Английская Википедия:Café culture of Baghdad
The café culture of Baghdad (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is a set of traditions and social behaviors in old, local, or traditional Baghdadi cafés in Baghdad, Iraq. Ever since their inception in the 1500s, cafés have acted as social forums and gathering grounds for friends and meetings for all ages as well as a gathering ground for intellectuals, thinkers, and personalities to discuss politics, art, literature, science, poetry, and other subjects that had a great impact on Iraq's cultural and literary life while consuming tea or coffee.[1][2][3][4]
Cultural Baghdadi cafés have been thriving since their demands grew in the 17th century and continued into the 20th century, especially in al-Rasheed Street, which saw many of these cafés materialize along the street and the city. The majority of those cafés, which bear witness to cultural, social, and political changes marking Iraq's modern history, have since been closed. Although many heritage cafés and new traditional cafés are still open. The most popular of these is the Shabandar Café in al-Mutanabbi Street.[2][3]
Despite the fact that the café culture is mostly associated with and active in Baghdad, the culture is spread throughout Iraq and examples can be found such as in Sulaymaniyah, Erbil and Karbala.[1][5]
History
Ottoman Era (16th–19th centuries)
According to Iraqi historians, the first Baghdadi café was named "Khan Jahan" and was established in 1590 under Ottoman rule by Cığalazade Sinan Pasha for a man named "Ismail Effendi". The café was located behind al-Mustansiriya Madrasa. From the 17th century to the midst of the 18th century, there was high demand for cafés in the neighborhoods of Baghdad which is believed to be the origin of how the culture surrounding those cafés began.[2][3][6] 1604 saw construction of the Hassan Pasha Café near al-Wazeer Mosque which contributed to the spread and demands of cafés.[7]
Cafés started to spread around the city and its outskirts. The number of cafes in Baghdad reached 184, according to what was indicated by the Baghdad Code of 1882, and by 1903, the number had reached 285.[8] This increase called for competition between café owners to win the largest number of customers, some owners turned to discotheques for the competition. What helped in this matter was the declaration of the Ottoman constitution in 1908 about giving relative freedoms to the religious and national communities of the states that were under the control of the Ottomans, and many of the restrictions imposed on the press were lifted.[6] Café competitors hired well-known Iraqi singers to play Iraqi maqam and reciters to attract customers as well as storytellers and actors that put on fantasy shows. Although some cafés developed their own performances notably those around al-Maidan Square. Some owners went as far as hiring female dancers and singers from Egypt, and the Levant, and this recruitment was considered a shift in public social morals at the time. Some owners even changed the buildings' structures for a stage to be built. Cafés also started to become crowded during the evening nights of Ramadan and games were played such as those that involved zurkhāneh.[7][9]
The main material offered by the cafes was hot tea in addition to coffee, and some cafes offered sweets and cold drinks. Seating places in Baghdadi cafes consist of sofas called "Takhts" which were made of wood. As for hot tea, it is served by a mug which was named "al-Istikkan" by the locals of Baghdad, and the tools for making tea consisted of a teapot called "quri", and a hot water tank with a faucet.[10]
European Traveler James Silk Buckingham documented several of these cafés during his visit to Baghdad in 1819, notably the Hassan Pasha Café and al-Beiruti Café which caught his attention due to their lights that covered the Tigris River. He also documented that cafés were so common, there were already two established cafés next to the gate to Baghdad, and that they were usually crowded mostly at night.[11][12]
Transformation post-independence of Iraq (1920s–1970s)
During the Royal era of Iraq, cafés became a phenomenon and a sign of political and literary transformation and became places where the educated class and the pioneers of thought would sit and gather. The café's entertainment function has shifted to artistic, poetic, political, and multi-directional intellectual meetings. Al-Rasheed Street saw many of these cafés such as al-Zahawi Café which was named in honor of Jamil Sidqi al-Zahawi after former-Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri al-Said invited him to a meeting in it due to lack of respectable places in that period.[13][14][15]
In the mid-1940s al-Rasheed Street saw two new cafés with unfamiliar styles. The Brazilian Café and the Swiss Café had dazzling facades, thick luxurious glass, and elegant tables made of bamboo sticks, in addition to the comfortable chairs that were specially imported from Europe and coffee machines that operated by electricity. Such cafés have never been seen before in Iraq and were breathtaking at the time. Artists like Jawad Saleem and Faeq Hassan who studied in Europe would visit these Western-styled cafés as at the time Iraqis were much more open to foreign cultures. The cafés also contributed to the idea of establishing the Union of Iraqi Writers. Al-Tahrir Square also saw another Western-styled café, the Kit Kat Café. The Kit Kat café's visitors were Westernized intellectuals and liberal-leaning and it was common to find Marxist talk in the café.[16]
By then the café culture was a normal everyday part of the people of Baghdad, and a typical Iraqi environment that included all directions, ideas, and currents, along with conflicts and rivalries erupting, especially during Friday mornings and afternoons. supporters of various poets also used to pick cafés to inhabit.[7] Despite the fact that the pioneers of the more modern and Westernized cafes did not appreciate the traditional cafés that were widely spread throughout the city at the time, they were closely related to their fellow writers and artists, no matter how different their intellectual visions and affiliations were. Political differences of opinion and viewpoints have never spoiled the friendship and love the two sides shared between them.[16]
In modern times (1980s–present)
During the 1990s some cafés sought to attract young customers by providing billiard tables which proved to be a major success in attracting new customers. However, this new shift was hated by the older generations.[17]
After the US-led invasion of Iraq, new cafés witnessed a new shift with huge sums of money being spent on their preparation, and cakes, refreshments, and juices were served in a lavish way. New café owners relied on specialists in their manufacture. These new cafés were more commercial in nature than older cafés and appeared in areas such as al-Mansour, Zayouna, and Karrada.[17] The rise of westernization and globalization in Iraq after the invasion also lead to the decrease of many of the traditional cafés around the cities along with decreasing rate of customers. Many of the remaining cafés such as al-Zahawi Café and Hassan Ajami Café are now suffering from neglect.[15] A lot of the closed cafés have also been turned into commercial stores.[3]
Newer cafés have also become a large concern for many Iraqis after the discovery of illegal activities such as being centers for criminal gangs, drug trafficking, human organ trafficking, prostitution, and more. The proliferation of these cafés in residential neighborhoods raised concern among families and neighborhoods and many residents noted the immoral activities but were afraid to report to the authorities out of fear of reprisals or prosecution. As of 2018, more than 60 cafés that were reported to have such activities were closed by the Iraqi authorities. Some of the cafés were even unlicensed.[18]
Despite this, there are many efforts and projects done by Iraqis in order to preserve Heritage Cafés. Entertainment and friend gatherings have become the main activities of cafés recently and it was noted that younger generations prefer the Heritage Cafés for their cheaper prices and more unique atmosphere compared to the newer café.[2][3][17]
The US occupation also caused many Iraqi competencies such as physicists, mathematicians, atomic energy scientists, doctors, university professors, senior staff officers in the army, or experts in military industrialization, to flee to Syria and Jordan to escape the harsh conditions that came after the invasion. Many of them were forced to retire due to conditions and the limited chances of ever returning to Iraq. Cafés in Syria and Jordan, specifically Damascus and Amman, became meeting areas for these Iraqi experts due to a sense of isolation and limited opportunities they faced.[19]
Types of Baghdadi cafés
Cafés found in Baghdad are usually divided into several categories, the most notable are:
- Passers-by cafés: Usually located on main streets and squares, they're cafés made for relaxation for locals passing by.
- Locality cafés: These cafés are located within neighborhoods and act as meeting places for people living in said neighborhood.
- Intellectual cafés: These cafés are gathering grounds for intellectuals, artists, and poets and are found on al-Mutanabbi Street.
- Athletes café: These cafés are dedicated to football players.
- Working Class cafés: As the name suggests, these cafés are made for the working class and can be found all over Baghdad.[20]
Notable cafés around Baghdad
There are many well-known cafés around Baghdad. Due to their important role in being centers for daily life, many cafes hold nostalgia for Iraqis and many of them have been recorded along with their prominent poets, writers, thinkers, scholars, merchants, and other legal personalities that have been associated with these cafés.[21] Cafés of Baghdad are usually divided into two parts in terms of locations, the Western side and the Eastern side cafés. Although most cafés are located on the Eastern side.
West Side cafés
Akama Café
Al-Akama Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) was an old café that overlooked the Tigris River directly. Named after the old profession of al-Akam, the café was founded by a man named Hassoun al-Qahwaji who was known for his kindness which is what gained the café its fame and its nickname "Hassoun Café". The café is divided into two parts: the large rooms at the beginning, which are the public rooms, and the small rooms at the end. It had four palm trees and a few oleander trees. It was frequented by writers and dignitaries from the people of Karkh. Abdullah al-Qassab, the former Iraqi Minister of Interior, was one of its patrons.[22]
Al-Beiruti Café
Шаблон:Main articles Al-Beiruti Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is one of the oldest surviving resting stations and heritage cafés in Baghdad, dating to the 17th century. Located on the sides of the Tigris River, it contains a floating hall and is active in the evenings. The café is visited by all ages for entertainment and acts as a small forum in which issues related to economic, political, and other affairs are discussed regularly. In the spring of 1954, the levels of the Tigris River rose due to the abundance of rain, which led to the flooding of the city of Baghdad and the sinking of the original café. In 1978, the government rebuilt and reopened the café. Al-Beiruti Café continued to provide its services to visitors and merchants since then and provides jobs for younger generations and has also been extended to include a floating hall.[11]
Dar al-Atraqchi
Dar al-Atraqchi Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is a newer café that managed to gain popularity after it succeeded in simulating the old Baghdadi atmosphere and the lack of any modern flavor. Opening in 2013, the café contains hundreds of rare Baghdadi and heritage antiques as well as old-style walls, carpets, and furniture. Among its antiques include handmade carpets, ancient fines, antiques, the readable Obelisk of Hammurabi, the Sumerian harp, silverware, and many more. The work companion of the owner, Sa'ad Salloum Abu Samer, confirmed that the reason for the demand for frequenting the café while it serves tea, coffee and shisha is that they are tired of modernity, western decorations, and bright lights, and have resorted to the calm atmosphere that the place provides them, as well as the old Baghdadi atmosphere.[23][24]
Dar al-Atraqchi also lacks a table numbering system, instead, it has been replaced by naming each table with the name of one of Iraq's artistic, literary, and political figures and pioneers. Among those figures are Ali Al-Wardi, Badr Shakir al-Sayyab, Abd al-Razzaq al-Hasani and many more. The café provides its patrons with singing performances every evening that include maqam and traditional songs.[24]
Hajj Sadiq Café
Hajj Sadiq Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is an old café located in Kadhimiya. The café is notable for being the first to introduce television during the Royal era when no one had acquired televisions yet whether they were wealthy or not. It's also a meeting spot for merchants and lawyers. During the morning on the day, the 14 July Revolution that overthrew the Hashemite dynasty in Iraq took place, the owner of the café ran to the rooftop of his house near the café with binoculars to witness the bombing of several ministries, he was shot by unknown gunmen. The café remains open in his memory.[25]
Mazhar Café
Mazhar Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is a heritage café located in the Karkh district near Haifa Street and the Ministry of Culture and it has three entrance doors. The café is usually associated with Muhammad al-Qubanchi whose pictures are hung on the walls of the café and it was a popular destination for talking about horse racing in al-Mansour district and betting on horse riders as the owner of the café was a horse racing fan himself.[26]
Star Café
Star Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is a meeting place for the writers, artists, and dignitaries from the Kadhimiya district and is located on the entrance of Sharif al-Radi Street.[27]
Al-Turath al-Sha'bi Café
Al-Turath al-Sha'bi Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is an old café located in Kadhimiya. One of the oldest surviving cafés, it is distinguished by outstanding heritage pictures, including a rare painting by the painter Ibrahim al-Naqqash representing the old Baghdad architecture and shanasheel, in addition to the presence of old samovars, on one of which was written the date of 1909. During Ramadan, the Baghdadi game of al-Muhaibis is held, which is organized by Jassem al-Aswad, the player of al-Muhaibis. The café has also become a meeting place for sellers of rings, precious stones, and rosaries due to its proximity to their market.[28]
East Side cafés
14th of July Café
The 14th of July Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) was a café that existed on al-Kifah Street, then called King Ghazi Street. The café was established by the Iraqi Communist Party as part of a campaign to establish cafes around Baghdad to spread its influence across. The café was established in front of the Anjar Café, on the other side of al-Kifah Street. The café's walls were decorated with banners that glorified Abd al-Karim Qasim and had slogans that said "Long live the sole leader, Abd al-Karim Qasim" and "Long live the democratic leader Abd al-Karim Qasim" along with framed pictures of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin. Influence of the communist party started to decline in the street after the leader of the Latin Cathedral of St. Joseph made a speech in which he described communists as "anarchists" and eventually, the café stopped letting in patrons with communist ideas which lead to its closure.[29]
Arif Agha Café
The Arif Agha Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) was an old well-known café that once existed on al-Rasheed Street and was located opposite al-Zahawi Café and near the Haydar-Khana Mosque. The café used to be frequented by senior employees of governmental departments, such as Yasin al-Hashemi and Hikmat Sulayman, as well as notables, such as Ma'ruf al-Rusafi, and major merchants. It also turned into a private school during the summer where High Schoolers met with teachers and took their assistance in private lessons, in preparation for taking the baccalaureate exams.[30]
Anjar Café
Anjar Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is one of the oldest cafés located on al-Kifah Street. The café serves Baghdadi breakfast along with kebab. It was said that Nuri al-Said ate this breakfast meal on Friday morning at Anjar Café. After the 14 July revolution, the café became home to nationalist, Ba'athist and Islamic movements along with anti-communist sentiment and pictures of former-Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser hung on its walls. Since the 14th of July Café was established in front of the café after the revolution, the conflict between the patrons of the two cafés was characterized by an unusual pattern for the people of the locality. For example, the patrons of the Anjar Café were preparing some young men to be hostile to the pioneers of the 14th of July Café. The two conflicting groups naturally engaged in aggressive discussions, clashes, and fights with the Islamic supporters raising Islamic slogans to spit the communists.[29]
Azawi Café
Шаблон:Main articles Azawi Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is one of the oldest and most popular cafés of Baghdad, located in al-Maidan Square near Mosque-Madrasa of al-Ahmadiyya.[31] Founded by Hameed al-Qaisi, the café was distinguished by its celebrations and reviving the nights of Ramadan, and it was a place for popular games that are based on insight and meditation, the most famous of which is al-Muhaibis. The café is also famous for its folk music that Iraqis still listen to this day, and it was frequented by singers, artists, and poets. The café is also associated with Iraqi maqam master Yousuf Omar's songs as the café is mentioned in his songs.Шаблон:Cn
Brazilian Café
Шаблон:Main articles The Brazilian Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) was one of the most famous and oldest cafés in Baghdad, located in the neighborhood of al-Muraba'a towards the eastern door near the Broadway Cinema. Opened in 1937, the café served steamed Brazilian coffee from a unique cauldron for preparing coffee imported from outside. It was a suitable place to see the latest news of politics, literature, and culture, and to read the newspapers and magazines provided by the café. In this café, Jawad Seleem wrote in his memoirs after meeting Polish artists, where he said "Now I know color, now I know drawing."[32][33]
After the Iraq War, the Brazilian Café closed and its building was turned into a commercial store for selling fabrics.Шаблон:Cn
Hassan Ajami Café
Шаблон:Main articles Hassan Ajami Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is an old café that dates back to 1917 and is located on al-Rasheed Street, opposite the Haydar-Khana Mosque. It was distinguished by its rare Russian samovars, decorated with pictures of Russian tsars and official seals dating back to the 19th century, along with teapots and hookah glasses, which were decorated with pictures of King Faisal I, King Ghazi and the Persian kings of the Qajars.[34]
Hassan Pasha Café
Шаблон:Main articles Hassan Pasha Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) was one of the oldest recorded cafés in Baghdad built, in 1604. Located near al-Wazeer Mosque, it played a role in the rise of cafés in Baghdad. It was recorded by James Silk Buckingham during his visit to Baghdad in 1819.[7][11]
Ibrahim Arab Café
Ibrahim Arab Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) was an old café that existed in the Royal era in the Adhamiyah district. The café wasn't famous for its own sake but for the fame of its owner, Ibrahim Arab, who was a Baghdadi social figure famous for creating fictional over-the-top stories that he attributed to himself which he told to visitors who gathered around him in the café. Such stories include how he ate most days of the week with King Faisal I, the time Adolf Hitler invited him on a tour around Germany, that time he almost destroyed Baghdad by pulling the Eastern side with a hook while fishing on the Tigris River, the time he and a drunk Nuri al-Said had lunch together and that the captain of the nobles of Baghdad did not enjoy his dinner except with Ibrahim's company. The visitors encouraged Ibrahim to make more stories.[32][35][36]
Al-Jamali Café
Al-Jamali Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) was a famous café located in Bab al-Sheikh and possibly named after Muhammad Fadhel al-Jamali.[37]
Khalil Café
Khalil Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is an old Heritage café located in al-Rasheed Street in the Haydar-Khana neighborhood. The café was a meeting ground for intellectuals, senior officials, military personnel, merchants, and students, and its owner, Hajj Khalil al-Qahwati, was personal friends with a lot of its visitors. The café was also unique as it values privacy and reportedly, even police officers never dare to disturb the privacy out of respect for its owner.[38]
Kit Kat Café
The Kit-Kat Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is a café located in al-Tahrir Square near al-Nahda Library. Designed in English architecture, the patrons of the café were mostly Westernized intellectuals, enlightened journalism men, and liberal politicians with Marxist, revolutionary, and nationalist ideas. The café used to offer its customers French sweets, soft drinks cups, soda water, and soda. It's very rare to see tea and its customary cups on the table of its patrons. Teapots and oriental samovars were later replaced by refreshment machines and cappuccino and Nescafé machines. The café also imported European newspapers from companies such as Le Monde.[16]
Al-Moqaddin Café
Al-Moqaddin Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is a café located at the beginning of al-Sa'doun Street in central Baghdad. The café hosted a constellation for writers who were famous for their rebellious nature against the prevailing cultural scene. The patrons of the café preferred the more modern trends in world literature, such as poor theater, and westernization, in addition to what their discussions witnessed.Шаблон:Cn
Al-Nu'man Café
Al-Nu'man Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is a café located in al-Adhamiyah District and owned by Nu'man Thabet. During the beginning of the US-led invasion of Iraq, former-Iraqi President Saddam Hussein took a final public tour around Baghdad. During this tour, he visited the café which brought fame into it with many customers visiting it to discuss the latest news.[39]
Parliament Café
The Parliament Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) was an old café opened in the mid-1940s by the Hajj Hussein Fakhr al-Din in al-Rasheed Street. The café was a gathering spot for deputies, sheikhs, merchants, writers, and left-leaning politicians coming from Najaf. It is said that it is related to the fact that the majority of its patrons were members of the Iraqi Parliament.[33] The Parliament Café no longer exists and was transformed into a restaurant.Шаблон:Cn
Ridha Alwan Coffee
Ridha Alwan Coffee (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is one of the most famous cultural cafés in Baghdad. It was established in 1960 as a coffee shop and is located in eastern Karrada. It used to be a small shop selling coffee varieties, then it developed into a large elegant café where people and families to distract themselves from the current political crisis and problems that afflict Iraq. The coffeehouse also holds cultural activities that bring together intellectuals, poets, and writers in poetry evenings and film festivals. Theater plays are also held during Ramadan in the coffeehouse.[40][41]
Among the advantages of the café are the absence of hookahs, the prohibition of smoking, and the lack of TVs and song broadcasting. This was done to provide a quiet and healthy place for intellectual and artistic talks as well as a cultural and literary meeting place. The unique nature of the coffeehouse has won the approval of most customers who have visited the coffeehouse.[42]
Shabandar Café
Shabandar Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is the most well-known of Baghdad's heritage cafés that dates back to 1917. Located on al-Mutanabbi Street, Shabandar Café has been known for being the main attraction for writers, poets, politicians, and book lovers and was a starting point for the demonstrations taking place against British colonialism. The walls of the café are decorated with old pictures of Iraqi society and according to its current owner, Muhammad al-Khashali, they represent Iraq's rich heritage.[43][44]
The café also has another name, The Martyrs Café. This was due to an incident in March 2007, during the sectarian violence after the US-led invasion of Iraq, in which a car exploded in al-Mutanabbi Street. The explosion burned down the café along with other shops nearby and resulted in taking the life of 68 victims, including four of al-Khashali's sons and one grandson. The café was rebuilt, with funding from the state, merchants, and customers. To this day, the café still attracts artists, writers, poets, merchants, and intellectuals and still maintains its external appearance.[45]
Swiss Café
The Swiss Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is one of Baghdad's old distinctive café that was established in the mid-1940s. The café had an unusual style for the people of Baghdad with its dazzling façade, luxurious thick glass, and elegant tables made of bamboo sticks, in addition to the comfortable chairs that were specially imported from Europe. It also had a playground for killing time. The café imported newspapers from Europe and its writers used to mix Arabic literature with Western literature at the time.[16]
Umm Kulthum Café
Шаблон:Main articles Umm Kulthum Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is a preserved Heritage café located on al-Rasheed Street. The café is dedicated to the Egyptian singer Umm Kulthum and its a meeting ground for her fans to discuss and listen to her songs. Due to the huge legacy that she left behind in Baghdad during his visits, many cafés themed after her were opened with the same name by her fans. Although only one remains today. The café is also significant due to its association with nostalgia of old Baghdadi society.[46]
Al-Zahawi Café
Шаблон:Main articles Al-Zahawi Café (Шаблон:Lang-ar) is a preserved Heritage café located near al-Mutanabbi Street. The café's name comes from the Iraqi poet and philosopher Jamil Sidqi Al-Zahawi, who was one of the pioneers of the café and the reason why the café gained fame in the first place. Soon it turned into a forum for writers and thinkers and was even visited by the Bengali poet and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore. It was also noted that al-Zahawi had a rivalry with the Iraqi poet Ma'ruf al-Rusafi who he also had intense discussions with him in the café. The café was damaged during the 2003 US-led invasion of Iraq but was quickly rebuilt.[32][47]
Cultural references
The Comic Book series Tales of the Teen Titans published by DC Comics features a story (issue 52, "Jericho's story") that depicts the Teen Titans member Jericho going to the fictional Middle Eastern nation of Qurac (inspired by Iraq) and visiting an Arabian-style café named "Café Island" to gain information about the Quraci leader, President Marlo.[48]
See also
- Arab cuisine
- Coffeehouse
- Coffee culture
- Coffee in world cultures
- Culture of Iraq
- Iraqi cuisine
- History of Baghdad
- History of Iraq
- Tea culture
- Middle Eastern cuisine
References
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- ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Itimad Youssef al-Qusayri, Places of Entertainment and Entertainment in Baghdad during the Ottoman Rule, Sumer Iraqi Magazine, Volume 52, pp. 493–500.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 6,0 6,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 7,0 7,1 7,2 7,3 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Muhammad Makiya, Baghdad, Al-Warraq Publishing House, London, 1st edition, 2005 AD, p. 259
- ↑ 11,0 11,1 11,2 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Al-Rasheed Street in Baghdad tells the story of a country tired of bullets, 2020
- ↑ Asharq al-Awsat, Al-Zahawi (Archived)
- ↑ 15,0 15,1 Baghdad's literary cafes in the era of Wi-Fi, 2019
- ↑ 16,0 16,1 16,2 16,3 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 17,0 17,1 17,2 Iraqis cling to yesterday's cafes, 2017
- ↑ The proliferation of cafes is a new source of concern for Baghdadi residents, 2018
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Abbas Baghdadi, Baghdad in the Twenties, p. 120.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 24,0 24,1 Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ 29,0 29,1 http://www.alnoor.se/article.asp?id=171218
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
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- ↑ 32,0 32,1 32,2 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 33,0 33,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ This is how I perceived Baghdad cafes in the twenties, 2013 (Archived)
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Tales of the Teen Titans No. 52 (April 1985)
