Английская Википедия:Cayley's theorem
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:For
In group theory, Cayley's theorem, named in honour of Arthur Cayley, states that every group Шаблон:Mvar is isomorphic to a subgroup of a symmetric group.[1] More specifically, Шаблон:Mvar is isomorphic to a subgroup of the symmetric group <math>\operatorname{Sym}(G)</math> whose elements are the permutations of the underlying set of Шаблон:Mvar. Explicitly,
- for each <math>g \in G</math>, the left-multiplication-by-Шаблон:Mvar map <math>\ell_g \colon G \to G</math> sending each element Шаблон:Mvar to Шаблон:Math is a permutation of Шаблон:Mvar, and
- the map <math>G \to \operatorname{Sym}(G)</math> sending each element Шаблон:Mvar to <math>\ell_g</math> is an injective homomorphism, so it defines an isomorphism from Шаблон:Mvar onto a subgroup of <math>\operatorname{Sym}(G)</math>.
The homomorphism <math>G \to \operatorname{Sym}(G)</math> can also be understood as arising from the left translation action of Шаблон:Mvar on the underlying set Шаблон:Mvar.[2]
When Шаблон:Mvar is finite, <math>\operatorname{Sym}(G)</math> is finite too. The proof of Cayley's theorem in this case shows that if Шаблон:Mvar is a finite group of order Шаблон:Mvar, then Шаблон:Mvar is isomorphic to a subgroup of the standard symmetric group <math>S_n</math>. But Шаблон:Mvar might also be isomorphic to a subgroup of a smaller symmetric group, <math>S_m</math> for some <math>m<n</math>; for instance, the order 6 group <math>G=S_3</math> is not only isomorphic to a subgroup of <math>S_6</math>, but also (trivially) isomorphic to a subgroup of <math>S_3</math>.[3] The problem of finding the minimal-order symmetric group into which a given group Шаблон:Mvar embeds is rather difficult.[4][5]
Alperin and Bell note that "in general the fact that finite groups are imbedded in symmetric groups has not influenced the methods used to study finite groups".[6]
When Шаблон:Mvar is infinite, <math>\operatorname{Sym}(G)</math> is infinite, but Cayley's theorem still applies.
History
While it seems elementary enough, at the time the modern definitions did not exist, and when Cayley introduced what are now called groups it was not immediately clear that this was equivalent to the previously known groups, which are now called permutation groups. Cayley's theorem unifies the two.
Although Burnside[7] attributes the theorem to Jordan,[8] Eric Nummela[9] nonetheless argues that the standard name—"Cayley's Theorem"—is in fact appropriate. Cayley, in his original 1854 paper,[10] showed that the correspondence in the theorem is one-to-one, but he failed to explicitly show it was a homomorphism (and thus an embedding). However, Nummela notes that Cayley made this result known to the mathematical community at the time, thus predating Jordan by 16 years or so.
The theorem was later published by Walther Dyck in 1882[11] and is attributed to Dyck in the first edition of Burnside's book.[12]
Background
A permutation of a set Шаблон:Mvar is a bijective function from Шаблон:Mvar to Шаблон:Mvar. The set of all permutations of Шаблон:Mvar forms a group under function composition, called the symmetric group on Шаблон:Mvar, and written as <math>\operatorname{Sym}(A)</math>.[13] In particular, taking Шаблон:Mvar to be the underlying set of a group Шаблон:Mvar produces a symmetric group denoted <math>\operatorname{Sym}(G)</math>.
Proof of the theorem
If g is any element of a group G with operation ∗, consider the function Шаблон:Nowrap, defined by Шаблон:Nowrap. By the existence of inverses, this function has also an inverse, <math>f_{g^{-1}}</math>. So multiplication by g acts as a bijective function. Thus, fg is a permutation of G, and so is a member of Sym(G).
The set Шаблон:Nowrap is a subgroup of Sym(G) that is isomorphic to G. The fastest way to establish this is to consider the function Шаблон:Nowrap with Шаблон:Nowrap for every g in G. T is a group homomorphism because (using · to denote composition in Sym(G)):
- <math> (f_g \cdot f_h)(x) = f_g(f_h(x)) = f_g(h*x) = g*(h*x) = (g*h)*x = f_{g*h}(x) ,</math>
for all x in G, and hence:
- <math> T(g) \cdot T(h) = f_g \cdot f_h = f_{g*h} = T(g*h) .</math>
The homomorphism T is injective since Шаблон:Nowrap (the identity element of Sym(G)) implies that Шаблон:Nowrap for all x in G, and taking x to be the identity element e of G yields Шаблон:Nowrap, i.e. the kernel is trivial. Alternatively, T is also injective since Шаблон:Nowrap implies that Шаблон:Nowrap (because every group is cancellative).
Thus G is isomorphic to the image of T, which is the subgroup K.
T is sometimes called the regular representation of G.
Alternative setting of proof
An alternative setting uses the language of group actions. We consider the group <math>G</math> as acting on itself by left multiplication, i.e. <math>g \cdot x = gx</math>, which has a permutation representation, say <math>\phi : G \to \mathrm{Sym}(G)</math>.
The representation is faithful if <math>\phi</math> is injective, that is, if the kernel of <math>\phi</math> is trivial. Suppose <math>g\in\ker\phi</math>. Then, <math>g = ge = g\cdot e = e</math>. Thus, <math>\ker\phi</math> is trivial. The result follows by use of the first isomorphism theorem, from which we get <math>\mathrm{Im}\, \phi \cong G</math>.
Remarks on the regular group representation
The identity element of the group corresponds to the identity permutation. All other group elements correspond to derangements: permutations that do not leave any element unchanged. Since this also applies for powers of a group element, lower than the order of that element, each element corresponds to a permutation that consists of cycles all of the same length: this length is the order of that element. The elements in each cycle form a right coset of the subgroup generated by the element.
Examples of the regular group representation
<math> \mathbb Z_2 = \{0,1\} </math> with addition modulo 2; group element 0 corresponds to the identity permutation e, group element 1 to permutation (12) (see cycle notation). E.g. 0 +1 = 1 and 1+1 = 0, so <math display=inline>1\mapsto0</math> and <math display=inline>0\mapsto1,</math> as they would under a permutation.
<math> \mathbb Z_3 = \{0,1,2\} </math> with addition modulo 3; group element 0 corresponds to the identity permutation e, group element 1 to permutation (123), and group element 2 to permutation (132). E.g. 1 + 1 = 2 corresponds to (123)(123) = (132).
<math> \mathbb Z_4 = \{0,1,2,3\} </math> with addition modulo 4; the elements correspond to e, (1234), (13)(24), (1432).
The elements of Klein four-group {e, a, b, c} correspond to e, (12)(34), (13)(24), and (14)(23).
S3 (dihedral group of order 6) is the group of all permutations of 3 objects, but also a permutation group of the 6 group elements, and the latter is how it is realized by its regular representation.
| * | e | a | b | c | d | f | permutation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| e | e | a | b | c | d | f | e |
| a | a | e | d | f | b | c | (12)(35)(46) |
| b | b | f | e | d | c | a | (13)(26)(45) |
| c | c | d | f | e | a | b | (14)(25)(36) |
| d | d | c | a | b | f | e | (156)(243) |
| f | f | b | c | a | e | d | (165)(234) |
More general statement
Theorem: Let Шаблон:Mvar be a group, and let Шаблон:Mvar be a subgroup. Let <math>G/H</math> be the set of left cosets of Шаблон:Mvar in Шаблон:Mvar. Let Шаблон:Mvar be the normal core of Шаблон:Mvar in Шаблон:Mvar, defined to be the intersection of the conjugates of Шаблон:Mvar in Шаблон:Mvar. Then the quotient group <math>G/N</math> is isomorphic to a subgroup of <math>\operatorname{Sym}(G/H)</math>.
The special case <math>H=1</math> is Cayley's original theorem.
See also
- Wagner–Preston theorem is the analogue for inverse semigroups.
- Birkhoff's representation theorem, a similar result in order theory
- Frucht's theorem, every finite group is the automorphism group of a graph
- Yoneda lemma, a generalization of Cayley's theorem in category theory
- Representation theorem
Notes
References
