = Dysnatremia is a Predictor for Morbidity and Mortality in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19 | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 106 | issue = 6 | pages = 1637–1648 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 33624101 | pmc = 7928894 | doi = 10.1210/clinem/dgab107 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Tzoulis P, Grossman AB, Baldeweg SE, Bouloux P, Kaltsas G | title = MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Dysnatraemia in COVID-19: prevalence, prognostic impact, pathophysiology, and management | journal = European Journal of Endocrinology | volume = 185 | issue = 4 | pages = R103–R111 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34370712 | pmc = 8428074 | doi = 10.1530/EJE-21-0281 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Baranovskii DS, Klabukov ID, Krasilnikova OA, Nikogosov DA, Polekhina NV, Baranovskaia DR, Laberko LA, Maneksha S, Harry TV, Durbin RP | title = Letter: Acid secretion by gastric mucous membrane | journal = The American Journal of Physiology | volume = 229 | issue = 6 | pages = 21–25 | date = December 1975 | pmid = 33210948 | pmc = 7738209 | doi = 10.1080/03007995.2020.1853510 | s2cid = 227065216 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Christensen B, Favaloro EJ, Lippi G, Van Cott EM | title = Hematology Laboratory Abnormalities in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) | journal = Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis | volume = 46 | issue = 7 | pages = 845–849 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32877961 | pmc = 7645834 | doi = 10.1055/s-0040-1715458 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal||date=15 October 2020 |title=Living with Covid19 |url=https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/themedreview/living-with-covid19/ |periodical=NIHR Themed Reviews |publisher=National Institute for Health Research |doi=10.3310/themedreview_41169 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=6 June 2020|title=How long does COVID-19 last?|url=https://covid.joinzoe.com/post/covid-long-term%7Caccess-date=15 October 2020|publisher=UK COVID Symptom Study}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://www.doh.wa.gov/Portals/1/Documents/1600/coronavirus/SummaryCOVIDLong%20termHealthEffects9-1-2020.pdf |title=Summary of COVID-19 Long Term Health Effects: Emerging evidence and Ongoing Investigation |publisher=University of Washington |date=1 September 2020 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=18 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218080009/https://www.doh.wa.gov/Portals/1/Documents/1600/coronavirus/SummaryCOVIDLong%20termHealthEffects9-1-2020.pdf |url-status=dead}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| title=Long-term symptoms of COVID-19 'really concerning', says WHO chief | website=UN News | date=30 October 2020 | url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/10/1076562 | access-date=7 March 2021}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) – Prognosis |url=https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/3000168/prognosis |website=BMJ |access-date=15 November 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Lavery AM, Preston LE, Ko JY, Chevinsky JR, DeSisto CL, Pennington AF, Kompaniyets L, Datta SD, Click ES, Golden T, Goodman AB, Mac Kenzie WR, Boehmer TK, Gundlapalli AV | title = Characteristics of Hospitalized COVID-19 Patients Discharged and Experiencing Same-Hospital Readmission – United States, March–August 2020 | journal = MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume = 69 | issue = 45 | pages = 1695–1699 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 33180754 | pmc = 7660660 | doi = 10.15585/mmwr.mm6945e2 }}
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- ↑ 204,0 204,1 204,2 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Engin AB, Engin ED, Engin A | title = Two important controversial risk factors in SARS-CoV-2 infection: Obesity and smoking | journal = Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology | volume = 78 | pages = 103411 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32422280 | pmc = 7227557 | doi = 10.1016/j.etap.2020.103411 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Setti L, Passarini F, De Gennaro G, Barbieri P, Licen S, Perrone MG, Piazzalunga A, Borelli M, Palmisani J, Di Gilio A, Rizzo E, Colao A, Piscitelli P, Miani A | title = Potential role of particulate matter in the spreading of COVID-19 in Northern Italy: first observational study based on initial epidemic diffusion | journal = BMJ Open | volume = 10 | issue = 9 | pages = e039338 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32973066 | doi = 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-039338 | pmc = 7517216 }}
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- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal|| vauthors = Pansini R, Fornacca D |date=June 2021|title=Early Spread of COVID-19 in the Air-Polluted Regions of Eight Severely Affected Countries|journal=Atmosphere|volume=12|issue=6|pages=795|doi=10.3390/atmos12060795|bibcode=2021Atmos..12..795P|doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Comunian S, Dongo D, Milani C, Palestini P | title = Air Pollution and Covid-19: The Role of Particulate Matter in the Spread and Increase of Covid-19's Morbidity and Mortality | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 17 | issue = 12 | pages = 4487 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32580440 | doi = 10.3390/ijerph17124487 | pmc = 7345938 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
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- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Petrakis D, Margină D, Tsarouhas K, Tekos F, Stan M, Nikitovic D, Kouretas D, Spandidos DA, Tsatsakis A | title = Obesity – A risk factor for increased COVID-19, severity and lethality (Review) | journal = Molecular Medicine Reports | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–19 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32377709 | pmc = 7248467 | doi = 10.3892/mmr.2020.11127 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Roca-Fernández A, Dennis A, Nicholls R, McGonigle J, Kelly M, Banerjee R, Banerjee A, Sanyal AJ |date=29 March 2021 |title=Hepatic Steatosis, Rather Than Underlying Obesity, Increases the Risk of Infection and Hospitalization for COVID-19 |journal=Frontiers in Medicine |volume=8 |page=636637 |doi=10.3389/fmed.2021.636637 |pmid=33855033 |pmc=8039134 |issn=2296-858X|doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
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- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Reardon S |title=Why don't kids tend to get as sick from Covid-19? |journal=Knowable Magazine |date=2 September 2021 |doi=10.1146/knowable-090121-1 |s2cid=239653475 |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/health-disease/2021/why-dont-kids-tend-get-sick-covid19 |access-date=7 September 2021}}
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- ↑ 240,0 240,1 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Wang J, Kaperak C, Sato T, Sakuraba A | title = COVID-19 reinfection: a rapid systematic review of case reports and case series | journal = Journal of Investigative Medicine | volume = 69 | issue = 6 | pages = 1253–1255 | date = August 2021 | pmid = 34006572 | doi = 10.1136/jim-2021-001853 |issn=1081-5589 | s2cid = 234773697 }}
- ↑ 241,0 241,1 {{#invoke:cite news ||title=How soon after catching COVID-19 can you get it again? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/health/2022-05-03/covid-19-reinfection-what-are-the-odds-of-catching-it-twice/101024180 |access-date=24 June 2022 |work=ABC News |date=2 May 2022 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite book||vauthors=((Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)) |chapter-url=https://www.cdc.gov/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson3/section3.html |title=Principles of Epidemiology in Public Health Practice |edition=Third |chapter=Lesson 3: Measures of Risk Section 3: Mortality Frequency Measures |date=May 2012|publisher=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|access-date=28 March 2020|archive-date=28 February 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200228150607/https://www.cdc.gov/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson3/section3.html |url-status=live |id=No. SS1978}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||url=https://ourworldindata.org/covid-mortality-risk |title=What do we know about the risk of dying from COVID-19? |vauthors=Ritchie H, Roser M |date=25 March 2020 |veditors=Chivers T |journal=Our World in Data |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328192730/https://ourworldindata.org/covid-mortality-risk}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Castagnoli R, Votto M, Licari A, Brambilla I, Bruno R, Perlini S, Rovida F, Baldanti F, Marseglia GL | title = Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Infection in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review | journal = JAMA Pediatrics | volume = 174 | issue = 9 | pages = 882–889 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32320004 | doi = 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1467 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Lu X, Zhang L, Du H, Zhang J, Li YY, Qu J, Zhang W, Wang Y, Bao S, Li Y, Wu C, Liu H, Liu D, Shao J, Peng X, Yang Y, Liu Z, Xiang Y, Zhang F, Silva RM, Pinkerton KE, Shen K, Xiao H, Xu S, Wong GW | title = SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Children | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 382 | issue = 17 | pages = 1663–1665 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32187458 | pmc = 7121177 | doi = 10.1056/nejmc2005073 | publisher = Massachusetts Medical Society }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Dong Y, Mo X, Hu Y, Qi X, Jiang F, Jiang Z, Tong S | title = Epidemiology of COVID-19 Among Children in China | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 145 | issue = 6 | pages = e20200702 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32179660 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2020-0702 | s2cid = 219118986 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ 247,0 247,1 247,2 247,3 {{#invoke:cite journal||title=Sex differences in COVID-19 case fatality: do we know enough?|journal=The Lancet. Global Health|vauthors=Dehingia N|year=2021|volume=9|issue=1|pages=e14–e15|doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30464-2|pmid=33160453|pmc=7834645}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Lazzerini M, Putoto G | title = COVID-19 in Italy: momentous decisions and many uncertainties | journal = The Lancet. Global Health | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = e641–e642 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32199072 | pmc = 7104294 | doi = 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30110-8 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||url=https://ourworldindata.org/covid-mortality-risk |title=What do we know about the risk of dying from COVID-19? |journal=Our World in Data |date=5 March 2020 |access-date=28 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328192730/https://ourworldindata.org/covid-mortality-risk |archive-date=28 March 2020 |url-status=live| vauthors = Ritchie H, Ortiz-Ospina E, Beltekian D, Mathieu E, Hasell J, MacDonald B, Giattino C, Appel C, Rodés-Guirao L, Roser M }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Total confirmed cases of COVID-19 per million people |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/total-confirmed-cases-of-covid-19-per-million-people |website=Our World in Data |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319163452/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/total-confirmed-cases-of-covid-19-per-million-people |archive-date=19 March 2020 |url-status=live}}Шаблон:Update inline
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Cumulative confirmed COVID-19 deaths per million people |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/total-covid-deaths-per-million |website=Our World in Data }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Mallapaty S | title = How deadly is the coronavirus? Scientists are close to an answer | journal = Nature | volume = 582 | issue = 7813 | pages = 467–468 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32546810 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-020-01738-2 | s2cid = 219726496 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi | bibcode = 2020Natur.582..467M }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Alwan NA, Burgess RA, Ashworth S, Beale R, Bhadelia N, Bogaert D, Dowd J, Eckerle I, Goldman LR, Greenhalgh T, Gurdasani D, Hamdy A, Hanage WP, Hodcroft EB, Hyde Z, Kellam P, Kelly-Irving M, Krammer F, Lipsitch M, McNally A, McKee M, Nouri A, Pimenta D, Priesemann V, Rutter H, Silver J, Sridhar D, Swanton C, Walensky RP, Yamey G, Ziauddeen H | title = Scientific consensus on the COVID-19 pandemic: we need to act now | journal = Lancet | volume = 396 | issue = 10260 | pages = e71–e72 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 33069277 | pmc = 7557300 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32153-X }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Meyerowitz-Katz G, Merone L | title = A systematic review and meta-analysis of published research data on COVID-19 infection fatality rates | journal = International Journal of Infectious Diseases | volume = 101 | pages = 138–148 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33007452 | pmc = 7524446 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.09.1464 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Zhang D, Hu M, Ji Q | title = Financial markets under the global pandemic of COVID-19 | journal = Finance Research Letters | volume = 36 | pages = 101528 | date = October 2020 | pmc = 7402242 | doi = 10.1016/j.csfx.2020.100043 | pmid = 32837360 | bibcode = 2020CSFX....500043D }}
- ↑ 256,0 256,1 256,2 256,3 256,4 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Levin AT, Hanage WP, Owusu-Boaitey N, Cochran KB, Walsh SP, Meyerowitz-Katz G | title = Assessing the age specificity of infection fatality rates for COVID-19: systematic review, meta-analysis, and public policy implications | journal = European Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 35 | issue = 12 | pages = 1123–1138 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33289900 | pmc = 7721859 | doi = 10.1007/s10654-020-00698-1 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }} Файл:CC BY icon.svg Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal||title=Background paper on Covid-19 disease and vaccines: prepared by the Strategic Advisory Group of Experts (SAGE) on immunization working group on COVID-19 vaccines|date=22 December 2020|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/338095%7Cwebsite=World Health Organization|hdl=10665/338095 | author =World Health Organization }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report – 30 |url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200219-sitrep-30-covid-19.pdf |access-date=3 June 2020 |date=19 February 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report – 31 |url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200220-sitrep-31-covid-19.pdf |access-date=23 April 2020 |date=20 February 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = McNeil Jr DG |title=The Pandemic's Big Mystery: How Deadly Is the Coronavirus? – Even with more than 500,000 dead worldwide, scientists are struggling to learn how often the virus kills. Here's why |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/04/health/coronavirus-death-rate.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704152005/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/04/health/coronavirus-death-rate.html |archive-date=4 July 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |date=4 July 2020 |work=The New York Times |access-date=6 July 2020}}
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- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Estimating mortality from COVID-19|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/estimating-mortality-from-covid-19%7Caccess-date=21 September 2020|website=World Health Organization (WHO)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal|| vauthors = Shaffer C |date=23 October 2021|title=Covid-19 still rife in Iran |journal=New Scientist|volume=252|issue=3357|pages=10–11|doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(21)01865-0|pmid=34720322|issn=0262-4079|pmc=8536311|bibcode=2021NewSc.252...10S}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=COVID-19: Data |url=https://www1.nyc.gov/site/doh/covid/covid-19-data.page |publisher=City of New York}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite SSRN||title=SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, Infection Fatality Rate (IFR) Implied by the Serology, Antibody, Testing in New York City| vauthors = Wilson L |date=May 2020|ssrn=3590771}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Yang W, Kandula S, Huynh M, Greene SK, Van Wye G, Li W, Chan HT, McGibbon E, Yeung A, Olson D, Fine A, Shaman J | title = Estimating the infection-fatality risk of SARS-CoV-2 in New York City during the spring 2020 pandemic wave: a model-based analysis | journal = The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume = 21 | issue = 2 | pages = 203–212 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 33091374 | pmc = 7572090 | doi = 10.1016/s1473-3099(20)30769-6 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://medium.com/bccp-uc-berkeley/how-deadly-is-covid-19-data-science-offers-answers-from-italy-mortality-data-58abedf824cf%7Ctitle=How deadly is COVID-19? Data Science offers answers from Italy mortality data.| vauthors = Modi C |date=21 April 2020 |website=Medium |access-date=23 April 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/planning-scenarios.html |website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) |access-date=9 December 2020 |date=10 September 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Salje H, Tran Kiem C, Lefrancq N, Courtejoie N, Bosetti P, Paireau J, Andronico A, Hozé N, Richet J, Dubost CL, Le Strat Y, Lessler J, Levy-Bruhl D, Fontanet A, Opatowski L, Boelle PY, Cauchemez S | title = Estimating the burden of SARS-CoV-2 in France | journal = Science | volume = 369 | issue = 6500 | pages = 208–211 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32404476 | pmc = 7223792 | doi = 10.1126/science.abc3517 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2020Sci...369..208S }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors = McIntosh K |title=Covid 19 Clinical Features|url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/covid-19-clinical-features%7Caccess-date=12 May 2021|website=UpToDate|publication-date=April 2021}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Peckham H, de Gruijter NM, Raine C, Radziszewska A, Ciurtin C, Wedderburn LR, Rosser EC, Webb K, Deakin CT | title = Male sex identified by global COVID-19 meta-analysis as a risk factor for death and ITU admission | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 6317 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33298944 | doi = 10.1038/s41467-020-19741-6 | pmc = 7726563 | bibcode = 2020NatCo..11.6317P }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Abate BB, Kassie AM, Kassaw MW, Aragie TG, Masresha SA | title = Sex difference in coronavirus disease (COVID-19): a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = BMJ Open | volume = 10 | issue = 10 | pages = e040129 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 33028563 | doi = 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-040129 | pmc = 7539579 }}
- ↑ 273,0 273,1 273,2 {{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=((The Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia Emergency Response Epidemiology Team)) |date=February 2020|title=The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) – China, 2020 |journal=China CDC Weekly|volume=2|issue=8|pages=113–122|doi=10.46234/ccdcw2020.032 |pmid=34594836|pmc=839292|doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Hu Y, Sun J, Dai Z, Deng H, Li X, Huang Q, Wu Y, Sun L, Xu Y | title = Prevalence and severity of corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Journal of Clinical Virology | volume = 127 | pages = 104371 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32315817 | pmc = 7195434 | doi = 10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104371 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Fu L, Wang B, Yuan T, Chen X, Ao Y, Fitzpatrick T, Li P, Zhou Y, Lin YF, Duan Q, Luo G, Fan S, Lu Y, Feng A, Zhan Y, Liang B, Cai W, Zhang L, Du X, Li L, Shu Y, Zou H | title = Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China: A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = The Journal of Infection | volume = 80 | issue = 6 | pages = 656–665 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32283155 | pmc = 7151416 | doi = 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.041 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Yuki K, Fujiogi M, Koutsogiannaki S | title = COVID-19 pathophysiology: A review | journal = Clinical Immunology | volume = 215 | pages = 108427 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32325252 | pmc = 7169933 | doi = 10.1016/j.clim.2020.108427 | s2cid = 216028003 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Rabin RC | title = In Italy, Coronavirus Takes a Higher Toll on Men |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/20/health/coronavirus-italy-men-risk.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320214013/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/20/health/coronavirus-italy-men-risk.html |archive-date=20 March 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=7 April 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=20 March 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=COVID-19 weekly surveillance report |url=https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-emergencies/coronavirus-covid-19/weekly-surveillance-report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200315074508/https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-emergencies/coronavirus-covid-19/weekly-surveillance-report |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 March 2020 |website=World Health Organization (WHO) |access-date=7 April 2020}}
- ↑ 279,0 279,1 {{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Gupta AH | title = Does Covid-19 Hit Women and Men Differently? U.S. Isn't Keeping Track |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/03/us/coronavirus-male-female-data-bias.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403135013/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/03/us/coronavirus-male-female-data-bias.html |archive-date=3 April 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=7 April 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=3 April 2020}}
- ↑ 280,0 280,1 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Dorn AV, Cooney RE, Sabin ML | title = COVID-19 exacerbating inequalities in the US | journal = Lancet | volume = 395 | issue = 10232 | pages = 1243–1244 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32305087 | pmc = 7162639 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30893-X }}
- ↑ 281,0 281,1 {{#invoke:cite journal ||last1=Shauly-Aharonov |first1=Michal |last2=Shafrir |first2=Asher |last3=Paltiel |first3=Ora |last4=Calderon-Margalit |first4=Ronit |last5=Safadi |first5=Rifaat |last6=Bicher |first6=Roee |last7=Barenholz-Goultschin |first7=Orit |last8=Stokar |first8=Joshua |date=22 July 2021 |title=Both high and low pre-infection glucose levels associated with increased risk for severe COVID-19: New insights from a population-based study |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=e0254847 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254847 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8297851 |pmid=34293038|bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654847S |doi-access=free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Adams ML, Katz DL, Grandpre J | title = Population-Based Estimates of Chronic Conditions Affecting Risk for Complications from Coronavirus Disease, United States | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 26 | issue = 8 | pages = 1831–1833 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32324118 | pmc = 7392427 | doi = 10.3201/eid2608.200679 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors = Batthyány K |title=Coronavirus y Desigualdades preexistentes: Género y Cuidados|url=https://www.clacso.org/coronavirus-y-desigualdades-preexistentes-genero-y-cuidados/%7Caccess-date=22 April 2021|website=CLACSO (Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales)|date=13 October 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/covid-19-presents-significant-risks-for-american-indian-and-alaska-native-people/%7Ctitle=COVID-19 Presents Significant Risks for American Indian and Alaska Native People|date=14 May 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=COVID-19 Presents Significant Risks for American Indian and Alaska Native People|url=https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/covid-19-presents-significant-risks-for-american-indian-and-alaska-native-people/%7Cdate=14 May 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Laurencin CT, McClinton A | title = The COVID-19 Pandemic: a Call to Action to Identify and Address Racial and Ethnic Disparities | journal = Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | pages = 398–402 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32306369 | pmc = 7166096 | doi = 10.1007/s40615-020-00756-0 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=9 June 2020|title=How coronavirus deaths in the UK compare by race and ethnicity|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/coronavirus-death-toll-uk-race-white-black-asian-bame-ethnicity-cases-a9557076.html%7Caccess-date=10 June 2020|website=The Independent}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Emerging findings on the impact of COVID-19 on black and minority ethnic people|url=https://www.health.org.uk/news-and-comment/charts-and-infographics/emerging-findings-on-the-impact-of-covid-19-on-black-and-min%7Caccess-date=10 June 2020|publisher=The Health Foundation}}
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- ↑ 290,0 290,1 290,2 {{#invoke:Cite web|| title=The ancient Neanderthal hand in severe COVID-19 | website=ScienceDaily | date=30 September 2020 | url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/09/200930094758.htm | access-date=13 December 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-statement-on-the-advice-of-the-ihr-emergency-committee-on-novel-coronavirus |title=WHO Director-General's statement on the advice of the IHR Emergency Committee on Novel Coronavirus |website=World Health Organization (WHO)}}
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- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Zhao Q, Meng M, Kumar R, Wu Y, Huang J, Lian N, Deng Y, Lin S | title = The impact of COPD and smoking history on the severity of COVID-19: A systemic review and meta-analysis | journal = Journal of Medical Virology | volume = 92 | issue = 10 | pages = 1915–1921 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32293753 | pmc = 7262275 | doi = 10.1002/jmv.25889 }}
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- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/who-convened-global-study-of-origins-of-sars-cov-2-china-part%7Cwork=World Health Organization|title=WHO-convened Global Study of Origins of SARS-CoV-2: China Part|date=30 March 2021|access-date=29 July 2022}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Duarte F | date=24 February 2020|title=As the cases of coronavirus increase in China and around the world, the hunt is on to identify "patient zero".|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200221-coronavirus-the-harmful-hunt-for-covid-19s-patient-zero%7Caccess-date=22 March 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal||title=The molecular epidemiology of multiple zoonotic origins of SARS-CoV-2 |date=26 July 2022 |journal=Science|vauthors=Pekar JE, Magee P, Parker E, Moshiri N, Izhikevich K, Havens JL, Gangavarapu K, Serrano LM, Crits-Christoph A, Matteson NL, Zeller M, Levy JI, Wang JC, Hughes S, Lee JM, Park H, Park MS, Ching ZY, Lin TP, Isa NM, Noor YM, Vasylyeva TI, Garry RF, Holmes EC, Rambaut A, Suchard MA, Andersen KG, Worobey M, Wertheim JO|pages=960–966 |doi-access = free | title-link = doi |volume=377 |issue=6609 |doi=10.1126/science.abp8337|pmid=35881005 |pmc=9348752 |bibcode=2022Sci...377..960P }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite news ||last=Gill |first=Victoria |date=26 July 2022 |title=Covid origin studies say evidence points to Wuhan market |work=BBC News Online |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-62307383 |url-status=live |access-date=31 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220726153445/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-62307383 |archive-date=26 July 2022}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||title=The Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market in Wuhan was the early epicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic |date=July 2022 |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.abp8715 | vauthors = Worobey M, Levy JI, Serrano LM, Crits-Christoph A, Pekar JE, Goldstein SA, Rasmussen AL, Kraemer MU, Newman C, Koopmans MP, Suchard MA, Wertheim JO, Lemey P, Robertson DL, Garry RF, Holmes EC, Rambaut A, Andersen KG | title-link=doi |volume=377 |issue=6609 |pages=951–959 |pmid=35881010 |pmc=9348750 |bibcode=2022Sci...377..951W |s2cid=251067542 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/debate-deepens-over-wuhan-wet-markets-role-in-kickstarting-the-pandemic |title=Debate deepens over Wuhan wet market's role in kickstarting the pandemic |date=27 July 2022 |work=National Geographic}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Li X, Zai J, Zhao Q, Nie Q, Li Y, Foley BT, Chaillon A | title = Evolutionary history, potential intermediate animal host, and cross-species analyses of SARS-CoV-2 | journal = Journal of Medical Virology | volume = 92 | issue = 6 | pages = 602–611 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32104911 | pmc = 7228310 | doi = 10.1002/jmv.25731 }}
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- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = van Dorp L, Acman M, Richard D, Shaw LP, Ford CE, Ormond L, Owen CJ, Pang J, Tan CC, Boshier FA, Ortiz AT, Balloux F | title = Emergence of genomic diversity and recurrent mutations in SARS-CoV-2 | journal = Infection, Genetics and Evolution | volume = 83 | pages = 104351 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32387564 | pmc = 7199730 | doi = 10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104351 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Grose TK |url= https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/articles/2020-05-13/scientist-suggests-coronavirus-originated-outside-of-wuhan |title=Did the Coronavirus Originate Outside of Wuhan? |work=U.S. News & World Report |date=13 May 2020}}
- ↑ 311,0 311,1 {{#invoke:cite journal ||last1=Pekar |first1=Jonathan |title=The molecular epidemiology of multiple zoonotic origins of SARS-CoV-2 |journal=Science |date=26 July 2022 |volume=377 |issue=6609 |pages=960–966 |doi=10.1126/science.abp8337 |pmid=35881005 |pmc=9348752 |bibcode=2022Sci...377..960P }}
- ↑ 312,0 312,1 {{#invoke:cite journal ||last1=Jiang |first1=Xiaowei |last2=Wang |first2=Ruoqi |title=Wildlife trade is likely the source of SARS-CoV-2 |journal=Science |date=25 August 2022 |volume=377 |issue=6609 |pages=925–926 |doi=10.1126/science.add8384 |pmid=36007033 |bibcode=2022Sci...377..925J |s2cid=251843410 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.add8384 |access-date=20 November 2022}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite book ||title=Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2022 |publisher=IPCC |pages=233–235 |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter02.pdf |access-date=14 March 2023}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite book ||title=Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2022 |publisher=IPCC |pages=1067–1070 |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter07.pdf |access-date=14 March 2023}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite web ||title=Climate change may have driven the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 |url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/climate-change-may-have-driven-the-emergence-of-sars-cov-2 |website=University of Cambridge |date=5 February 2021 |publisher=Science of the Total Environment |access-date=14 March 2023}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite web ||title=Climate change the culprit in the COVID-19 pandemic |url=https://cordis.europa.eu/article/id/430229-climate-change-the-culprit-in-the-covid-19-pandemic |website=European Commission |access-date=24 March 2023}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite web ||last1=Barnes |first1=Julian E. |title=Lab Leak Most Likely Caused Pandemic, Energy Dept. Says |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/26/us/politics/china-lab-leak-coronavirus-pandemic.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=27 February 2023 |date=26 February 2023}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||last1=Mueller |first1=Julia |title=Energy Department's COVID lab leak conclusion: What we know |url=https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/3874965-what-we-know-about-energy-departments-lab-leak-conclusion/ |access-date=26 March 2023 |work=The Hill |date=26 February 2023}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||last1=LeBlanc |first1=Paul |title=New assessment on the origins of Covid-19 adds to the confusion | CNN Politics |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/02/27/politics/covid-origins-doe-assessment-what-matters/index.html |access-date=27 February 2023 |work=CNN |date=27 February 2023 |language=en}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||last1=Davis |first1=Nicola |last2=Hawkins |first2=Amy |title=How seriously should we take the US DoE's Covid lab leak theory? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/27/how-seriously-should-we-take-the-us-does-covid-lab-leak-theory |access-date=27 February 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=27 February 2023}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors = Wolf ZB |title=Analysis: Why scientists are suddenly more interested in the lab-leak theory of Covid's origin |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/05/25/politics/wuhan-lab-covid-origin-theory/index.html%7Caccess-date=26 May 2021 |publisher=CNN|date=25 May 2021}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Maxmen A |title=US COVID origins report: researchers pleased with scientific approach |journal=Nature |volume=597 |issue=7875 |pages=159–160 |date=September 2021 |pmid=34465917 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-02366-0 |s2cid=237373547 |bibcode=2021Natur.597..159M}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite news||url=https://www.politico.com/newsletters/future-pulse/2022/11/04/cross-examining-the-lab-leak-theorists-00065103%7Ctitle=Cross-examining the lab-leak theorists|date=4 November 2022|work=Politico |vauthors=Paun C, Zeller S, Reader R, Leonard B, Scullion G | access-date=21 November 2022 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite news||url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us-intelligence-releases-report-covid-19-origins-2021-10-29/%7Ctitle=U.S. spy agencies say origins of COVID-19 may never be known |vauthors=Hosenball M, Zengerle P|date=30 October 2021 |work=Reuters|access-date=21 November 2022}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Holmes EC, Goldstein SA, Rasmussen AL, Robertson DL, Crits-Christoph A, Wertheim JO, Anthony SJ, Barclay WS, Boni MF, Doherty PC, Farrar J, Geoghegan JL, Jiang X, Leibowitz JL, Neil SJ, Skern T, Weiss SR, Worobey M, Andersen KG, Garry RF, Rambaut A |title=The origins of SARS-CoV-2: A critical review |journal=Cell |volume=184 |issue=19 |pages=4848–4856 |date=September 2021 |pmid=34480864 |pmc=8373617 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2021.08.017 |type=Review |quote=Under any laboratory escape scenario, SARS-CoV-2 would have to have been present in a laboratory prior to the pandemic, yet no evidence exists to support such a notion and no sequence has been identified that could have served as a precursor.}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite web ||last=Gorski |first=David |date=31 May 2021 |title=The origin of SARS-CoV-2, revisited |url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/the-origin-of-sars-cov-2-revisited/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601072923/https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/the-origin-of-sars-cov-2-revisited/ |archive-date=1 June 2021 |access-date=19 July 2021 |publisher=Science-Based Medicine |quote=The second [version of the lab leak] is the version that "reasonable" people consider plausible, but there is no good evidence for either version.}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite web ||last=Holmes |first=Edward C. |date=14 August 2022 |title=The COVID lab leak theory is dead. Here's how we know the virus came from a Wuhan market |url=http://theconversation.com/the-covid-lab-leak-theory-is-dead-heres-how-we-know-the-virus-came-from-a-wuhan-market-188163 |access-date=4 September 2022 |website=The Conversation |language=en |quote=For the lab leak theory to be true, SARS-CoV-2 must have been present in the Wuhan Institute of Virology before the pandemic started. This would convince me. But the inconvenient truth is there's not a single piece of data suggesting this. There's no evidence for a genome sequence or isolate of a precursor virus at the Wuhan Institute of Virology. Not from gene sequence databases, scientific publications, annual reports, student theses, social media, or emails. Even the intelligence community has found nothing. Nothing. And there was no reason to keep any work on a SARS-CoV-2 ancestor secret before the pandemic.}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Wu YC, Chen CS, Chan YJ |title=The outbreak of COVID-19: An overview |journal=Journal of the Chinese Medical Association |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=217–220 |date=March 2020 |pmid=32134861 |pmc=7153464 |doi=10.1097/JCMA.0000000000000270}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Wang C, Horby PW, Hayden FG, Gao GF |title=A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern |journal=Lancet |volume=395 |issue=10223 |pages=470–473 |date=February 2020 |pmid=31986257 |pmc=7135038 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30185-9 |title-link=doi |doi-access=free}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal|| vauthors=Cohen J | date=January 2020|title=Wuhan seafood market may not be source of novel virus spreading globally |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/wuhan-seafood-market-may-not-be-source-novel-virus-spreading-globally%7Cjournal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.abb0611 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=12 January 2020|title=Novel Coronavirus – China|website=World Health Organization (WHO) |url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/12-january-2020-novel-coronavirus-china/en/%7Curl-status=dead%7Carchive-date=14 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114185815/https://www.who.int/csr/don/12-january-2020-novel-coronavirus-china/en/}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors=Kessler G |date=17 April 2020|title=Trump's false claim that the WHO said the coronavirus was 'not communicable' |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/04/17/trumps-false-claim-that-who-said-coronavirus-was-not-communicable/%7Curl-status=live |access-date=17 April 2020|archive-date=17 April 2020|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200417193804/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/04/17/trumps-false-claim-that-who-said-coronavirus-was-not-communicable/}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||vauthors=Kuo L |date=21 January 2020 |title=China confirms human-to-human transmission of coronavirus |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/20/coronavirus-spreads-to-beijing-as-china-confirms-new-cases%7Caccess-date=18 April 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||title=[The epidemiological characteristics of an outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus diseases (COVID-19) in China] |language=zh |journal=Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi = Zhonghua Liuxingbingxue Zazhi |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=145–151 |date=February 2020 |pmid=32064853 |doi=10.3760/cma.j.issn.0254-6450.2020.02.003 |s2cid=211133882 |author1=Epidemiology Working Group For Ncip Epidemic Response |author2=Chinese Center for Disease Control Prevention}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Areddy JT |date=26 May 2020|title=China Rules Out Animal Market and Lab as Coronavirus Origin|work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-rules-out-animal-market-and-lab-as-coronavirus-origin-11590517508%7Caccess-date=29 May 2020|url-access=subscription}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors=Kelland K |date=19 June 2020 |title=Italy sewage study suggests COVID-19 was there in December 2019|work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-italy-sewage/italy-sewage-study-suggests-covid-19-was-there-in-december-2019-idUSKBN23Q1J9%7Caccess-date=23 June 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Heymann DL, Shindo N |title=COVID-19: what is next for public health? |journal=Lancet |volume=395 |issue=10224 |pages=542–545 |date=February 2020 |pmid=32061313 |pmc=7138015 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30374-3 |title-link=doi |doi-access=free}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| date=14 March 2020 |vauthors=Bryner J |title=1st known case of coronavirus traced back to November in China |website=livescience.com |url=https://www.livescience.com/first-case-coronavirus-found.html%7Caccess-date=31 May 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||author=Canadian Politics |date=8 April 2020 |title=The birth of a pandemic: How COVID-19 went from Wuhan to Toronto |newspaper=National Post|url=https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/the-birth-of-a-pandemic-how-covid-19-went-from-wuhan-to-toronto |access-date=31 May 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news||author=高昱|date=26 February 2020|title=独家 | 新冠病毒基因测序溯源: 警报是何时拉响的|language=zh|trans-title=Exclusive | Tracing the New Coronavirus gene sequencing: when did the alarm sound|work=Caixin|url=https://china.caixin.com/2020-02-26/101520972.html%7Caccess-date=1 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227094018/https://china.caixin.com/2020-02-26/101520972.html%7Carchive-date=27 February 2020|url-status=dead}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||author1=路子康 |title=最早上报疫情的她, 怎样发现这种不一样的肺炎|website=中国网新闻 |location=北京|language=zh-cn |url=https://news.china.com/zw/news/13000776/20200209/37780703.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302165302/https://news.china.com/zw/news/13000776/20200209/37780703.html%7Carchive-date=2 March 2020|access-date=11 February 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Undiagnosed pneumonia – China (HU): RFI|url=https://promedmail.org/promed-post/?id=6864153%7Caccess-date=7 May 2020|website=ProMED Mail |publisher=ProMED}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news||date=7 February 2020|title='Hero who told the truth': Chinese rage over coronavirus death of whistleblower doctor|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/feb/07/coronavirus-chinese-rage-death-whistleblower-doctor-li-wenliang}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||vauthors=Kuo L |date=11 March 2020 |title=Coronavirus: Wuhan doctor speaks out against authorities |work=The Guardian |location=London|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/11/coronavirus-wuhan-doctor-ai-fen-speaks-out-against-authorities}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Novel Coronavirus |url=https://www.who.int/westernpacific/emergencies/novel-coronavirus%7Caccess-date=6 February 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202151307/https://www.who.int/westernpacific/emergencies/novel-coronavirus%7Carchive-date=2 February 2020|work=World Health Organization (WHO)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news||date=31 December 2019|title=武汉现不明原因肺炎 官方确认属实: 已经做好隔离|publisher=Xinhua Net 新華網 |url=https://news.163.com/19/1231/10/F1NGTJNJ00019K82.html%7Caccess-date=31 March 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=31 December 2019|script-title=zh:武汉市卫健委关于当前我市肺炎疫情的情况通报 |url=https://wjw.wuhan.gov.cn/front/web/showDetail/2019123108989%7Curl-status=dead%7Carchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109215413/https://wjw.wuhan.gov.cn/front/web/showDetail/2019123108989%7Carchive-date=9 January 2020 |access-date=8 February 2020|work=WJW.Wuhan.gov.cn|publisher=Wuhan Municipal Health Commission|language=zh}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news||date=3 January 2020|title=Mystery pneumonia virus probed in China|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-50984025%7Curl-status=live%7Caccess-date=29 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105051949/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-50984025%7Carchive-date=5 January 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, Ren R, Leung KS, Lau EH, Wong JY, Xing X, Xiang N, Wu Y, Li C, Chen Q, Li D, Liu T, Zhao J, Liu M, Tu W, Chen C, Jin L, Yang R, Wang Q, Zhou S, Wang R, Liu H, Luo Y, Liu Y, Shao G, Li H, Tao Z, Yang Y, Deng Z, Liu B, Ma Z, Zhang Y, Shi G, Lam TT, Wu JT, Gao GF, Cowling BJ, Yang B, Leung GM, Feng Z | title = Early Transmission Dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 382 | issue = 13 | pages = 1199–1207 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 31995857 | pmc = 7121484 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa2001316 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news||date=20 January 2020|title=China confirms sharp rise in cases of SARS-like virus across the country|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200120-china-confirms-sharp-rise-in-cases-of-sars-like-virus-across-the-country%7Curl-status=live%7Caccess-date=20 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200120055618/https://www.france24.com/en/20200120-china-confirms-sharp-rise-in-cases-of-sars-like-virus-across-the-country%7Carchive-date=20 January 2020}}
- ↑ 351,0 351,1 {{#invoke:cite news||date=25 April 2020|title=Flattery and foot dragging: China's influence over the WHO under scrutiny|work=The Globe and Mail |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-flattery-and-foot-dragging-chinas-influence-over-the-who-under/}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors=Horton R |author-link=Richard Horton (editor)|date=18 March 2020 |title=Scientists have been sounding the alarm on coronavirus for months. Why did Britain fail to act?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/mar/18/coronavirus-uk-expert-advice-wrong |access-date=23 April 2020|website=The Guardian}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=2 June 2020|title=China delayed releasing coronavirus info, frustrating WHO |work=Associated Press |url=https://apnews.com/3c061794970661042b18d5aeaaed9fae%7Caccess-date=3 June 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=31 January 2020|title=Coronavirus: Primi due casi in Italia|trans-title=Coronavirus: First two cases in Italy|url=https://www.corriere.it/cronache/20_gennaio_30/coronavirus-italia-corona-9d6dc436-4343-11ea-bdc8-faf1f56f19b7.shtml%7Caccess-date=31 January 2020|work=Corriere della sera|language=it}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Coronavirus: Number of COVID-19 deaths in Italy surpasses China as total reaches 3,405|url=https://news.sky.com/story/coronavirus-number-of-covid-19-deaths-in-italy-surpasses-china-as-total-reaches-3-405-11960412%7Caccess-date=7 May 2020|publisher=Sky News}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = McNeil Jr DG |author-link=Donald McNeil Jr.|date=26 March 2020|title=The U.S. Now Leads the World in Confirmed Coronavirus Cases|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/26/health/usa-coronavirus-cases.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326211527/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/26/health/usa-coronavirus-cases.html |archive-date=26 March 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=27 March 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news||date=8 April 2020|title=Studies Show N.Y. Outbreak Originated in Europe|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/08/us/coronavirus-live-updates.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408185016/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/08/us/coronavirus-live-updates.html |archive-date=8 April 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Irish J |date=4 May 2020|title=After retesting samples, French hospital discovers COVID-19 case from December|work=Reuters| veditors = Lough RM, Graff P |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-france-idUSKBN22G20L%7Caccess-date=4 May 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Deslandes A, Berti V, Tandjaoui-Lambotte Y, Alloui C, Carbonnelle E, Zahar JR, Brichler S, Cohen Y | title = SARS-CoV-2 was already spreading in France in late December 2019 | journal = International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents | volume = 55 | issue = 6 | pages = 106006 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32371096 | pmc = 7196402 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.106006 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=22 April 2020|title=2 died with coronavirus weeks before 1st U.S. virus death|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/2-died-with-coronavirus-weeks-before-1st-u-s-virus-death%7Caccess-date=23 April 2020|website=PBS NewsHour}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Michael-Kordatou I, Karaolia P, Fatta-Kassinos D | title = Sewage analysis as a tool for the COVID-19 pandemic response and management: the urgent need for optimised protocols for SARS-CoV-2 detection and quantification | journal = Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = 104306 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32834990 | pmc = 7384408 | doi = 10.1016/j.jece.2020.104306 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Platto S, Xue T, Carafoli E | title = COVID19: an announced pandemic | journal = Cell Death & Disease | volume = 11 | issue = 9 | pages = 799 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32973152 | pmc = 7513903 | doi = 10.1038/s41419-020-02995-9 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news||url=https://www.reuters.com/world/global-covid-19-deaths-hit-5-million-delta-variant-sweeps-world-2021-10-02/%7Ctitle=Global COVID-19 deaths hit 5 million as Delta variant sweeps the world| vauthors = Kavya B, Abraham R |agency=Reuters| veditors = Shumaker L, Wardell J |date=3 October 2021|work=Reuters.com}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite web||title=From emergency response to long-term COVID-19 disease management: sustaining gains made during the COVID-19 pandemic|url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-WHE-SPP-2023.1%7Cwebsite=www.who.int%7Cpublisher=World Health Organization|access-date=9 May 2023|language=en}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite web||date=5 May 2023|title=WHO ends global health emergency declaration for COVID-19|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/05/05/1174269442/who-ends-global-health-emergency-declaration-for-covid-19%7Cwebsite=NPR%7Cfirst1=Giulia%7Clast1=Heyward%7Cfirst2=Marc%7Clast2=Silver%7Caccess-date=9 May 2023}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-51271037 |title=China coronavirus: Misinformation spreads online about origin and scale |date=30 January 2020 |work=BBC News |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204163412/https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-51271037 |archive-date=4 February 2020 |url-status=live}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/31/bat-soup-dodgy-cures-and-diseasology-the-spread-of-coronavirus-bunkum |title=Bat soup, dodgy cures and 'diseasology': the spread of coronavirus misinformation |date=31 January 2020 |access-date=3 February 2020 | vauthors = Taylor J |newspaper=The Guardian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202141231/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/31/bat-soup-dodgy-cures-and-diseasology-the-spread-of-coronavirus-bunkum |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/janelytvynenko/coronavirus-disinformation-spread |title=Here's A Running List Of Disinformation Spreading About The Coronavirus |website=Buzzfeed News |access-date=8 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206212717/https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/janelytvynenko/coronavirus-disinformation-spread |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=11 February 2020|title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/planning-scenarios.html%7Caccess-date=10 October 2020|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=8 October 2020|title=Misleading claim circulates online about infection fatality ratio of Covid-19 in the US|url=https://factcheck.afp.com/misleading-claim-circulates-online-about-infection-fatality-ratio-covid-19-us%7Caccess-date=10 October 2020|website=Fact Check}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal||last1=Gryseels |first1=Sophie |last2=De Bruyn |first2=Luc |last3=Gyselings |first3=Ralf |last4=Calvignac-Spencer |first4=Sébastien |last5=Leendertz |first5=Fabian H. |last6=Leirs |first6=Herwig |title=Risk of human-to-wildlife transmission of SARS-CoV-2 |journal=Mammal Review |date=April 2021 |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=272–292 |doi=10.1111/mam.12225 |pmid=33230363 |pmc=7675675 |hdl=10067/1726730151162165141 |language=en |issn=0305-1838}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal||last1=Tan |first1=Cedric C. S. |last2=Lam |first2=Su Datt |last3=Richard |first3=Damien |last4=Owen |first4=Christopher J. |last5=Berchtold |first5=Dorothea |last6=Orengo |first6=Christine |last7=Nair |first7=Meera Surendran |last8=Kuchipudi |first8=Suresh V. |last9=Kapur |first9=Vivek |last10=van Dorp |first10=Lucy |last11=Balloux |first11=François |title=Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from humans to animals and potential host adaptation |journal=Nature Communications |date=27 May 2022 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=2988 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-30698-6 |pmid=35624123 |pmc=9142586 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.2988T |url=https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-30698-6 |access-date=28 February 2023 |language=en |issn=2041-1723}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||last1=Pappas |first1=Georgios |last2=Vokou |first2=Despoina |last3=Sainis |first3=Ioannis |last4=Halley |first4=John M. |title=SARS-CoV-2 as a Zooanthroponotic Infection: Spillbacks, Secondary Spillovers, and Their Importance |journal=Microorganisms |date=November 2022 |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=2166 |doi=10.3390/microorganisms10112166 |pmid=36363758 |pmc=9696655 |language=en |issn=2076-2607|doi-access=free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||last1=Munir |first1=Khalid |last2=Ashraf |first2=Shoaib |last3=Munir |first3=Isra |last4=Khalid |first4=Hamna |last5=Muneer |first5=Mohammad Akram |last6=Mukhtar |first6=Noreen |last7=Amin |first7=Shahid |last8=Ashraf |first8=Sohaib |last9=Imran |first9=Muhammad Ahmad |last10=Chaudhry |first10=Umer |last11=Zaheer |first11=Muhammad Usman |last12=Arshad |first12=Maria |last13=Munir |first13=Rukhsana |last14=Ahmad |first14=Ali |last15=Zhao |first15=Xin |title=Zoonotic and reverse zoonotic events of SARS-CoV-2 and their impact on global health |journal=Emerging Microbes & Infections |date=1 January 2020 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=2222–2235 |doi=10.1080/22221751.2020.1827984 |pmid=32967592 |pmc=7594747 }}
- ↑ 375,0 375,1 375,2 375,3 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kampf G, Brüggemann Y, Kaba HE, Steinmann J, Pfaender S, Scheithauer S, Steinmann E | title = Potential sources, modes of transmission and effectiveness of prevention measures against SARS-CoV-2 | journal = The Journal of Hospital Infection | volume = 106 | issue = 4 | pages = 678–697 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 32956786 | pmc = 7500278 | doi = 10.1016/j.jhin.2020.09.022 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Shi J, Wen Z, Zhong G, Yang H, Wang C, Huang B, Liu R, He X, Shuai L, Sun Z, Zhao Y, Liu P, Liang L, Cui P, Wang J, Zhang X, Guan Y, Tan W, Wu G, Chen H, Bu Z | title = Susceptibility of ferrets, cats, dogs, and other domesticated animals to SARS-coronavirus 2 | journal = Science | volume = 368 | issue = 6494 | pages = 1016–1020 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32269068 | pmc = 7164390 | doi = 10.1126/science.abb7015 }}
- ↑ 377,0 377,1 377,2 377,3 377,4 377,5 377,6 377,7 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Salajegheh Tazerji S, Magalhães Duarte P, Rahimi P, Shahabinejad F, Dhakal S, Singh Malik Y, Shehata AA, Lama J, Klein J, Safdar M, Rahman MT, Filipiak KJ, Rodríguez-Morales AJ, Sobur MA, Kabir F, Vazir B, Mboera L, Caporale M, Islam MS, Amuasi JH, Gharieb R, Roncada P, Musaad S, Tilocca B, Koohi MK, Taghipour A, Sait A, Subbaram K, Jahandideh A, Mortazavi P, Abedini MA, Hokey DA, Hogan U, Shaheen MN, Elaswad A, Elhaig MM, Fawzy M |title = Transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) to animals: an updated review | journal = Journal of Translational Medicine | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 358 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32957995 | pmc = 7503431 | doi = 10.1186/s12967-020-02534-2 |doi-access=free}}
- ↑ 378,0 378,1 378,2 {{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Gorman J |date=22 January 2021|title=The Coronavirus Kills Mink, So They Too May Get a Vaccine|work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/22/science/covid-mink-vaccine.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/22/science/covid-mink-vaccine.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited|access-date=24 February 2021|issn=0362-4331| url-status=live}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Dhama K, Sharun K, Tiwari R, Dadar M, Malik YS, Singh KP, Chaicumpa W | title = COVID-19, an emerging coronavirus infection: advances and prospects in designing and developing vaccines, immunotherapeutics, and therapeutics | journal = Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics | volume = 16 | issue = 6 | pages = 1232–1238 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32186952 | pmc = 7103671 | doi = 10.1080/21645515.2020.1735227 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Zhang L, Liu Y | title = Potential interventions for novel coronavirus in China: A systematic review | journal = Journal of Medical Virology | volume = 92 | issue = 5 | pages = 479–490 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32052466 | pmc = 7166986 | doi = 10.1002/jmv.25707 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Interim Laboratory Biosafety Guidelines for Handling and Processing Specimens Associated with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/lab-biosafety-guidelines.html |website=Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Lab Biosafety Guidelines |date=11 February 2020 |publisher=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) |access-date=1 April 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Aristovnik A, Ravšelj D, Umek L|date=November 2020|title=A Bibliometric Analysis of COVID-19 across Science and Social Science Research Landscape|journal=Sustainability|volume=12|issue=21|pages=9132|doi=10.3390/su12219132|doi-access=free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kupferschmidt K |title=First-of-its-kind African trial tests common drugs to prevent severe COVID-19 |journal=Science |date=3 December 2020 |doi=10.1126/science.abf9987 |doi-access=free | title-link=doi |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/first-its-kind-african-trial-tests-common-drugs-prevent-severe-covid-19 |access-date=8 March 2022 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite magazine || vauthors = Reardon S |date= November 2020|title=For COVID Drugs, Months of Frantic Development Lead to Few Outright Successes|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/for-covid-drugs-months-of-frantic-development-lead-to-few-outright-successes/%7Caccess-date=10 December 2020|magazine=Scientific American }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kucharski AJ, Russell TW, Diamond C, Liu Y, Edmunds J, Funk S, Eggo RM | title = Early dynamics of transmission and control of COVID-19: a mathematical modelling study | journal = The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 553–558 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32171059 | pmc = 7158569 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30144-4 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal||date=3 February 2021|title=Update to living systematic review on prediction models for diagnosis and prognosis of covid-19|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33536183%7Cjournal=BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.)|volume=372|pages=n236|doi=10.1136/bmj.n236|issn=1756-1833|pmid=33536183|s2cid=231775762}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Giordano G, Blanchini F, Bruno R, Colaneri P, Di Filippo A, Di Matteo A, Colaneri M | title = Modelling the COVID-19 epidemic and implementation of population-wide interventions in Italy | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 26 | issue = 6 | pages = 855–860 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32322102 | pmc = 7175834 | doi = 10.1038/s41591-020-0883-7|arxiv=2003.09861 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Prem K, Liu Y, Russell TW, Kucharski AJ, Eggo RM, Davies N, Jit M, Klepac P | title = The effect of control strategies to reduce social mixing on outcomes of the COVID-19 epidemic in Wuhan, China: a modelling study | journal = The Lancet. Public Health | volume = 5 | issue = 5 | pages = e261–e270 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32220655 | pmc = 7158905 | doi = 10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30073-6 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Emanuel EJ, Persad G, Upshur R, Thome B, Parker M, Glickman A, Zhang C, Boyle C, Smith M, Phillips JP | title = Fair Allocation of Scarce Medical Resources in the Time of Covid-19 | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 382 | issue = 21 | pages = 2049–2055 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32202722 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMsb2005114 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||doi=10.1098/rspa.1927.0118 |volume=115 |issue=772 |pages=700–721 |title=A contribution to the mathematical theory of epidemics |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character |year=1927 |bibcode=1927RSPSA.115..700K |doi-access=free | title-link = doi | vauthors = Kermack WO, McKendrick AG }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||doi=10.1017/jfm.2020.330 |volume=894 |pages=–2 | vauthors = Mittal R, Ni R, Seo JH |title=The flow physics of COVID-19 |journal=Journal of Fluid Mechanics |year=2020 |arxiv=2004.09354 |bibcode=2020JFM...894F...2M |doi-access=free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Ronchi E, Lovreglio R | title = EXPOSED: An occupant exposure model for confined spaces to retrofit crowd models during a pandemic | journal = Safety Science | volume = 130 | pages = 104834 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32834509 | pmc = 7373681 | doi = 10.1016/j.ssci.2020.104834 | arxiv = 2005.04007 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Badr HS, Du H, Marshall M, Dong E, Squire MM, Gardner LM | title = Association between mobility patterns and COVID-19 transmission in the USA: a mathematical modelling study | journal = The Lancet Infectious Diseases | volume = 20 | issue = 11 | pages = 1247–1254 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 32621869 | pmc = 7329287 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30553-3 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = McKibbin W, Roshen F | title = The global macroeconomic impacts of COVID-19: Seven scenarios |journal=CAMA Working Paper |year=2020 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3547729 |s2cid=216307705 |url= https://cama.crawford.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/publication/cama_crawford_anu_edu_au/2020-03/19_2020_mckibbin_fernando_0.pdf }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=21 April 2020|title=COVID-19 treatment and vaccine tracker|url=https://milkeninstitute.org/sites/default/files/2020-04/Covid19%20Tracker%20NEW4-21-20-2.pdf%7Caccess-date=21 April 2020|publisher=Milken Institute }}
- ↑ 396,0 396,1 {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors = Koch S, Pong W |date=13 March 2020|title=First up for COVID-19: nearly 30 clinical readouts before end of April|url=https://www.biocentury.com/article/304658%7Caccess-date=1 April 2020|publisher=BioCentury Inc.}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal|| vauthors = Kupferschmidt K, Cohen J |date=March 2020|title=WHO launches global megatrial of the four most promising coronavirus treatments|journal=Science|doi=10.1126/science.abb8497|doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/03/1059722%7Ctitle=UN health chief announces global 'solidarity trial' to jumpstart search for COVID-19 treatment|date=18 March 2020|website=UN News|access-date=23 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323101633/https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/03/1059722%7Carchive-date=23 March 2020|url-status=live}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=26 May 2020|title=Citing safety concerns, the W.H.O. paused tests of a drug Trump said he had taken|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/26/world/coronavirus-news.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526041004/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/26/world/coronavirus-news.html |archive-date=26 May 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work=The New York Times}}
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation-attribution
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation-attribution
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||date=27 May 2020|title=France bans use of hydroxychloroquine, drug touted by Trump, in coronavirus patients|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/france-bans-use-of-hydroxychloroquine-drug-touted-by-trump-to-treat-coronavirus/%7Cpublisher=CBS News}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Boseley S |title=Recovery trial for Covid-19 treatments: what we know so far |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/16/recovery-trial-for-covid-19-treatments-what-we-know-so-far |access-date=21 June 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=16 June 202}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite press release ||title=WHO welcomes preliminary results about dexamethasone use in treating critically ill COVID-19 patients |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/16-06-2020-who-welcomes-preliminary-results-about-dexamethasone-use-in-treating-critically-ill-covid-19-patients |website=World Health Organization (WHO) |access-date=21 June 2020 |date=16 June 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite press release||title=Q&A: Dexamethasone and COVID-19|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/q-a-dexamethasone-and-covid-19%7Caccess-date=12 July 2020|website=World Health Organization (WHO)}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Corticosteroids|url=https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/immune-based-therapy/immunomodulators/corticosteroids/%7Caccess-date=12 July 2020|website=COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines|publisher=National Institutes of Health}}
- ↑ 407,0 407,1 407,2 {{#invoke:cite report || vauthors=((World Health Organization)) | year=2020 | title=Corticosteroids for COVID-19: living guidance, 2 September 2020 | author-link=World Health Organization | id=WHO/2019-nCoV/Corticosteroids/2020.1 | hdl=10665/334125 | hdl-access=free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| title=WHO updates clinical care guidance with corticosteroid recommendations | publisher=World Health Organization (WHO) | url=https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/who-updates-clinical-care-guidance-with-corticosteroid-recommendations | access-date=25 January 2022}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Sterne JA, Murthy S, Diaz JV, Slutsky AS, Villar J, Angus DC, Annane D, Azevedo LC, Berwanger O, Cavalcanti AB, Dequin PF, Du B, Emberson J, Fisher D, Giraudeau B, Gordon AC, Granholm A, Green C, Haynes R, Heming N, Higgins JP, Horby P, Jüni P, Landray MJ, Le Gouge A, Leclerc M, Lim WS, Machado FR, McArthur C, Meziani F, Møller MH, Perner A, Petersen MW, Savovic J, Tomazini B, Veiga VC, Webb S, Marshall JC | title = Association Between Administration of Systemic Corticosteroids and Mortality Among Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19: A Meta-analysis | journal = JAMA | volume = 324 | issue = 13 | pages = 1330–1341 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32876694 | pmc = 7489434 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2020.17023 | collaboration = The WHO Rapid Evidence Appraisal for COVID-19 Therapies (REACT) Working Group | s2cid = 221467783 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Prescott HC, Rice TW | title = Corticosteroids in COVID-19 ARDS: Evidence and Hope During the Pandemic | journal = JAMA | volume = 324 | issue = 13 | pages = 1292–1295 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32876693 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2020.16747 | s2cid = 221468015 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
- ↑ 411,0 411,1 {{#invoke:cite press release || title=EMA endorses use of dexamethasone in COVID-19 patients on oxygen or mechanical ventilation | website=European Medicines Agency (EMA) | date=18 September 2020 | url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/ema-endorses-use-dexamethasone-covid-19-patients-oxygen-mechanical-ventilation | access-date=21 September 2020}} Text was copied from this source which is European Medicines Agency. Reproduction is authorized provided the source is acknowledged.
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite report ||url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/other/dexamethasone-covid19-article-53-procedure-assessment-report_en.pdf |title=Dexamethasone in hospitalised patients with COVID-19 |publisher=European Medicines Agency |date=17 September 2020}}
- ↑ 413,0 413,1 413,2 Шаблон:Citation-attribution
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation-attribution
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation-attribution
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Li X, Geng M, Peng Y, Meng L, Lu S | title = Molecular immune pathogenesis and diagnosis of COVID-19 | journal = Journal of Pharmaceutical Analysis | volume = 10 | issue = 2 | pages = 102–108 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32282863 | pmc = 7104082 | doi = 10.1016/j.jpha.2020.03.001 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Zhao Z, Wei Y, Tao C | title = An enlightening role for cytokine storm in coronavirus infection | journal = Clinical Immunology | volume = 222 | pages = 108615 | date = January 2021 | pmid = 33203513 | pmc = 7583583 | doi = 10.1016/j.clim.2020.108615 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite news ||vauthors = Liu R, Miller J |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-china-roche-hldg/china-approves-use-of-roche-arthritis-drug-for-coronavirus-patients-idUSKBN20R0LF |title=China approves use of Roche drug in battle against coronavirus complications |date=3 March 2020 |work=Reuters |access-date=14 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312204625/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-china-roche-hldg/china-approves-use-of-roche-arthritis-drug-for-coronavirus-patients-idUSKBN20R0LF |archive-date=12 March 2020 |url-status=live}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors = Xu X, Han M, Li T, Sun W, Wang D, Fu B, Zhou Y, Zheng X, Yang Y, Li X, Zhang X, Pan A, Wei H |title = Effective treatment of severe COVID-19 patients with tocilizumab |journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume = 117 |issue = 20 |pages = 10970–10975 |date = May 2020 |pmid = 32350134 |pmc = 7245089 |doi = 10.1073/pnas.2005615117 |doi-access = free |title-link = doi |bibcode = 2020PNAS..11710970X }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||vauthors = Ovadia D, Agenzia Z |title=COVID-19 – Italy launches an independent trial on tocilizumab |url=https://www.univadis.co.uk/viewarticle/covid-19-italy-launches-an-independent-trial-on-tocilizumab-715741 |website=Univadis from Medscape |publisher=Aptus Health |access-date=22 April 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Tocilizumab in COVID-19 Pneumonia (TOCIVID-19) (TOCIVID-19) |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04317092 |website=clinicaltrials.gov |access-date=22 April 2020}}
- ↑ Various sources:
- {{#invoke:Cite web||url=https://www.vox.com/2020/3/12/21176783/coronavirus-covid-19-deaths-china-treatment-cytokine-storm-syndrome%7Ctitle=How doctors can potentially significantly reduce the number of deaths from Covid-19|work=Vox|access-date=14 March 2020|date=12 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319155218/https://www.vox.com/2020/3/12/21176783/coronavirus-covid-19-deaths-china-treatment-cytokine-storm-syndrome%7Carchive-date=19 March 2020|url-status=live}}
- {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Ruan Q, Yang K, Wang W, Jiang L, Song J | title = Clinical predictors of mortality due to COVID-19 based on an analysis of data of 150 patients from Wuhan, China | journal = Intensive Care Medicine | volume = 46 | issue = 5 | pages = 846–848 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32125452 | pmc = 7080116 | doi = 10.1007/s00134-020-05991-x | ref = none }}
- {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Mehta P, McAuley DF, Brown M, Sanchez E, Tattersall RS, Manson JJ | title = COVID-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression | journal = Lancet | volume = 395 | issue = 10229 | pages = 1033–1034 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 32192578 | pmc = 7270045 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30628-0 | ref = none | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:Cite web|| vauthors = Slater H |title=FDA Approves Phase III Clinical Trial of Tocilizumab for COVID-19 Pneumonia |url=https://www.cancernetwork.com/news/fda-approves-phase-iii-clinical-trial-tocilizumab-covid-19-pneumonia |website=cancernetwork.com |date=26 March 2020 |publisher=Cancer Network |access-date=22 April 2020}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Locke FL, Neelapu SS, Bartlett NL, Lekakis LJ, Jacobson CA, Braunschweig I, Oluwole OO, Siddiqi T, Lin Y, Timmerman JM, Reagan PM, Bot A, Rossi JM, Sherman M, Navale L, Jiang Y, Aycock JS, Elias M, Wiezorek JS, Go WY, Miklos DB |title=Preliminary Results of Prophylactic Tocilizumab after Axicabtageneciloleucel (axi-cel; KTE-C19) Treatment for Patients with Refractory, Aggressive Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL) |journal=Blood |year=2017 |volume=130 |issue=Supplement 1 |pages=1547 |doi=10.1182/blood.V130.Suppl_1.1547.1547 |s2cid=155698207 |url=https://ashpublications.org/blood/article/130/Supplement%201/1547/79746}}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Sterner RM, Sakemura R, Cox MJ, Yang N, Khadka RH, Forsman CL, Hansen MJ, Jin F, Ayasoufi K, Hefazi M, Schick KJ, Walters DK, Ahmed O, Chappell D, Sahmoud T, Durrant C, Nevala WK, Patnaik MM, Pease LR, Hedin KE, Kay NE, Johnson AJ, Kenderian SS | title = GM-CSF inhibition reduces cytokine release syndrome and neuroinflammation but enhances CAR T cell function in xenografts | journal = Blood | volume = 133 | issue = 7 | pages = 697–709 | date = February 2019 | pmid = 30463995 | pmc = 6376281 | doi = 10.1182/blood-2018-10-881722 }}
- ↑ 426,0 426,1 426,2 426,3 426,4 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Casadevall A, Pirofski LA | title = The convalescent sera option for containing COVID-19 | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 130 | issue = 4 | pages = 1545–1548 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32167489 | pmc = 7108922 | doi = 10.1172/JCI138003 }}
- ↑ 427,0 427,1 427,2 {{#invoke:Cite journal ||last1=Iannizzi |first1=Claire |last2=Chai |first2=Khai Li |last3=Piechotta |first3=Vanessa |last4=Valk |first4=Sarah J. |last5=Kimber |first5=Catherine |last6=Monsef |first6=Ina |last7=Wood |first7=Erica M. |last8=Lamikanra |first8=Abigail A. |last9=Roberts |first9=David J. |last10=McQuilten |first10=Zoe |last11=So-Osman |first11=Cynthia |last12=Jindal |first12=Aikaj |last13=Cryns |first13=Nora |last14=Estcourt |first14=Lise J. |last15=Kreuzberger |first15=Nina |date=2023-05-10 |title=Convalescent plasma for people with COVID-19: a living systematic review |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2023 |issue=5 |pages=CD013600 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD013600.pub6 |issn=1469-493X |pmc=10171886 |pmid=37162745 |pmc-embargo-date=May 10, 2024 }}
- ↑ 428,0 428,1 {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Ho M | title = Perspectives on the development of neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 | journal = Antibody Therapeutics | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 109–114 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32566896 | pmc = 7291920 | doi = 10.1093/abt/tbaa009 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Yang L, Liu W, Yu X, Wu M, Reichert JM, Ho M | title = COVID-19 antibody therapeutics tracker: a global online database of antibody therapeutics for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 | journal = Antibody Therapeutics | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 205–212 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 33215063 | pmc = 7454247 | doi = 10.1093/abt/tbaa020 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Maccaro A, Piaggio D, Pagliara S, Pecchia L | title = The role of ethics in science: a systematic literature review from the first wave of COVID-19 | journal = Health and Technology | volume = 11 | issue = 5 | pages = 1063–1071 | date = June 2021 | pmid = 34104626 | pmc = 8175060 | doi = 10.1007/s12553-021-00570-6|issn=2190-7188 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = McGuire AL, Aulisio MP, Davis FD, Erwin C, Harter TD, Jagsi R, Klitzman R, Macauley R, Racine E, Wolf SM, Wynia M, Wolpe PR | title = Ethical Challenges Arising in the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Overview from the Association of Bioethics Program Directors (ABPD) Task Force | journal = The American Journal of Bioethics | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 15–27 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32511078 | doi = 10.1080/15265161.2020.1764138 | s2cid = 219552665 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Wenham C, Smith J, Morgan R | title = COVID-19: the gendered impacts of the outbreak | journal = Lancet | volume = 395 | issue = 10227 | pages = 846–848 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 32151325 | pmc = 7124625 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30526-2 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Tolchin B, Hull SC, Kraschel K | title = Triage and justice in an unjust pandemic: ethical allocation of scarce medical resources in the setting of racial and socioeconomic disparities | journal = Journal of Medical Ethics | volume = 47 | issue = 3 | pages = 200–202 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 33067315 | doi = 10.1136/medethics-2020-106457 | s2cid = 223558059 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Sabatello M, Burke TB, McDonald KE, Appelbaum PS | title = Disability, Ethics, and Health Care in the COVID-19 Pandemic | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 110 | issue = 10 | pages = 1523–1527 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32816541 | pmc = 7483109 | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2020.305837 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Chin T, Kahn R, Li R, Chen JT, Krieger N, Buckee CO, Balsari S, Kiang MV | title = US-county level variation in intersecting individual, household and community characteristics relevant to COVID-19 and planning an equitable response: a cross-sectional analysis | journal = BMJ Open | volume = 10 | issue = 9 | pages = e039886 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32873684 | pmc = 7467554 | doi = 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-039886 }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Elgar FJ, Stefaniak A, Wohl MJ | title = The trouble with trust: Time-series analysis of social capital, income inequality, and COVID-19 deaths in 84 countries | journal = Social Science & Medicine | volume = 263 | pages = 113365 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32981770 | pmc = 7492158 | doi = 10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113365 }}
</references>
Further reading
<templatestyles src="Refbegin/styles.css" />
- Шаблон:Cite Q
- {{#invoke:cite report || title=COVID-19 infection prevention and control measures for primary care, including general practitioner practices, dental clinics and pharmacy settings: first update | website=European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) | url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/covid-19-infection-prevention-and-control-primary-care | date=October 2020 }}
- Шаблон:Cite Q Scholia Q104287299.
External links
Health agencies
- Coronavirus (COVID‑19) by the UK National Health Service (NHS)
- Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
- Coronavirus disease (COVID‑19) Facts by the World Health Organization (WHO)
Directories
- Coronavirus Resource Center at the Center for Inquiry
- Шаблон:Curlie
- COVID‑19 Information on FireMountain.net Шаблон:Webarchive
- COVID‑19 Resource Directory on OpenMD
Medical journals
- BMJ's Coronavirus (covid‑19) Hub by the BMJ
- Coronavirus (Covid‑19) by The New England Journal of Medicine
- Coronavirus (COVID‑19) Research Highlights by Springer Nature
- Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID‑19) by JAMA
- COVID‑19 Resource Centre by The Lancet
- Covid‑19: Novel Coronavirus Шаблон:Webarchive by Wiley Publishing
- Novel Coronavirus Information Center by Elsevier
Treatment guidelines
- {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Bouncing Back From COVID-19: Your Guide to Restoring Movement |website=Johns Hopkins Medicine|url=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/physical_medicine_rehabilitation/coronavirus-rehabilitation/_files/impact-of-covid-patient-recovery.pdf}}
- {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Treatment Guidelines |website=National Institutes of Health |url=https://files.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/guidelines/covid19treatmentguidelines.pdf }}
- {{#invoke:Cite web||title=Guidelines on the Treatment and Management of Patients with COVID-19 |website=Infectious Diseases Society of America |url=https://www.idsociety.org/practice-guideline/covid-19-guideline-treatment-and-management/ }}
- {{#invoke:Cite web||title=JHMI Clinical Recommendations for Available Pharmacologic Therapies for COVID-19 |publisher=Johns Hopkins Medicine |url=https://www.hopkinsguides.com/hopkins/ub?cmd=repview&type=479-1279&name=40_538747_PDF |format=PDF}}
- {{#invoke:cite report || vauthors=((NHS England and NHS Improvement)) | title=National Guidance for post-COVID syndrome assessment clinics | url=https://www.england.nhs.uk/coronavirus/publication/national-guidance-for-post-covid-syndrome-assessment-clinics/ }}
- {{#invoke:cite report || vauthors=((World Health Organization)) | title=Therapeutics and COVID-19: living guideline, 14 January 2022 | author-link=World Health Organization | year=2022 | id=WHO/2019-nCoV/therapeutics/2022.1 | hdl=10665/351006 | hdl-access=free | url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/therapeutics-and-covid-19-living-guideline }}
Шаблон:Medical resources Шаблон:SARS {{#invoke:COVID-19 pandemic|}} Шаблон:Respiratory pathology Шаблон:Viral diseases {{#invoke:Authority control|authorityControl}}
- Страницы с неработающими файловыми ссылками
- Английская Википедия
- COVID-19
- Occupational safety and health
- Vaccine-preventable diseases
- Viral respiratory tract infections
- Zoonoses
- Public health
- Coronavirus-associated diseases
- Страницы, где используется шаблон "Навигационная таблица/Телепорт"
- Страницы с телепортом
- Википедия
- Статья из Википедии
- Статья из Английской Википедии
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