Английская Википедия:Capitoul
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Lead too short Шаблон:Stack begin
Шаблон:Stack end Шаблон:Italic title The capitouls, sometimes anglicized as capitols,Шаблон:Sfnp were the chief magistrates of the commune of Toulouse, France, during the late Middle Ages and early Modern period. Their council and rule was known as the Capitoulate (Шаблон:Lang-fr). They were suppressed in 1789 amid the French Revolution.Шаблон:Sfnp
Name
The officials were originally known as consuls (Шаблон:Lang) but were christened "capitouls" in 1295 as part of an effort to connect Toulouse with the greatness of such cities as Rome, Constantinople, and Jerusalem.Шаблон:Sfnp
Rival councils
In addition to the Capitoulate, Toulouse housed the rival Parliament, General Council, Town Council, and Council of Sixteen. Each included the reigning capitouls, but only as associate or junior members.Шаблон:Sfnp
Шаблон:Anchor The Parlement of Toulouse (Шаблон:Lang-fr) was established by King Charles VII in 1420[1] and put on a permanent basis in 1444.Шаблон:Sfnp It was nominally restricted to the nobility, although positions could be purchased via an annual fee known as the paulette. Members (Шаблон:Lang) were exempt from gabelles, city property taxes, and tithes; exempt from billeting of troops; and exempt from any legal proceeding except those within the Parliament itself.[2] It also served as a bastion of Catholicism and, after 1548, was charged with operating the town's chambre ardente, which persecuted Protestant "heretics".Шаблон:Sfnp It also built up an influential body of lawyers (Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang) around its operations.Шаблон:Sfnp
The General or Common CouncilШаблон:Sfnp (Шаблон:Lang) was formed of a large body of notables, including representatives of the Catholic archdiocese, the major local chapters, and university, several lawyers, townsmen, and the present and former capitouls.Шаблон:Sfnp In the 16th century, this made up almost eighty men but this changed over time: by the 17th century, the church and tradesmen had been almost removed from representation.Шаблон:Sfnp Meanwhile, the Parliament went from having no representation in 1550 to eight members including the First President in 1556 to being forbidden to meet without the members of Parliament present in 1578.Шаблон:Sfnp It was thenceforth usually directed by the First President of the Parliament.Шаблон:Sfnp A remnant of the medieval commune's general assemblies, it was typically limited to ceremonial hearings and oversight of the capitulary election.Шаблон:Sfnp It was restructured and given greater importance during the 1778 reform of Toulouse's civic government.Шаблон:Sfnp
The Town Council (Шаблон:Lang) was a smaller number of townsmen and capitouls who met more often to oversee the Capitoulate.Шаблон:Sfnp
The Council of Sixteen (Шаблон:Lang) was formed of the present year's eight capitouls and the previous year's eight as well. It also met regularly in the 16th century.Шаблон:Sfnp
Election
The capitouls were elected annually from the city's eight districts, also called "capitoulates".[2]Шаблон:Refn Between the 14th and late 17th centuries, the election of the capitouls took place in November and December of each year. On November 23, each outgoing capitoul proposed six candidates. An assembly of former office holders halved this list to 24. The town's viguier and seneschal then selected the eight who took their oath of office on December 13.Шаблон:Sfnp Backroom negotiation and bribery were commonplace.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Refn Following the 1562 riots, the elections were closely controlled by the ParliamentШаблон:Sfnp and in 1661 Louis XIV's appointee Gaspard de Fieubet secured the perpetual right to name the capitouls from his position as First President of the Parliament.Шаблон:Sfnp
In 1683, the king began to appoint the capitouls from a slate of candidates provided by the city.Шаблон:Sfnp By 1701, the position was broadly venal, with prospective capitouls required to provide loans of at least 10,000 livres to the city upon their "election";Шаблон:Sfnp in 1734, a royal edict made four of the positions explicitly venal, "commissioned" offices that were purchased from the king.Шаблон:Sfnp Another edict in 1746 established eight permanent "titular" (Шаблон:Lang) capitouls, pairs of which rotated in office each year with the six other capitouls, which were "elected" by the king from the town's slate of nominees.Шаблон:Sfnp
History
The Toulousians claimed that their liberties predated the Kingdom of France, having been bestowed by the Roman emperor Шаблон:Nowrap,Шаблон:Sfnp and that the capitouls represented a direct continuation of the consuls of the Roman Republic.Шаблон:Sfnp The town annals described their dignity as arising from "halting their own business, suspending their commerce, abandoning all particular affectations and putting aside their cherished projects in order to augment the Republic, following the precepts of Plato, Aristotle, Xenophon and other philosophers."Шаблон:Refn In fact, the municipal government of Toulouse grew from the assembly permitted by Count Raymond V in 1152.Шаблон:Sfnp His successors confirmed the council and permitted the open election of its members by the town's citizens.Шаблон:Sfnp Any free citizen over 25 was eligible.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Refn
Initially, the council consisted of six men from the city (Шаблон:Lang) of Toulouse proper, bound by its old Roman walls, and six from the borough (Шаблон:Lang) of tradesmen which had developed around St-Sernin.Шаблон:Sfnp After the 1215 union of these two settlements, the twelve positions were divided among twelve capitoulates, six in each half. The districts of the old city were La Daurade, the Old Bridge (Шаблон:Lang), and La Dalbade near the Garonne; St-Étienne around the bishop's cathedral; St-Pierre & St-Géraud around the count's palace; and St-Romain around the town hall.Шаблон:Sfnp Those in the borough were named for the church of St-Pierre-des-Cuisines and for their adjacent gates into the old town: Arnaud Bernard, Las Crosses, Matabovis, Pousonville, and Villeneuve.Шаблон:Sfnp
The commune received many privileges from its counts during the 12th century: its capitouls formed the city's principal court,Шаблон:Refn established market rules and tax exemptions, and maintained the town's drainage.Шаблон:Sfnp Even the counts' vicars occasionally submitted to the Capitoulate's jurisdiction.Шаблон:Sfnp Most of these powers were lost following the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars in the 13th century,Шаблон:Sfnp particularly after the ascension of the Capetian Alphonse of Poitiers as count of ToulouseШаблон:Sfnp and his succession by King Philip, who imposed seneschals over his new territories.Шаблон:Sfnp The election procedure was revamped by King Philip III in 1283, when he provided that each outgoing capitoul was to provide a list of three potential replacements to the seneschal, who would choose one or—in the event he disapproved of them all—nominate his own man. The new capitouls were then to swear their vows and pledge loyalty to the king on the steps of the old comital palace.Шаблон:Sfnp
The Capetians accepted the need to preserve some local traditions,Шаблон:Refn and the capitouls were charged with presenting lists of Toulouse's privileges and laws, which the king then accepted or rejected.Шаблон:Sfnp The town's new charter preserved the right for citizens to elect a town council of 24 "capitouls"; this number was subsequently reduced to eight by the 15th century.Шаблон:Sfnp Major decisions of the town—including legal and economic questions—were decided by the Capitoulate,[2] as well as the patronage attendant on their control of more than a hundred civic positions.Шаблон:Sfnp In the late 13th century, the capitouls regulated the town's guilds, with the power to nominate and depose their bailiffs.Шаблон:Sfnp They also directed the town's 400 or so ward heelers (Шаблон:Lang).Шаблон:Sfnp In October 1283, Philip III accepted that the capitouls would administer civil justice within the city and its surrounding seneschalty;Шаблон:Sfnp questions of canon law continued to be determined by the bishop's courtШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Refn and some oversight was given to the king's seneschal,Шаблон:Sfnp but the capitouls' deliberations were normally free of interference by the king's judges.[2] They secured the city's grain supply, which frequently brought them into conflict with the large landowners represented in the Toulouse Parliament.Шаблон:Sfnp The capitouls also purchased freedom from royal taxation and an exemption from royal garrisons within the town walls,[2] liberties confirmed by Шаблон:Nowrap in 1495.Шаблон:Sfnp They participated in the city's general processions, mass parades through the town organized for the high holy days, various civic occasions, and at times of collective danger.Шаблон:Sfnp The outgoing capitouls were also responsible for drafting the town annals (Шаблон:Lang), an account of municipal affairs during their year in office.Шаблон:Sfnp These records, also known as the Twelve Books (Шаблон:Lang), began their first entry—that for the year 1296—with a Latin poem translated in Turning as:Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Refn Шаблон:Blockquote
As the office was ennobling after 1459,Шаблон:Sfnp it was attractive to many of the city's middle and lower upper class.Шаблон:Sfnp The Capitoulate was closed to the king's officers[2] and, while it was intended to represent the city's nobles, lawyers, and merchants, in practice the merchants were largely shut out of office after the mid-16th century.Шаблон:Sfnp The trappings of nobility enjoyed by the capitouls included a red and black silk ermine gown[2]Шаблон:Refn and exemption from prosecution for both the office holder and his son.
In the early 16th century, the Capitoulate curtailed prostitution, oversaw poor relief, organized the local militia into a permanent force, established a health board to fight plague outbreaks,Шаблон:Sfnp and directed rebuilding from the devastation of the Hundred Years' War and a massive fire in 1463.Шаблон:Sfnp In 1505, they took the town's nine hospitals out of church hands and placed them under a single civil administration.Шаблон:Sfnp In 1514, they opened another hospital, the St-Sebastian, to quarantine and care for plague victims.Шаблон:Sfnp In 1518 and 1519, the town's archives were recopied and preserved.Шаблон:Sfnp
A new bridge was thrown across the Garonne and the Hôtel de Ville completely refurbished.Шаблон:Sfnp
Several royal edicts confirmed the Capitoulate's jurisdiction and, in 1554, they won the right to oversee all cases of heresy within the city walls.Шаблон:Sfnp However, during an outbreak of plague in 1557, the Parliament interfered with the regular method of electing capitouls, causing much resentment.[2] By 1561, nearly every aspect of municipal government—revenue, expenditure, administration, education, and defense—was disputed between the two bodies.[2] A shortfall owing to war taxes and the town's firma burgi led to rival proposals to sell Catholic or Protestant church properties.[2] To reduce the Parliament's power, the capitouls ended lifetime positions in the municipal government, opening them all to annual election. In 1562, the first year, many of these went to members of the Reformed Church.[2]Шаблон:Sfnp The Reformers also held a majority of that year's seats on the town council.Шаблон:Sfnp The attempt of the capitoul Pierre Hunault, sieur de Lanta, to seize the town hall and inner city set off the 1562 Toulouse Riots, whose aftermath saw the entire slate of elected capitouls replaced by a Catholic gang named by the Toulouse Parliament.
The town annals subsequently cease to speak of the town's "municipal republic" and Parliament generally increased its control over the city thereafter.Шаблон:Sfnp In 1578, the capitouls were forbidden to appear before the members of Parliament in the town's general processions.Шаблон:Sfnp During a "shoving match" over which body should stand beside the eucharist during the Pentecostal procession of 1597, the capitouls were "manhandled, thrown onto the ground, and trampled".Шаблон:Refn The capitouls were placed in inferior positions at official functions: in 1644, a reviewing stand was demolished because it did not permit sufficient distance between the members of Parliament and the capitouls.Шаблон:Sfnp At the death of Archbishop Montchal in 1651, the capitouls were even forbidden from any participation in his funeral.Шаблон:Sfnp Individual members of Parliament also regularly made a point of insulting the capitouls at public and private functions.Шаблон:Sfnp
In the mid-17th century, Cardinal Mazarin and Шаблон:Nowrap briefly restored much of the Capitoulate's autonomy, even giving it the right to take some cases to the Parliament of Bordeaux rather than its local rivals, as part of an attempt to secure its alliance during the Fronde uprising.Шаблон:Sfnp After the restoration of order, however, the First President of the Parliament, Gaspard de Fieubet, was able to use his connections to the royal court to first name his lackeys as the capitouls for 1660 and then, in 1661, to directly appoint the annual capitouls in perpetuity.Шаблон:Sfnp
As Intendant of Languedoc, Nicolas de Lamoignon placed his own men as capitouls and oversaw an overhaul of Toulouse's municipal government in the 1680s and '90s.Шаблон:Sfnp He noted that prior to his actions each capitoul routinely apportioned the town's alms "to his shoemaker, to his baker, and to other artisans, while the true poor receive nothing";Шаблон:Refn that they shirked responsibilities such as policing that offered little personal honor; and that they underpaid Toulouse's contribution to the taille and forced the city into indebtedness by exempting themselves and friends from local taxation.Шаблон:Sfnp His changes functioned briefly but floundered: His independent police lieutenant was purchased by the city in 1699 for 220,000 livresШаблон:Refn and he was obliged to accept the practice of hiring capitouls who were willing to supplement the city's funds with personal loans, as with those who assisted in making up for a grain shortage around 1710.Шаблон:Sfnp Subsequent intendants were similarly forced to accept nominees of the archbishop, the parliamentary presidents, and other important nobles of the realm, even when such candidates did not so much as visit the city, let alone perform the responsibilities of their office.Шаблон:Sfnp
The capitouls were present at the laying of the foundation stone of the Garonne lock of the Canal du Midi near Toulouse in November, 1667.Шаблон:Sfnp
The supervision of the royal intendant reduced the Capitoulate's control over municipal jobs considerably in the 18th century.Шаблон:Sfnp In 1747, grain riots forced the capitouls to permit royal troops to enter the city freely for the first time.Шаблон:Sfnp The edicts of 1764 and '65 which implemented the Laverdy Reforms were specially excluded from application in Toulouse through a dispensation secured by the Parliament.Шаблон:Sfnp
In 1765, King Louis XV fired the then incumbent Capitoul over the trial of Jean Calas, sentenced to death and broken on the wheel - which the King ruled to have been a grave miscarriage of justice.
In the 1770s, a series of anonymous broadsides thoroughly condemned the conduct of the Capitoulate and was successful in securing an arrêt from the royal council in June 1778.Шаблон:Sfnp The reform consisted of four parts:Шаблон:Sfnp
- The capitouls were no longer to represent separate districts of the city;
- A Consistory Chief (Шаблон:Lang) was created, to be appointed by the king and charged with oversight of the capitouls;
- The capitouls were to be specifically proportioned among the town's classes, with two nobles, two former capitouls, and four townsmen; and
- The overlapping councils of the municipal government were recast.
See also
- Handwritten Annals of the City of Toulouse
- Capitole de Toulouse
- History of Toulouse
- French communes
- eschevin, consul, and jurat
- List of the mayors of Toulouse
- seneschal and bailiff
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite book. Translation of Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Citation. Шаблон:In lang
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Шаблон:Citation. Шаблон:In lang
- Шаблон:Citation. Шаблон:In lang
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Английская Википедия
- Страницы с неработающими файловыми ссылками
- Court titles in the Ancien Régime
- Historical legal occupations
- Law of the Ancien Régime
- History of Toulouse
- Страницы, где используется шаблон "Навигационная таблица/Телепорт"
- Страницы с телепортом
- Википедия
- Статья из Википедии
- Статья из Английской Википедии
