Английская Википедия:Cardinal virtues
The cardinal virtues are four virtues of mind and character in both classical philosophy and Christian theology. They are prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. They form a virtue theory of ethics. The term cardinal comes from the Latin Шаблон:Lang (hinge);[1] these four virtues are called “cardinal” because all other virtues fall under them and hinge upon them.[2]
These virtues derive initially from Plato in Republic Book IV, 426-435.Шаблон:Efn Aristotle expounded them systematically in the Nicomachean Ethics. They were also recognized by the Stoics and Cicero expanded on them. In the Christian tradition, they are also listed in the Deuterocanonical books in Шаблон:Bibleverse and Шаблон:Bibleverse, and the Doctors Ambrose, Augustine, and Aquinas[3] expounded their supernatural counterparts, the three theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity.
Four cardinal virtues
- Prudence (Шаблон:Lang, [[Phronesis|Шаблон:Transl]]; Шаблон:Lang-la; also Wisdom, Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Lang), the ability to discern the appropriate course of action to be taken in a given situation at the appropriate time, with consideration of potential consequences; Cautiousness.
- Justice (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Transl; Шаблон:Lang-la): also considered as fairness, honesty, equity;[4] the Greek word also having the meaning righteousness
- Courage (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Transl; Шаблон:Lang-la): forbearance, strength, endurance, Fortitude(Patience and perseverance), industriousness and the ability to confront fear, uncertainty, and intimidation(bravery, boldness, valor, daring). Notably, ἀνδρεία, being closely related to ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, could also be translated "manliness". Some other definitions of courage are "Andrea, virtus, spirit, heart, mettle, thumos, tenacity, gameness, resolution, bravery, boldness, valor, daring, hardihood, assertiveness, frame, gravitas, determination".
- Temperance (Шаблон:Lang, [[Sophrosyne|Шаблон:Transl]]; Шаблон:Lang-la): also known as restraint, the practice of self-control, abstention, discretion, and moderation tempering the appetition. Plato considered Шаблон:Transl, which may also be translated as sound-mindedness, to be the most important virtue. σωφροσύνη was often used in reference to drinking and "knowing the right amount" to avoid belligerence.
Antiquity
The four cardinal virtues appeared as a group (sometimes included in larger lists) long before they were given this title.
Hellenistic philosophy
Plato associated the four cardinal virtues with the social classes of the ideal city described in The Republic, and with the faculties of humanity. Plato narrates a discussion of the character of a good city where the following is agreed upon:
TemperanceШаблон:Efn was most closely associated with the producing classes, the farmers and craftsmen, to moderate their animal appetites. Fortitude was assigned to the warrior class, to strengthen their fighting spirit. Prudence was assigned to the rulers, to guide their reason. Justice stood above these three to properly regulate the relations among them.
Plato sometimesШаблон:Efn lists holiness (Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl) amongst the cardinal virtues. He especially associates holiness with justice, but leaves their precise relationship unexplained.
In Aristotle's Rhetoric, we read:
These are expounded fully in the Nicomachean Ethics III.6-V.2
Philo of Alexandria, a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher, also recognized the four cardinal virtues as prudence, temperance, courage, and justice. In his writings, he states:
These virtues, according to Philo, serve as guiding principles for a virtuous and fulfilling life.
Roman philosophy
The Roman philosopher and statesman Cicero (Шаблон:BCE), like Plato, limits the list to four virtues:
Cicero discusses these further in De Officiis (I, V, and following).
The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius discusses these in Book V:12 of Meditations and views them as the "goods" that a person should identify in one's own mind, as opposed to "wealth or things which conduce to luxury or prestige".[5]
Suggestions of the Stoic virtues can be found in fragments in the Diogenes Laertius and Stobaeus.
The Platonist view of the four cardinal virtues is described in "Definitions".
Practical wisdom or prudence (Шаблон:Transliteration) is the perspicacity necessary to conduct personal business and affairs of state. It encompasses the skill to distinguish the beneficial from the detrimental, to understand the attainment of happiness, and to discern the right course of action in every situation. Its antithesis or opposite is the vice of folly.[6]
Justice (Шаблон:Transliteration) is the harmonious alignment of one's inner self and the comprehensive integrity of the soul. It involves fostering sound discipline within each facet of our being, enabling us to live with others and extend the same regard to every individual. Additionally, justice pertains to a state's aptitude to equitably allocate resources based on individuals' deservingness, as determined by their merits. It entails refraining from undue harshness, fostering a universal perception of fairness. Furthermore, it entails embodying the qualities of a law-abiding citizen or member of society, upholding principles of social equality. Justice encompasses the formulation of laws that can be substantiated by valid justifications, leading to a society where actions align with these laws.
Moderation or temperance (Шаблон:Transliteration) is the capacity to temper the indulgence of desires and sensory pleasures within the bounds of what is customary for the individual, aligning only with experiences already familiar to the soul. It encompasses achieving a harmonious equilibrium and exercising disciplined control when it comes to overall pleasure and pain, ensuring that they remain within normal ranges. Moreover, moderation involves cultivating a harmonious relationship and a balanced rule between the soul's governing and being governed aspects. It signifies maintaining a state of natural self-reliance and exercising proper discipline as and when required by the soul. Rational consensus within the soul is essential concerning what merits admiration and what warrants disdain. This approach entails deliberate caution in one's choices, as one's selection navigates between the extremes.
Courage (Шаблон:Transliteration) can be defined as the ability to conquer fear within oneself when action is necessary. It encompasses military confidence, a deep understanding of warfare, and maintaining unwavering beliefs in the face of challenges. It involves self-discipline to overcome fear, obeying wisdom, and facing death boldly. Courage also entails maintaining sound judgment in tough situations, countering hostility, upholding virtues, remaining composed when faced with frightening (or encouraging) discussions and events, and not becoming discouraged. It reflects valuing the rule of law in our daily lives rather than diminishing its importance.
In the Bible
In the Old Testament Apocrypha
The cardinal virtues are listed in the deuterocanonical book Шаблон:Bibleverse, which reads:
They are also found in other non-canonical scriptures like Шаблон:Bibleverse, which relates:
In the New Testament
Wisdom, usually Шаблон:Transliteration, rather than Prudence (Шаблон:Transliteration), is discussed extensively in all parts of the New Testament. It is a major topic of 1 Corinthians 2, where the author discusses how divine teaching and power are greater than worldly wisdom.
Justice (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Transl) is taught in the gospels, where most translators give it as "righteousness".
Plato's word for Fortitude (Шаблон:Lang) is not present in the New Testament, but the virtues of steadfastness (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Transl) and patient endurance (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Transl) are praised. Paul exhorts believers to "act like men" (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Bibleverse).
Temperance (Шаблон:Lang, [[Sophrosyne|Шаблон:Transl]]), usually translated "sobriety," is present in the New Testament, along with self-control (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Transl).[7]
In Christian tradition
Catholic moral theology drew from both the Wisdom of Solomon and the Fourth Book of Maccabees in developing its thought on the virtues.[8] Ambrose (Шаблон:Circa) used the expression "cardinal virtues":
Augustine of Hippo, discussing the morals of the church, described them:
In relation to the theological virtues
The "cardinal" virtues are not the same as the three theological virtues: Faith, Hope, and Charity (Love), named in 1 Corinthians 13.
Because of this reference, a group of seven virtues is sometimes listed by adding the four cardinal virtues (prudence, temperance, fortitude, justice) and three theological virtues (faith, hope, charity). While the first four date back to Greek philosophers and were applicable to all people seeking to live moral lives, the theological virtues appear to be specific to Christians as written by Paul in the New Testament.
Efforts to relate the cardinal and theological virtues differ. Augustine sees faith as coming under justice. Beginning with a wry comment about the moral mischief of pagan deities, he writes:
Dante Alighieri also attempts to relate the cardinal and theological virtues in his Divine Comedy, most notably in the complex allegorical scheme drawn in Purgatorio XXIX to XXXI. Depicting a procession in the Garden of Eden (which the author situates at the top of the mountain of purgatory), Dante describes a chariot drawn by a gryphon and accompanied by a vast number of figures, among which stand three women on the right side dressed in red, green, and white, and four women on the left, all dressed in purple. The chariot is generally understood to represent the holy church, with the women on right and left representing the theological and cardinal virtues respectively.[9] The exact meaning of the allegorical women's role, behaviour, interrelation, and color-coding remains a matter of literary interpretation.
In relation to the seven deadly sins
In the High Middle Ages, some authors opposed the seven virtues (cardinal plus theological) to the seven deadly sins. However, “treatises exclusively concentrating on both septenaries are actually quite rare.” and “examples of late medieval catalogues of virtues and vices which extend or upset the double heptad can be easily multiplied.”[10] And there are problems with this parallelism:
Contemporary thought
Jesuit scholars Daniel J. Harrington and James F. Keenan, in their Paul and Virtue Ethics (2010), argue for seven "new virtues" to replace the classical cardinal virtues in complementing the three theological virtues, mirroring the seven earlier proposed in Bernard Lonergan's Method in Theology (1972): "be humble, be hospitable, be merciful, be faithful, reconcile, be vigilant, and be reliable".[11]Шаблон:Explain
Allegory
The Cardinal Virtues are often depicted as female allegorical figures. These were a popular subject for funerary sculpture. The attributes and names of these figures may vary according to local tradition.
Yves Decadt, a Flemish artist, has created a series of artworks titled “Falling Angels: Allegories about the 7 Sins and 7 Virtues for Falling Angels and other Curious Minds”. The series explores the topic of morality, sins, and virtues, which have dominated Western cultures for more than 2000 years. In this work, Decadt follows in the footsteps of Pieter Breughel, who made a series of sketches on the 7 sins and 7 virtues about 500 years ago. The work takes the viewer on an adventurous trip through time and across the barriers and edges of reality, mythology, religion, and culture.
The virtues in art
In many churches and artwork the Cardinal Virtues are depicted with symbolic items: Шаблон:Cn
- Justice
- sword, balance and scales, a crown
- Temperance
- wheel, bridle and reins, vegetables and fish, cup, water and wine in two jugs
- Fortitude
- armor, club, with a lion, palm, tower, a yoke, a broken column
- Prudence
- book, scroll, mirror, an attacking serpent
Notable depictions include sculptures on the tomb of Francis II, Duke of Brittany and the tomb of John Hotham. They were also depicted in the garden at Edzell Castle.
See also
- Шаблон:Annotated link
- Шаблон:Annotated link
- Шаблон:Annotated link
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Notes
References
Sources
External links
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