Английская Википедия:Cai Lun

Cai Lun (Шаблон:Zh; courtesy name: Jingzhong (Шаблон:Zh); Шаблон:Circa – 121 CE), formerly romanized as Ts'ai Lun, was a Chinese eunuch court official of the Eastern Han dynasty. He is traditionally regarded as the inventor of paper and the modern papermaking process. Although early forms of paper had existed since the 3rd century BCE, he occupies a pivotal place in the history of paper due to his addition of pulp via tree bark and hemp ends which resulted in the large-scale manufacture and worldwide spread of paper.

Born in Шаблон:Ill (in what is now Leiyang), Cai arrived at the imperial court in Luoyang by 75 CE, where he served as a chamberlain for Emperor Ming, and then as Шаблон:Transl, an imperial messenger for Emperor Zhang. To assist Lady Dou in securing her adopted son as designated heir, he interrogated Consort Song and her sister, who then killed themselves. When Emperor He ascended the throne in 88 CE, Dou awarded Cai with two positions: Шаблон:Ill, a political counselor to the emperor that was the highest position for eunuchs of the time, and also as Шаблон:Transl, where Cai oversaw the production of instruments and weapons at the Palace Workshop.

Despite Emperor He's successful coup d'état against the Dou family in 92 CE, Cai was undisturbed by his former ally's downfall. His position in the Palace Workshop increased in scope; he became responsible for the production of ceremonial weapons, which the Шаблон:Transl reports were of exemplary craftsmanship. However, Cai's most noted innovation was in 105 CE, when he substantially improved the papermaking process with the use of tree bark, hemp waste, old rags, and fishnets. His new type of paper quickly displaced the bamboo and wooden slips used until then, and Cai received wealth and fame throughout the empire. In 110 CE, Lady Deng, who had become the empress dowager to the young Emperor An, appointed Cai to oversee 100 scholars' new edition of the Five Classics. Cai was rewarded for his imperial service in 114 CE; he received the title of marquis, and was enfeoffed lord of Шаблон:Ill, a small village. When his ally Deng died in 121 CE, Cai was ordered to the Ministry of Justice because of his involvement in the death of the emperor's grandmother, Consort Song. Ashamed at his predicament and expecting to be sentenced to death, he committed suicide that year and died in the capital city in which he had spent almost his entire adult life.

Cai's improvements to paper-making are considered to have had an enormous impact on human history, and of those who created China's Four Great Inventions—the compass, gunpowder, papermaking and printing—Cai is the only inventor whose name is known. Although in China he is revered in ancestor worship, deified as the god of papermaking, and appears in Chinese folklore, he is mostly unknown outside of East Asia. His hometown in Leiyang remains an active center of paper production. Шаблон:TOC limit

Sources

The main source of information on Cai Lun is just 300 characters in volume 78 of the Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang; Book of the Later Han), an official history compiled by the Liu Song dynasty historian and politician Fan Ye.Шаблон:Sfn Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, a modern sinologist, noted that while Fan's account is the most comprehensive, it is problematic as it was written nearly 300 years after Cai's death.Шаблон:Sfn The primary source Fan used was the 2nd-century Шаблон:Ill (Шаблон:Lang; History of the Eastern Han),Шаблон:Sfn in which Шаблон:Ill is credited as the author of Cai's biography.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Efn Yan's brief 70-character account is near-contemporary but only survives in a reconstructed state from a lost original.Шаблон:Sfn^{[‡ 1]} Another older source is a brief mention by the 3rd-century scholar Dong Ba, (Шаблон:Zh)Шаблон:Sfn who is quoted referencing Cai's papermaking accomplishments in the 10th-century leishu encyclopedia Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang; Readings of the Taiping Era).Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Efn

Later history books, such as the Song dynasty's Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang; Compound Source of Matters and Facts), also include Cai and his work in papermaking.Шаблон:Sfn However, some major history books, such as the Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang; Annals of the Later Han) and Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang; Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance) do not mention Cai's papermaking achievements.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Efn Sinologist T. H. Barrett suggested this was because "Cai Lun was, after all, a palace eunuch, precisely the sort of person normally viewed with antagonism by the regular bureaucrats who controlled the writing of official (and even most unofficial) history."Шаблон:Sfn

Life and career

Birth and background

Cai Lun was born in Guiyang Commandery (Шаблон:Lang; modern-day Leiyang, Hunan province)Шаблон:Sfn^{[‡ 2]} in the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 CE).Шаблон:Sfnm Шаблон:Efn His exact year of birth is unknown; estimates include Шаблон:Circa,Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Circa,Шаблон:Sfn and Шаблон:Circa.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Efn Other than being born into a poor family, virtually nothing is known of his early life.Шаблон:Sfn Guiyang was a southern commandery, where Han Chinese had immigrated for hundreds of years to plant and cultivate rice.Шаблон:Sfn Legends suggest there was a pool near his home, south of which was a stone mortar that Cai would later use for papermaking.Шаблон:Sfnm

Early imperial court service

Bust length bearded man with formal Chinese garb

Posthumous depiction of Emperor Zhang from the Sancai Tuhui, whom Cai served under for 13 years as a Xiao Huangmen

Шаблон:Further

It is not known how Cai came to be in the service of the imperial court in Шаблон:Ill (modern-day Luoyang, Henan province), which was distant from his birthplace.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Transl reports that he was first employed during the end of the Шаблон:Transl era (58–75) of Emperor Ming.Шаблон:Sfn^{[‡ 3]} The site of modern Guiyang Commandery was known to have had various iron mines at the time,Шаблон:Sfnm so the former director of the Paper Museum in Tokyo, Kiyofusa Narita, suggested that "through the assistance of some who were in charge of the iron foundry, he found opportunity to go to the capital city".Шаблон:Sfn Narita cited Cai's future court appointment to oversee the production of weapons, especially swords, as evidence that he must have learned the skills to do so earlier in his life, likely from the iron foundry.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, if there is any truth to the various folktales about Cai, his supposed habits of trickery may have helped him receive a court appointment.Шаблон:Sfn

Cai is known to have been a eunuch in 75 CE, although it is possible he was employed somewhat earlier in the Шаблон:Transl era;Шаблон:Sfnm sinologist Rafe de Crespigny suggested this was in the early 70s.Шаблон:Sfn In the Han dynasty, eunuchs were employed in imperial service and were the only people eligible for certain specialized tasks, such as watching over the imperial harem and the imperial household; there were also certain promotions available exclusively for them.Шаблон:Sfn Cai's position was probably as a liaison between the privy council and the emperor, and likely involved duties akin to a chamberlain for the imperial family.Шаблон:Sfn Narita notes Cai's role meant he would have had many chances to become acquainted with the most powerful people in the empire.Шаблон:Sfn Around 80 CE, during the subsequent Шаблон:Transl era (76–84) under Emperor Zhang, Cai was promoted to a Xiao Huangmen (Шаблон:Lang; "Attendant at the Yellow Gates").Шаблон:Sfn^{[‡ 4]} The position, with a salary-rank of 600 shi or dan,Шаблон:Efn involved delivering and receiving messages between the imperial palace apartments and the outside court.Шаблон:Sfn

Palace intrigue and workshop

Since 82 CE, Liu Qing, Zhang's son from his concubine Consort Song, had been the designated heir, secured by the favor of Empress Ma.Шаблон:Sfn However, Ma's death in 79 CE made Lady Dou the empress, and—aiming to develop her family's power—she adopted Prince Zhao with the intention of installing him as heir.Шаблон:Sfn As a result, when Song became ill in 82 and asked for herbs, Dou falsely accused her of planning to use the herbs for witchcraft against Zhang.Шаблон:Sfn Dou then ordered Cai to interrogate Consort Song and her sister, another imperial consort, to force a confession; they both killed themselves.Шаблон:Sfnm Believing Dou's accusation, Zhang replaced Liu Qing with Prince Zhao as heir.Шаблон:Sfn

Prince Zhao, ruling as Emperor He, was 10 years old at his accession in 88 CE, so Dou took control as empress dowager and secured her authority by giving various positions to her four brothers, particularly Dou Xian,Шаблон:Sfn who promoted Cai to Шаблон:Ill (Шаблон:Lang; "Regular Attendant") for his loyalty.Шаблон:Sfnm Cai served as a private counselor to He in political matters;Шаблон:Sfn^{[‡ 5]} this post gave Cai a salary-rank of 2000 shi, and was the highest eunuch-exclusive position, which also made him a chief eunuch of the palace.Шаблон:Sfn In the Шаблон:Transl, Cai was characterized as, in the words of de Crespigny, "honest, cautious and a good judge of policy".Шаблон:Sfn^{[‡ 6]} Cai was also designated Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang; "Prefect of the Palace Workshop"Шаблон:Sfn or "Prefect of the Masters of Techniques"Шаблон:Sfn) later in 88 or 89 CE.Шаблон:Sfnm^{[‡ 7]} While in this eunuch-only position,Шаблон:Sfn he would have been responsible for the production of instruments and weapons for imperial use.Шаблон:Sfn The role had a salary-rank of 600 shi—though this was in addition to the 2000 shi from his continued Шаблон:Transl post.Шаблон:Sfn

When Emperor He came of age in 92 CE he led various officials, especially Zheng Zhong, in a coup d'état to overthrow the Dou family.Шаблон:Sfn Cai was not involved in their removal, and though he was previously allied with the family, he was undisturbed by the Emperor's coup.Шаблон:Sfn In 97 CE, his position as Шаблон:Transl expanded in scope, as he became responsible for ceremonial swords and other items. The Шаблон:Transl describes his craftsmanship as high-quality and a model for later generations.Шаблон:Sfnm^{[‡ 8]}

Development of paper

Woodcuts depicting the five seminal steps in ancient Chinese papermaking. From the 1637 Tiangong Kaiwu of the Ming dynasty.Шаблон:Sfn

In 105, Cai publicly declared that he had invented a new composition for paper with a new papermaking process.Шаблон:Sfn Writing had a long history in China with writing surfaces being bamboo and wooden slips (wood for short text and bamboo for lengthy text).Шаблон:Sfnm These media were inconvenient as they were awkward to store, heavy, and difficult to write on.Шаблон:Sfn After Meng Tian purportedly created an animal-hair brush for writing in 3rd-century BCE, silk and cloth became alternatives that addressed these issues, but they were too expensive for widespread use.Шаблон:Sfn The absence of a practical solution motivated continued experimentation with different materials; Cai's pulp solution proved the most effective.Шаблон:Sfn His process still used bamboo, but also introduced hemp waste, old rags, fishnets, and most importantly, bark from trees (likely mulberry).Шаблон:Sfnm The materials were boiled to a pulp that was beaten with a wood or stone mallet before being mixed with a large amount of water. The resulting mixture was then processed with wooden sieves and the excess water removed, leaving the paper finished once dry.Шаблон:Sfn The paper that resulted from this method is often referred to as "Cai Hou paper" (Шаблон:Lang).Шаблон:Sfn This event and its context are relayed in an often cited passage of the Шаблон:Transl:Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:Quote

Many legends about the inspiration for Cai's invention exist; one of the most popular said that Cai was inspired by watching paper wasps make their nests.Шаблон:Sfn Tsien suggested that Cai was inspired by the people of his birthplace, who used bark from mulberry trees to create cloth as a writing surface.Шаблон:Sfn Irrespective of its origin, in 105 CE, Cai's new papermaking process both impressed He and earned him fame throughout the empire.Шаблон:Sfnm

Final years and death

After the infant Emperor Shang's eight-month reign, in 106 CE Emperor He was succeeded by 13-year-old Emperor An, while Lady Deng ruled as empress dowager.Шаблон:Sfn Both Cai and Zheng maintained influence in Deng's court.Шаблон:Sfn In 110 CE, Deng assembled more than 100 scholars—including Шаблон:Ill, Шаблон:Ill and Ma Rong—in the Eastern Pavilion of the palace to begin creating a definitive edition of the Five Classics.Шаблон:Sfn She appointed Cai to oversee and supervise the production; de Crespigny said that this meant Cai "was seriously concerned with scholarship".Шаблон:Sfn^{[‡ 9]} In 114 CE, he was awarded the title of marquis and the imperial court enfeoffed him as the lord of Шаблон:Ill, a small village of 300 familiesШаблон:Sfnm in modern-day Yang County, Shaanxi.Шаблон:Sfn^{[‡ 10]} Later that year Zheng died and Cai succeeded him as the head of the Dowager's household.Шаблон:Sfn

An assumed power after Deng's death in 121 CE, though the court was dominated by the influence of Empress Yan Ji and her brothers.Шаблон:Sfn Remembering Cai's part in the death of his grandmother, Consort Song, An ordered Cai to report to the Ministry of Justice to answer the charges, and presumably sentence him to death.Шаблон:Sfn Ashamed that the Emperor would send him to death in a dishonorable way, Cai bathed and dressed in formal clothes before killing himself by drinking poison.Шаблон:Sfn^{[‡ 11]}

Legacy

Global influence

Historical assessment

Due to modern archeological investigations, it is now certain that different forms of paper existed in China as early as 3rd-century BCE,Шаблон:Sfnm Шаблон:Efn though the findings do not necessarily discount the credit given to Cai.Шаблон:Sfn The Chinese scholar Tsien Tsuen-hsuin explained that the term used in Cai's ancient biography, zào yì (Шаблон:Lang), can be understood as "to initiate the idea", meaning that he furthered the ongoing process with the addition of important materials.Шаблон:Sfn Additionally, Cai is responsible for the earliest known use of tree bark and hemp as ingredients for paper,Шаблон:Sfn and it is clear that paper did not see widespread use in China until Cai's improvements.Шаблон:Sfnm As such, scholars have revised his contributions as ones that furthered an ongoing process instead of a sudden discovery.Шаблон:Sfnm Шаблон:Efn However, due to the pivotal significance of his improvements and the resulting spread of paper use throughout China,Шаблон:Sfnm Cai continues to be traditionally credited with inventing paper.Шаблон:Sfnm There is also speculation that Cai was the patron of this achievement and took credit from someone else, as Feng Dao may have done with his improvements to printing.Шаблон:Sfnm

Spread of paper

Шаблон:Further

One man standing behind two seated men; they all are in particularly formal garb

The Three Gods of Paper-making, Cai Lun (in the middle) with the Korean monk Damjing (on the left), who brought the art to Japan, and Mochizuki Seibei (who brought the art to Шаблон:Nihongo). Kept in the Minobu Town Museum of History and Folklore.Шаблон:Sfn

Cai's improvements to paper and the papermaking process are considered especially impactful to human history,Шаблон:Sfnm as they resulted in the spread of literature and knowledge around the world, and advancements in communications.Шаблон:Sfnm However, Cai is only somewhat known outside East Asia and is often excluded from major encyclopedias.Шаблон:Sfn The scholar of paper history, Thomas Francis Carter, drew parallels between Cai and Johannes Gutenberg, the inventor of the first movable type printing press in Europe, calling them "spiritual father and son" respectivelyШаблон:Sfn — although the Chinese inventor of the first moveable type printing press in the world, Bi Sheng, might have been a more apt comparison.Шаблон:Sfn In his 1978 book, The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, Michael H. Hart ranked him 7th, above figures such as Gutenberg, Christopher Columbus, Albert Einstein and Charles Darwin.Шаблон:Sfn In 2007, Time ranked him among the "Best Inventors" of all time.Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:AnchorAfter Cai's efforts in 105 CE, a renowned paper maker who may have been an apprentice to CaiШаблон:Sfn—variously recorded by modern sources as Zuo Bo;Шаблон:Sfn Tso Po (Шаблон:Lang, courtesy name: Tzu-i: Шаблон:Zh^{[‡ 12]}) from Donghai, Shandong;Шаблон:Sfn or Tso Tzǔ-yiШаблон:Sfn—improved the process in 150 CEШаблон:Sfn or later in the Han dynasty.Шаблон:Sfn Other than this, the basic principles of Cai's papermaking process have changed little over time,Шаблон:Sfn and the new form of paper spread throughout China.Шаблон:Sfnm According to legend, the Buddhist monk Damjing brought the process to Japan, though this is unconfirmed. Damjing occupies a similar patron saint position in Japan that Cai does in China.Шаблон:Sfnm By the 600s the process appeared in Turkestan, Korea, and India,Шаблон:Sfnm Шаблон:Efn while Chinese prisoners from the Battle of Talas spread the knowledge to Arabs in the Abbasid Caliphate.Шаблон:Sfnm Unlike many Chinese inventions that were created independently in Western Europe, the modern papermaking process was a wholly Chinese product and gradually spread via the Arabs to Europe, where it also saw widespread manufacturing by the 12th century.Шаблон:Sfn On 2 August 2010, the International Astronomical Union honored Cai's legacy by naming a crater on the Moon after him.Шаблон:Sfn

Influence in China

Folklore

Шаблон:See also While Cai's personal life is mostly unknown, a popular folktale suggests he was a shopkeeper and trickster with a wife and brother, though there is no historical confirmation for this.Шаблон:Sfn The story goes that after Cai's improvements to paper there was little demand for the product so he had an ever-growing surplus.Шаблон:Sfn As such, Cai and his wife developed a ploy to increase sales; they told townsfolk that paper becomes money in the afterlife when burned.Шаблон:Sfn

In the most popular variation to the tale, Cai Mo and Hui Niang—Cai's brother and sister-in-law of unconfirmed historicity—take the place of Cai and his wife.Шаблон:Sfn In this version, Hui convinced Cai Mo to learn the new papermaking trade from his younger brother, and when he returned in only three months, the paper he and his wife produced was too low quality to sell.Шаблон:Sfn To address this, Hui pretended to have died, and Cai Mo stood beside her coffin, wailing and burning money as tribute.Шаблон:Sfn Then, their neighbors checked in on them, and Hui sprung out of the coffin, explaining that the burned money was transferred to her in the afterlife, with which she paid ghosts to return her from the dead.Шаблон:Sfn Believing the story, the neighbors quickly purchased large amounts of paper for their own use.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Efn While mostly a fictitious story, intense wailing and burning offerings are commonplace in Chinese culture.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Efn

Deification and remembrance

Of those who originated China's Four Great Inventions of the ancient world—the compass, gunpowder, papermaking and printing—only the inventor of papermaking, Cai Lun, is known.Шаблон:Sfn Additionally, in comparison to other Chinese inventions such as the writing brush and ink, the development of paper is the best documented in literary sources.Шаблон:Sfn

After his death in 121 CE, a shrine with his grave was built in his hometown, but was soon neglected and damaged by floods while his name was largely forgotten.Шаблон:Sfn During the early Tang dynasty, many national heroes were deified, such as Li Bai and Guan Yu as the gods of wine and war respectively. Cai was among the important people declared gods, and was deified as the national god of papermaking.Шаблон:Sfnm Cai also became a patron saint for papermakers, with his image often being painted or printed onto paper mills and paper shops in not only China, but also Japan.Шаблон:Sfnm In 1267, a man named Chen Tsunghsi raised funds to repair the long-damaged shrine, and renovated it to include a statue of Cai and a mausoleum.Шаблон:Sfn Chen stated that "Tsai Lung's [Cai Lun's] extraordinary talent and his achievement are exemplary to all ages."Шаблон:Sfn A stone mortar, which legends claim Cai used to make paper, may have been brought to the mausoleum, although other sources say it was brought to the Imperial Museum in the capital of Lin'an.Шаблон:Sfnm A great ceremony was held for the new mausoleum, though it fell into ruin again and was restored in 1955.Шаблон:Sfnm Today, the temple still stands in Leiyang as the Шаблон:Ill near a pool, renamed the "Cai Lun Pool", that was thought to be near Cai's home.Шаблон:Sfn In the Song dynasty, Fei Chu (Шаблон:Fl Шаблон:Sfn) said there was a temple in Chengdu where hundreds of families in the papermaking business would come to worship Cai.Шаблон:Sfn

Файл:Cai Lun's Tomb.jpg

Cai Lun's traditional tomb, Шаблон:Ill, Hanzhong, Shaanxi Province.

During the late Qing dynasty, papermakers created religious groups, known as either "spirit-money associations" (Шаблон:Transl) or "Cai Lun associations" (Шаблон:Transl).Шаблон:Sfn In 1839, the Шаблон:Transl from the town of Yingjiang was sued by Шаблон:Transl in Macun and Zhongxing of Jiajiang County, Sichuan.Шаблон:Sfn The conflict began when the Шаблон:Transl of Yingjiang claimed that their statue of Cai—which they carried throughout Jiajiang County annually—gave them ritual supremacy over Macun and Zhongxing papermakers, whom they demanded pay for and take part in their celebrations.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Transl from Macun and Zhongxing denied the demand, citing their long history of worshipping Cai, which resulted in increasing conflict between the sides and eventually a lawsuit.Шаблон:Sfn The county magistrate reproached both parties for descending into conflict and said: "Did they not understand that all of them owed their livelihood to Lord Cai, who had taught them the art of papermaking? Were they not all disciples of Lord Cai, who wanted them to share the benefits of the trade?"Шаблон:Sfn

In the 21st century, Leiyang is still famous as Cai's birthplace and has active paper production.Шаблон:Sfn His traditional tomb lays in the Cai Lun Paper Culture Museum of Longting, Hanzhong, Shaanxi Province.Шаблон:Sfn In modern-day China, Cai's name is closely associated with paper,Шаблон:Sfn and is the namesake of at least five roads: Шаблон:Ill, Pudong, Shanghai;Шаблон:Sfn Cailun Road, Minhang District, Shanghai;Шаблон:Sfn Cailun Road, Fuyang District, Hangzhou, Zhejiang;Шаблон:Sfn Cailun Road East Crossing, Weiyang District, Xi'an;Шаблон:Sfn and Cailun Road, Yaohai District, Hefei, Anhui.Шаблон:Sfn

References

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

Citations

Early

When applicable, this list identifies the relevant passage of early sources in addition to a modern citation. Per WP:TRANSCRIPTION, a translation from a Wikipedia editor is given and, if available, a loose translation from a modern source is provided.

Шаблон:Reflist

Modern

Шаблон:Reflist

Bibliography

Early

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

Modern

External links

Cai Lun at Chinaknowledge

Шаблон:Han Dynasty topics Шаблон:Paper Шаблон:Subject bar Шаблон:Authority control

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Английская Википедия:Cai Lun

Содержание

Sources

Life and career

Birth and background

Early imperial court service

Palace intrigue and workshop

Development of paper

Final years and death

Legacy

Global influence

Historical assessment

Spread of paper

Influence in China

Folklore

Deification and remembrance

References

Notes

Citations

Early

Modern

Bibliography

Early

Modern

Books

Journals

Online

Further reading

External links

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