Английская Википедия:Chữ Hán
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Cleanup lang Шаблон:Infobox writing system Шаблон:Contains special charactersШаблон:Table Hanzi Шаблон:Langr (Шаблон:Vi-nom, literally 'Han characters', Шаблон:IPA-vi),[1] is the term for Chinese characters in Vietnamese. Шаблон:Langr are used to write Literary Chinese (Шаблон:Langr; Шаблон:Vi-nom) and Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary in the Vietnamese language. They were officially used in Vietnam after the Red River Delta region was incorporated into the Han dynasty and continued to be used until the early 20th century (111 BC – 1919 AD) where usage of Literary Chinese was abolished alongside the Confucian court examinations causing Шаблон:Langr to fall into obscurity.
Names
In Vietnamese, the main term used for Chinese characters is Шаблон:Lang, but other terms exist. Such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Vi-nom, literally "Confucian characters") or Шаблон:LangШаблон:Efn (Шаблон:Vi-nom). Terms used to refer to Classical Chinese are Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Vi-nom) and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Vi-nom).
History
After the conquest of Nanyue (Vietnamese: Nam Việt; chữ Hán: Шаблон:Vi-nom), parts of modern-day Northern Vietnam were incorporated into the Jiāozhǐ province (Vietnamese: Шаблон:Langr; Шаблон:Langr: Шаблон:Vi-nom) of the Han dynasty. It was during this era, that the Red River Delta was under direct Chinese rule for about a millennium. Around this time, Chinese characters became widespread in northern Vietnam. Government documents, literature, and religious texts such as Buddhist sutras were all written in Literary Chinese (Vietnamese: Hán văn; chữ Hán: Шаблон:Vi-nom).[2] From independence from China and onward, Literary Chinese still remained as the official language for writing whether if it was government documents or literature.[3] Every succeeding dynasty modeled their imperial exams after China's model. Scholars drew lessons from Neo-Confucianism and used its teachings to implement laws in the country. The spread of Confucianism meant the spread of Chinese characters, thus the name for Chinese characters in Vietnamese is called chữ Nho (literally: 'Confucian characters; Шаблон:Vi-nom).[4] Scholars were focused on reading Chinese classics such as the Four Books and Five Classics. While literature in Vietnamese (written with chữ Nôm) was the minority. Literature such as Nam quốc sơn hà (chữ Hán: Шаблон:Vi-nom) and Truyền kỳ mạn lục (chữ Hán: Шаблон:Vi-nom) being written with Chinese characters. With every new dynasty with the exception of two dynasties,Шаблон:Efn Literary Chinese and thus Chinese characters remained in common usage.
It was until in the 20th century that Chinese characters alongside chữ Nôm began to fall into disuse. The French Indochinese administration sought to civilise and modernise Vietnam by abolishing the Confucian court examinations. During this time, the French language was used for the administration. The French officials favoured Vietnamese being written in the Vietnamese alphabet. Chinese characters were still being taught in classes (in South Vietnam) up to 1975, but failed to be a part of the new elementary curriculum complied by Ministry of Education and Training after the Vietnam War.[5]
Today, Chinese characters can still be seen adorned in temples and old buildings. Chữ Hán is now relegated to obscurity and cultural aspects of Vietnam. During Vietnamese festivals, calligraphists will write some couplets written in Chinese characters wishing prosperity and longevity. Calligraphists that are skilled in calligraphy are called ông đồ.[6] This is especially reflected in the poem, Ông đồ, by Vũ Đình Liên. The poem talks about the ông đồ during Tết and how the art of Vietnamese calligraphy is no longer appreciated.[6]
Education
In the preface of Khải đồng thuyết ước (Шаблон:Vi-nom; 1853) written by Phạm Phục Trai (Шаблон:Vi-nom), it has the passage,[7]Шаблон:BlockquoteHistorically, several different textbooks were used traditionally to teach children chữ Hán such as Nhất thiên tự Шаблон:Vi-nom, Tam thiên tự Шаблон:Vi-nom, Ngũ thiên tự Шаблон:Vi-nom, etc. These books used rhymes alongside glosses in vernacular Vietnamese (written in chữ Nôm) to teach Chinese characters.[8] Other books include Three Character Classic Шаблон:Vi-nom, Sơ học vấn tân Шаблон:Vi-nom, Ấu học ngũ ngôn thi Шаблон:Vi-nom, Minh tâm bảo giám Шаблон:Vi-nom, and Minh Đạo gia huấn Шаблон:Vi-nom.[9] These books taught the characters necessary to read Literary Chinese and taught core Confucian values and concepts such as filial piety. Шаблон:Multiple imageDuring the period of reformed imperial examinations (khoa cử cải lương; Шаблон:Vi-nom) that took place from 1906 to 1919, there were three grades of education. Students would start learning Chinese characters beginning from the age of 6. The first grade level was called ấu học Шаблон:Vi-nom (ages 6–12), next was tiểu học Шаблон:Vi-nom (ages under 27), and then finally, trung học Шаблон:Vi-nom (ages under 30).[10] Đại học Шаблон:Vi-nom at this time referred to students studying in the national academies.
The education reform by North Vietnam in 1950 eliminated the use of chữ Hán and chữ Nôm.[11] Chinese characters were still taught in schools until 1975 in South Vietnam. During those times, the textbooks that were used were mainly derived from colonial textbooks. There were two main textbooks, Hán-văn tân khóa bản (Шаблон:Vi-nom; 1973) and Hán-văn giáo-khoa thư (Шаблон:Vi-nom; 1965).Шаблон:Efn[12] Students could begin learning Chinese characters in secondary school. The department dealing with Literary Chinese and Chinese characters was called Ban Hán-tự D.[12] Students could either chose to learn a second language such as English and French or choose to learn Literary Chinese. Exams for Literary Chinese mainly tested students on their ability to translate Literary Chinese to Vietnamese. These exams typically took around 2 hours.
Uses
Names
Шаблон:See also In Vietnam, many provinces and cities have names that come from Sino-Vietnamese words and were written using Chinese characters. This was done because historically the government administration needed to have a way to write down these names, as some native names did not have characters. Even well-known places like Hanoi (Шаблон:Vi-nom) and Huế (Шаблон:Vi-nom) were written in Chinese characters. Often, villages only had one word names in Vietnamese.
Some Sino-Vietnamese names were translated from their original names, like Tam Điệp Quan (Шаблон:Vi-nom) being the Sino-Vietnamese name for Đèo Ba Dội.
| Chinese characters | Sino-Vietnamese name (tên Chữ) | Chữ Nôm | Vietnamese name (tên Nôm) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Vi-nom | Hà Nội | Шаблон:Vi-nom | Kẻ Chợ |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom | Hồng Hà | Шаблон:Vi-nom | Sông Cái |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom | Gia Định | Шаблон:Vi-nom | Sài Gòn |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom | Tản Viên Sơn | Шаблон:Vi-nom | Núi Ba Vì |
Practically all surnames in Vietnamese are Sino-Vietnamese words; they were once written in Chinese characters. Such names include Nguyễn Шаблон:Vi-nom, Trần Шаблон:Vi-nom, Lê Шаблон:Vi-nom, Lý Шаблон:Vi-nom, etc.Шаблон:Efn
Readings for characters
Owing to historical contact with Chinese characters before the adoption of Chinese characters and how they were adapted into Vietnamese, multiple readings can exist for a single character. While most characters usually have one or two pronunciations, some characters can have up to as many as four pronunciations and more. An example of this would be the character Шаблон:Vi-nom hàng – which could have the readings hàng, hành, hãng, hạng, and hạnh.[13]Шаблон:Efn The readings typically depend on the context and definition of the word. If talking about a store or goods, the reading hàng would be used, but if talking about virtue, the reading hạnh would be used. But typically, knowing what readings was not a large problem due to context and compound words. Most Sino-Vietnamese words are restricted to being in compound words. Readings for chữ Hán, often classified into Sino-Vietnamese readings and Non-Sino-Vietnamese readings. Non-Sino-Vietnamese readings are derived from Old Chinese and recent Chinese borrowings during the 17th–20th centuries when Chinese people migrated to Vietnam.[14] Most of these readings were food related as Cantonese Chinese had introduced their food into Vietnam. Borrowings from Old Chinese are also referred to as Early Sino-Vietnamese pronunciations according to Mark Alves.[15]
Sino-Vietnamese readings
Шаблон:See also Sino-Vietnamese readings are usually referred to as âm Hán Việt (Шаблон:Vi-nom; literally "sound Sino-Vietnamese"),[16][17][18][19] which are Vietnamese systematic pronunciations of Middle Chinese characters.[20] These readings were largely borrowed into Vietnamese during the late Tang dynasty (618-907). Vietnamese scholars used Chinese rime dictionaries to derive consistent pronunciations for Chinese characters.[21] After Vietnam had regained independence, its rulers sought to build the country on the Chinese model, during this time, Literary Chinese was used for formal government documents.[22] Around this, the Japanese and Koreans also borrowed large amount of characters into their languages and derived consistent pronunciations, these pronunciations are collectively known as the Sino-Xenic pronunciations.[20]
| Chinese characters | Sino-Vietnamese | Standard Chinese | Cantonese | Sino-Japanese | Sino-Korean |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Vi-nom 'to prepare' | chuẩn bị | zhǔnbèi | zeon2bei6 | junbi | junbi |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom 'telephone' | điện thoại | diànhuà | din6waa6-2 | denwa | jeonhwa |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom 'four' | tứ, tư | sì | sei3, si3 | shi | sa |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom ' people' | nhân dân | rénmín | jan4man4 | jinmin | inmin |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom 'place name' | địa danh | dìmíng | dei6meng4-2 | chimei | jimyeong |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom 'language' | ngôn ngữ | yányǔ | jin4jyu5 | gengo | eoneo |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom 'China' | Trung Quốc | Zhōngguó | Zung1gwok3 | Chūgoku | Jungguk |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom 'Japan' | Nhật Bản | Rìběn | Jat6bun2 | Nihon | Ilbon |
Non-Sino-Vietnamese readings
Шаблон:See also Non-Sino-Vietnamese readings (âm phi Hán Việt; Шаблон:Vi-nom)[23][24][25] are pronunciations that were not consistently derived from Middle Chinese.[26] Typically these readings came from Old Chinese, Cantonese, and other Chinese dialects.
| Chinese | Early Sino-Vietnamese | Sino-Vietnamese |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Vi-nom *mjəts > mjɨjH | mùi 'smell, odor' | vị 'flavor, taste' |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom *bjəʔ > bjuwX | vợ 'wife' | phụ 'woman' |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom *pjap > pjop | phép 'rule, law' | pháp 'rule, law' |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom *kams > kɨɐmH | gươm 'sword' | kiếm 'sword' |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom *kraŋs > kˠiæŋH | gương 'mirror' | kính 'glass for windows, etc.; eyeglasses' |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom *rlaː > ɖˠa | chè 'tea or a dessert soup' | trà 'tea' |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom *kʰlja > t͡ɕʰia | xe 'wheeled vehicle' | xa 'rare form of xe' |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom *ɡraːʔ > ɦˠaX | hè 'summer' | hạ '(literary) summer' |
Nôm readings
Nôm readings (âm Nôm; Шаблон:Vi-nom)[27][28][29] were used when there were characters that were phonetically close to a native Vietnamese word's pronunciation would be used as a chữ Nôm character.[30] Most chữ Hán characters that were used for Vietnamese words were often used for their Sino-Vietnamese pronunciations rather than their meaning which could be completely different from the actual word being used. These characters were called chữ giả tá (phonetic loan characters),[27] due to them being borrowed phonetically. This was one reason why it was preferred to create a chữ Nôm character rather than using a chữ Hán character causing confusion between pronunciations.
| Chinese character and Standard Chinese pronunciations | Sino-Vietnamese pronunciations | Sino-Vietnamese meaning | Nôm pronunciations | Nôm meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Vi-nom 'xiē' | ta, tá | some; a few; a little; a bit | ta[31] | I, me, we |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom 'zhū' | chu, châu | cinnabar; vermilion | cho[32] | to give, to let, to put; for |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom 'bié' | biệt | to divide; to separate | biết[33] | to know |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom 'suì' | toái | shattered; fragmented; shredded | tôi[34] | I, me |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom 'luó' | la | net for catching birds | là[35] | to be, is |
| Шаблон:Vi-nom 'cháo' | trào | to ridicule; to deride; to scorn; to jeer at | chào[36] | hello, bye |
Types of characters
Chữ Hán can be classified into the traditional classification for Chinese characters, this is called lục thư[37] (Шаблон:Vi-nom, Chinese: liùshū), meaning six types of Chinese characters. The characters are largely based on 214 radicals set by the Kangxi Dictionary.[38]
- Chữ chỉ sự (Шаблон:Vi-nom) – Ideogram, an example would be Шаблон:Vi-nom (thượng, “above”) and Шаблон:Vi-nom (hạ, “below”).[39]
- Chữ tượng hình (Шаблон:Vi-nom) – Pictogram, an example would be Шаблон:Vi-nom (nhật, "sun") and Шаблон:Vi-nom (mộc, "tree").[40]
- Chữ hình thanh (Шаблон:Vi-nom) – Phono-semantic compound, an example would be Шаблон:Vi-nom (đồng, "copper"; "currency") which is made up of semantic Шаблон:Vi-nom [[[:Шаблон:Vi-nom]]] (kim, "metal) and phonetic Шаблон:Vi-nom (đồng).[41]Шаблон:Efn
- Chữ hội ý (Шаблон:Vi-nom) – Compound ideographs, an example would be Шаблон:Vi-nom (vũ [võ], "military"; "martial") which is made up of 戈 (qua, "dagger-axe") and Шаблон:Vi-nom (chỉ, “foot”; "to walk").[42]
- Chữ chuyển chú (Шаблон:Vi-nom) – Derivative cognates, characters that were derived from other characters with similar meaning, an example would that Шаблон:Vi-nom (lão, "old") is a cognate of Шаблон:Vi-nom (khảo, "to examine").[43]
- Chữ giả tá (Шаблон:Vi-nom) – Phonetic loan, an example would be Шаблон:Vi-nom (Pháp, "France") is used for the name of France. Other European countries are also referred by a chữ giả tá like Шаблон:Vi-nom (Đức, "Germany") and Шаблон:Vi-nom (Ý, "Italy").[44]
Variants
Some chữ Hán characters were simplified into variants of characters that were easier to write, but they are not the same simplified characters used by current-day Chinese. According to Trịnh Khắc Mạnh, when he analysed the early 13th century book, Шаблон:Vi-nom (Thích thị Bảo đỉnh hành trì bí chỉ toàn chương). He found that the number of character variants is double the number of variants borrowed from China.[45] This means that Vietnamese variant characters may differ from Chinese variants and simplified characters, for example:
- The word Шаблон:Vi-nom laШаблон:Efn is simplified into Шаблон:Vi-nom in Chinese, but it is different in Vietnamese, Шаблон:Vi-nom (⿱Шаблон:Zhi𪜀). Other variants include Шаблон:Vi-nom (⿱Шаблон:Zhi) and Шаблон:Vi-nom (⿻Шаблон:Zhi).
- Another example would be the character Шаблон:Vi-nom một which is simplified into Шаблон:Vi-nom in Chinese and was simplified from Шаблон:Vi-nom to Шаблон:Vi-nom (⿰Шаблон:Zhi𠬠), then finally, Шаблон:Vi-nom (⿱Шаблон:Zhi).
- The word Шаблон:Vi-nom lạm was simplified into Шаблон:Vi-nom in Chinese, but was simplified from Шаблон:Vi-nom to Шаблон:Vi-nom to Шаблон:Vi-nom (⿰Шаблон:Zhi𫜵) to Шаблон:Vi-nom (⿴𰀪⺀) in Vietnamese.[46]
Some characters matching Simplified Chinese do exist, but these characters are rare in Vietnamese literature.
There are other variants such as Шаблон:Vi-nom học (variant of Шаблон:Vi-nom; ⿳⿰〢⿻Шаблон:Zhi𰀪Шаблон:Zhi) and Шаблон:Vi-nom nghĩa (variant of Шаблон:Vi-nom; ⿱𦍌Шаблон:Zhi).[47]
Another prominent example is the character, Шаблон:Vi-nom phật (⿰亻天) which is a common variant of the character Шаблон:Vi-nom meaning 'Buddha'. It is composed of the radicals, Шаблон:Vi-nom nhân [[[:Шаблон:Vi-nom]]] and Шаблон:Vi-nom thiên, all together to mean 'heavenly person'.[48][49]
Symbols
The character Шаблон:Vi-nom (chuỷ) or Шаблон:Vi-nom is often used as an iteration mark to indicate that the current chữ Hán character is to be repeated. This is used in words that use reduplication. For example, in the poem Chinh phụ ngâm khúc (Шаблон:Vi-nom), the character Шаблон:Vi-nom (du) is repeated twice in the third line of the poem. It is written as Шаблон:Vi-nom to represent Шаблон:Vi-nom (du du).
| Vietnamese alphabet "Endlessly distant is that azure sky; who created its cause" | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
The way the marker is used is very similar to how Chinese and Japanese use their iteration marker Шаблон:Zhi. Japanese uses Шаблон:Zhi as an iteration marker, so, for example, Шаблон:Zhi (hitobito) would be written as Шаблон:Zhi (hitobito).
See also
- Chữ Nôm
- Literary Chinese in Vietnam
- History of writing in Vietnam
- Chinese characters
- East Asian cultural sphere
- Kanji – Japanese equivalent of Chinese characters
- Hanja – Korean equivalent of Chinese characters
- Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary
- Tự Đức thánh chế tự học giải nghĩa ca - Literary Chinese - Vietnamese dictionary
Notes
References
Шаблон:Reflist Шаблон:List of writing systems Шаблон:Portalbar
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
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- ↑ 20,0 20,1 Шаблон:Cite book
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- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 27,0 27,1 Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
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